INFINITIVE AND -ING FORMS. THEIR USES.

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.

Unit 21 is primarily aimed to examine in English two of the three non-finite forms: the infinitive
and the -ing form in terms of their main structural features regarding form, function and uses in
order to provide a relevant and detailed account of this issue despite the fact it is not stated in
the original title.

Then, the study will be divided into seven chapters. Thus, chapter 2 provides a theoretical
framework for the infinitive and the -ing form by answering questions such as, first, (1) which
linguistic levels are involved so as to know where these notions are to be found within linguistic
studies; second, (2) what is a phrase, sentence and clause structure in terms of linguistic units
or constituents of small or larger syntactic structures; (3) third, within the clause structure,
which are finite vs. non-finite forms; and finally (4) which grammar categories are involved in
their description at a categorial level in clause structure: finite vs. non-finite forms. Once this
key terminology is defined, the reader is prepared for the descriptive account in subsequent
chapters.

Once we have set up the linguistic framework, in chapter 3 we shall offer a general introduction
to these two non-finite forms with respect to their main structural features. The two forms will
be analysed in terms of form, main uses and functions, namely following morphological,
phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus, first of all, we shall examine
the infinitive and main forms (the full infinitive and the bare infinitive) through their uses and
functions. Similarly, we do the same with the -ing form, but by introducing the issue with the
distinction between ‘gerund’ and ‘present participle’ in order to examine their main uses and
functions. Once both of them are stated, we move on to analyse the main differences between
the infinitive and the -ing form.

Chapter 4 provides an educational framework for the teaching of the infinitive and the -ing
form within our current school curriculum, and chapter 5 draws on a summary of all the points
involved in this study.

2. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE INFINITIVE AND THE -ING FORM.

Before examining in detail the infinitive and the -ing form in English in terms of form, main
functions and uses, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for these tow non-
finite forms in order to fully understand the following chapters since they must be described in
grammatical terms.

In fact, this theoretical chapter aims at answering questions such as, first, (1) which linguistic
levels are involved so as to know where these notions are to be found within linguistic studies;
second, (2) what is a phrase, sentence and clause structure in terms of linguistic units or
constituents of small or larger syntactic structures; (3) third, within the clause structure, which
are finite vs. non-finite forms. Once this key terminology is defined, the reader is prepared for
the descriptive account in subsequent chapters.

2.1. Linguistic levels involved.

In order to offer a linguistic description of the infinitive and -ing forms, we must confine them
to particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language.
Yet, although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the
usual description of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar,
lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and
syntactic, lexical, and semantic (Huddleston 1988).

These five levels will offer us a linguistic approach to the infinitive and the -ing forms in terms
of form and function. However, we must not forget the linguistic fields of pragmatics and
sociolinguistics in order to make us understand the main uses of this type of structures in
everyday speech. For instance, the former by studying the use of signs and the relationship
between signs and their users and the second, by studying the interaction of language and
social organization in real communicative situations. As we shall see later, both of them are so
closely related to the field of semantics when we have to set up some rules about the placing
of ‘infinitive or -ing’ after certain verbs.

Thus, first, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, how to pronounce the ‘to’ of the
infinitive and the -ing forms (i.e. the weak form of ‘to’ in ‘You have to go’ or strong in ‘To go on
holidays is fantastic’/the suffix -ing in ‘skiing’) and so on. Secondly, the morphological level (i.e.
infinitive formation) and the syntactic level (i.e. where to place these two forms in a sentence).

Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, deals with lists of vocabulary items which, for our purposes,
are lists of verbs (i.e. infinitives and present participles). Moreover, lexis deals with the notion
of verb phrase semantics regarding the choice between different types of verbal aspects (i.e.
finite vs non-finite forms, progressive vs non-progressive aspect, etc), and other means such as
other formal realizations of these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a verbless clause, a finite clause,
etc).

Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is
semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are related in this
study. We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously
incomplete, and in particular, when dealing with these two non-finite forms. In fact, it is the
field of semantics which establishes the differences between the use of infinitive and the use of
the -ing present participle after certain verbs where syntactic and morphological levels do not
tell the difference (i.e. Do you remember seeing this man before? = action which occurred
beforehand vs Remember to switch off the lights before you leave = action which comes
afterwards).

2.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure.

The distinction between phrase, sentence and clause structure at a functional level is relevant
for our study since both the infinitive and the -ing forms will be related to them as
constituents, that is, as element or grammatical categories into which a sentence can be
segmented and which actually play a role in large syntactic structures (phrases, sentences and
clauses).

Then, they will function first, in terms of single units of syntactic description within the
structure of the phrase (noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb phrase, etc) and second, in terms
of larger units as parts of the structure of the sentence (subject and predicate) or embedded in
the sentence structure, that is, clauses (subordinate). Following Aarts (1988), these larger
structures are, apart from the morpheme and the word, “two major units of grammatical
description”. But let us examine their main differences.
 2.2.1.The phrase structure.

The phrase structure is defined as a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the
word class membership of at least one of its constituent words which is called the ‘head’ of the
phrase (i.e. a noun phrase is a phrase which has a noun as its most important constituent and
similarly with an adjective or adverbial phrase). Note that the other elements show a relation
of dependency or subordination to the head (in noun phrases we find: determiners which are
divided into pre-central post-determiners and modifiers: pre or post modifiers).

