Name: Jehan Kristell R. Lucero ID NO.

202323403
Subject: PYM 106 (Field Methods in Psychology)

Module III

Lesson 1 Assessment:

Answer/accomplish and submit to [email protected].

1. What are the advantages of Case-Control Study? How about the Cohort
Study?

Case-control and cohort studies are both valuable epidemiological research

designs, each with its own set of advantages. Case-control studies are efficient for
studying rare diseases and have advantages in terms of cost and time. Cohort
studies, on the other hand, provide stronger evidence for causal relationships,
allow for the study of multiple outcomes, and are better suited for investigating rare
exposures. The choice between the two study designs depends on the research
question, available resources, and ethical considerations.

Advantages of Case-Control Studies:

1. Efficiency
2. Suitability for Rare Diseases
3. Temporal Relationship
4. Ethical Considerations

Advantages of Cohort Studies:

1. Temporal Sequence
2. Risk Factors and Multiple Outcomes
3. Outcome Measurement
4. Ability to Study Rare Exposures

2. How do we minimize bias in Case-Control and Cohort designs?

Minimizing bias is crucial in both case-control and cohort studies to ensure the
validity and reliability of the research findings. By implementing these strategies,
researchers can minimize bias in both case-control and cohort studies, thereby
enhancing the validity and reliability of their findings.
 Minimizing Bias in Case-Control Studies:

1. Selection Bias: To reduce selection bias, carefully select cases and controls from
the same source population to ensure they are comparable in terms of exposure
except for the outcome of interest.
2. Information Bias: Employ rigorous and standardized methods for data collection
to minimize information bias. Use standardized questionnaires or interviews for
both cases and controls, and ensure that interviewers are blinded to the
case/control status of participants to prevent interviewer bias.
3. Recall Bias: Minimize recall bias by ensuring that the exposure information
collected from cases and controls is equally accurate and reliable.
4. Confounding: Matching cases and controls on key variables can help reduce the
impact of confounding, while statistical techniques can adjust for confounding in
the analysis phase.

Minimizing Bias in Cohort Studies:

1. Selection Bias: Ensure that the cohort is representative of the target population
to minimize selection bias.
2. Information Bias: Employ standardized and reliable methods for data collection
at baseline and during follow-up to minimize information bias.
3. Loss to Follow-up Bias: Minimize loss to follow-up by maintaining regular contact
with cohort members, providing incentives for participation, and using multiple
methods of contact (e.g., phone calls, emails, home visits).
4. Confounding: Collect data on potential confounders at baseline and adjust for
them in the analysis to minimize their impact on the association between exposure
and outcome.

3. Give examples of Case-Control Study used in the field of Psychology.

Case-control studies are not as common in psychology research compared to

medical or epidemiological fields, but they can still be employed in various areas
of psychological inquiry.

1. Substance use and mental health disorders - A case-control study might be helped
to investigate the association between a specific mental health disorder (e.g.,
depression, anxiety) and substance use (e.g., alcohol, drugs).

2. Personality Traits and Risk Behaviors - Control studies can also be used to explore
the relationship between personality traits and risk behaviors.

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 Module III

Lesson 2 Assessment:

Answer/accomplish and submit to [email protected].

1. What are the materials needed for archival research?

Archival research involves the systematic investigation of primary sources stored

in archives, libraries, museums, or other repositories. The materials needed for
conducting archival research can vary depending on the specific research question
and the nature of the archives being accessed. The common materials and tools
needed for archival research: gain access to archives, research question and plan,
finding aids, note-taking materials, photographic equipment, reference materials,
digital tools and software and protective gear. By assembling these materials and
tools, researchers can conduct thorough and systematic archival research to
explore primary sources and uncover new insights into historical events, cultural
phenomena, or other topics of interest.

2. How is content analysis pursued as field method in psychological research?

Content Analysis is pursued as field method in psychological research by using

this method in identifying patterns, themes, and meanings within the content and
to understand social and psychological phenomena. It is because content analysis
is very versatile and can be applied to various research contexts.

3. What are the stages of content analysis? How is data gathered?

Content Analysis involves several stages:

a. Formulating Research Questions

b. Sampling
c. Developing Coding Scheme
d. Training Coders (if applicable)
e. Data Analysis
f. Interpretation

Data gathering in content analysis can vary depending on the nature of the content
being analyzed. Common methods include: Textual Analysis, Visual Analysis,
Audio Analysis and Mixed Media Analysis. Researchers may use various sampling
techniques to select content such as random sampling, purposive sampling, or
snowball sampling, depending on the research objectives and available resources.
 MODULE III

Lesson 3 Assessment

1. What features differentiate SURVEY, INTERVIEW AND SEL-REPORT

INVENTORY when used in psychological researches?

All these three methods involve collecting data from participants, they differ in
terms of their level of structure, interaction between the researcher and participant,
type of data collected (quantitative vs. qualitative), and the purpose for which they
are typically used in psychological research.

2. What are the pros and cons for each method in collecting data?
1. SURVEY

Pros:

• Efficient: Surveys allow researchers to collect data from a large number of

participants relatively quickly and cost-effectively.
• Standardization: Surveys use standardized questions, making it easier to compare
responses across participants and analyze trends.
• Anonymity: Participants may feel more comfortable providing honest responses to
sensitive topics due to the anonymity of surveys.
• Quantitative analysis: Surveys generate quantitative data, which can be analyzed
statistically to identify patterns and relationships.

Cons:

• Limited depth: Surveys typically use closed-ended questions, which may not
capture the complexity or nuance of participants' experiences.
• Response bias: Participants may provide socially desirable responses or
misunderstand survey questions, leading to response bias.
• Lack of clarification: Without the opportunity for clarification or follow-up questions,
researchers may miss important details or misunderstand participant responses.
• Low response rate: Surveys conducted through mail or email may have low
response rates, potentially introducing sampling bias.

2. INTERVIEW

Pros:

• Rich data: Interviews provide detailed and nuanced data, allowing researchers to
explore complex topics and understand participants' perspectives in depth.
• Flexibility: Researchers can adapt the interview format and questions based on
participants' responses, allowing for exploration of unexpected themes.
• Clarification: Interviewers can ask follow-up questions and seek clarification to
ensure a deeper understanding of participants' experiences.
• Participant engagement: Interviews often foster rapport and engagement between
the researcher and participant, leading to more candid responses.

Cons:

• Time-consuming: Conducting interviews and analyzing qualitative data can be

time-consuming and resource-intensive, especially with a large sample size.
• Subjectivity: The interpretation of interview data may be subjective, influenced by
the researcher's biases and perspectives.
• Interviewer effects: The interviewer's characteristics and behavior may influence
participants' responses, leading to interviewer effects.
• Potential for social desirability bias: Participants may provide responses that they
believe are socially acceptable or desirable, particularly in face-to-face interviews.

3. SELF-REPORT INVENTORY

Pros:

• Standardization: Self-report inventories use standardized measures, ensuring

consistency in data collection and facilitating comparison across participants.
• Efficiency: Participants can complete self-report inventories independently, making
them a convenient and efficient data collection method.
• Objective scoring: Self-report inventories generate quantitative data, which can be
scored objectively and analyzed statistically.
• Wide applicability: Self-report inventories are available for a wide range of
psychological constructs and traits, making them suitable for various research
purposes.

Cons:

• Response bias: Participants may provide inaccurate or biased responses due to

factors such as social desirability bias or misunderstanding of questionnaire items.
• Lack of context: Self-report inventories may not capture the context or nuances of
participants' experiences, leading to limited understanding of the underlying
phenomena.
• Limited depth: Self-report inventories typically use fixed-response formats, which
may not capture the full range of participants' experiences or attitudes.
• Over-reliance on self-report: Self-report inventories rely on participants' self-
perceptions and may not always align with objective measures or observations.
 3.Give specific examples of studies in Psychology that utilized the three
methods mentioned.

1. SURVEY
• Study: "Prevalence of Mental Disorders in Europe: Results from the European
Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) Project" (Alonso et al.,
2004).

• Method: This large-scale epidemiological study surveyed over 21,000 adults

across six European countries using standardized questionnaires to assess the
prevalence of mental disorders. Participants completed surveys that included
questions about symptoms of various mental health conditions, such as
depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders.

• Findings: The study found significant variations in the prevalence of mental

disorders across European countries and provided valuable insights into the
burden of mental illness in the region.

2. INTERVIEW
• Study: "A Qualitative Investigation of the Experience of Chronic Pain: The
Importance of Fear Avoidance Beliefs" (Asghari & Nicholas, 2001).

• Method: This qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews to explore the

experiences of individuals living with chronic pain. Participants were asked open-
ended questions about their pain experiences, coping strategies, and beliefs about
pain.

• Findings: The study identified themes related to fear avoidance beliefs, highlighting
the role of psychological factors in the experience and management of chronic
pain. The interviews provided rich, detailed insights into the lived experiences of
individuals with chronic pain.

3. SELF-REPORT INVENTORY
• Study: "The Big Five Personality Traits and the Life Course: A 45-Year Longitudinal
Study" (Roberts et al., 2006).

• Method: This longitudinal study utilized self-report inventories to assess the Big
Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
neuroticism, and openness to experience) at multiple points across a 45-year
period. Participants completed standardized personality questionnaires at various
intervals, allowing researchers to track changes in personality over time.

• Findings: The study found that personality traits showed considerable stability over
the lifespan but also demonstrated some degree of change, particularly during key
life transitions. The use of self-report inventories allowed for the quantification of