However, the factors which determine which of the words of a phrase constitutes its principal
part are not the same for all five phrase types. Thus, in three types, the noun, adjective and
adverb phrase, the dominant element is that which can replace the whole phrase without
affecting the structure of the sentence (i.e. We like medieval stories = we like stories). However,
a fourth type of phrase, the verb phrase, differs from the former in that the essential element,
mainly taken from semantic considerations, cannot replace the whole phrase without causing
serious harm to syntactic structure (i.e. John has phoned Cristine vs John phoned Cristine).

On the other hand, the fifth type of phrase, the prepositional phrase, differs from the rest in
that the element that gives its name to the phrase cannot be called its head since it cannot
replace the whole phrase. In addition, only one of its constituents is a preposition and
therefore, its relation is not one of subordination but one of government.

Yet, regarding the participation of infinitive and -ing forms in phrase structures, we namely find
them in (1) noun phrases as premodifiers although they are fully adjectival in character (i.e. a
sweeping statement; a passing car; moving shadows; barking dogs) as well as postmodifiers
(i.e. We have something to do); and (2) in adjective phrases when the adjective is followed by
an infinite clause (i.e. a man easy to persuade; a theory too difficult to explain). Note that they
appear sometimes obligatorily in certain structures, such as ‘too difficult to…’, ‘eager enough
to…’, and so on. Moreover, in (3) adverb phrases (i.e. He behaved so strangely as to frighten
everybody); and (4) prepositional phrases (i.e. He is very good at playing cards).

Moreover, three types of non-finite clauses can occur in post-modification: infinitive clauses in
noun phrases (i.e. He is the woman to talk to; Our hope to reach the semi-finals was
unfounded), adjective phrases (i.e. I am glad to be here), -ing participle clauses (i.e. The gold
was discovered by two men digging a shaft; He received a letter asking him to return to
Germany) and -ed participle clauses (i.e. Soldiers found guilty of looting will be prosecuted; the
techniques used by the research team are sound). As the examples show, some infinitive
clauses are reduced relative or appositive clauses (i.e. We have no indication where to look;
This is the hotel at which to stay tonight). -Ing participle and -ed participle clauses are reduced
relative clauses as well.

2.2.2.Sentence vs. clause structure.

In order to clarify the difference between sentence and clause syntactic differences, we must
review the hierarchy of units of linguistic description when dealing with this duality. For
instance, we observe that morphemes function as constituents of words, words function as
constituents of phrases and phrases as constituents of sentences. But then, what is the
difference between sentence and clause structure? Aren’t they the same?

The sentence is actually identifiable on the basis of the relations holding among its immediate
constituents (subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, complement, adverbial, and so on). Yet,
“the sentence is placed at the other extreme of the rank scale and regarded as the largest unit
of grammatical description since it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than
itself” (Aarts 1988:79). Moreover, “to treat the sentence as the highest unit implies that we do
not take into account larger stretches of language such as paragraphs and texts because this is
the domain of text grammar or discourse analysis”.

Once we have assumed that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description and
that it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself, we are ready to
understand the duality sentence vs clause by means of two further possibilities. First, when a
sentence function in the structure of another sentence of the same rank (i.e. I believe that he is
quite loyal; what she says is false); and secondly, when a sentence functions in the structure of
a phrase, that is in the structure of a unit lower than itself (i.e. as postmodifier: the man that
came yesterday was a politician; she is afraid what may happen here).

Hence, when sentences are embedded in the structure of other sentences or in the structure
of phrase we call them ‘clauses’, which usually corresponds to the notions of subordination (or
embedding) and coordination. Note that clauses can have other clauses embedded in them, as
in ‘That she is rich is obvious’ or ‘The problem is that they have no money left’.

Up to this point, we must establish the difference between simple and complex sentences since
the former are sentence in which none of the functions are realized by a clause, that is, a
simple sentence is always an independent sentence which does not contain an embedded (or
subordinate) sentence as realization of one of its functions (i.e. John is a bachelor vs. that John
is a bachelor). On the other hand, sentences involving subordination are called complex and
those involving coordination are called compound (i.e. The conclusion we cam to was brilliant
vs Your conclusion is brilliant but mine is excellent).

Within this context, clauses can be classified in two ways. From a structural point of view we
can distinguish three types: first, finite clauses; second, non-finite clauses; and finally, verbless
clauses. Once we have set up the notions of phrase, sentence and clause within a linguistic
framework, we can continue with our analysis on sentence and clause structures by specifying
(1) the functions that their constituents have in sentence structure by reviewing the difference
between finite vs non-finite forms (since it is the latter we shall deal with throughout our
study), and secondly (2) the categories to which their constituents belong (examined in the
subsequent section).

2.3. The clause structure: finite vs. non-finite forms.

In order to examine the clause structure at sentence level, that is, finite vs non-finite clauses,
we must examine their main differences in terms of morphology and main syntactic functions.

On the other hand, their main structural features follow morphological and syntactic
guidelines. For instance, first of all, (2) in morphological terms, finite clauses contain a finite
verb phrase which is formed by an only word capable of showing tense, mood, aspect and
voice (i.e. He always tells me frightening stories about ghosts=tense: simple present; mood:
third person singular indicative; aspect: simple; voice: active). If this verb is not first in a
sequence of more verbs, this would be non-finite (i.e. He is always laughing).

Therefore, non-finite clauses contain a non-finite verb phrase realized by an infinitive, with or
without ‘to’ (speak or to speak), an -ing participle (speaking) or an -ed participle
(spoken/called). Yet, any clasue in which one of these verb forms is the first or only word
(disregarding the infinitive marker ‘to’) is a non-finite form. Alike finite verb clauses, non-finite
forms do not normally occur as the verb phrase of an independent clause. For sentence, ‘To
dance like that deserves an award’, ‘I found him dancing like crazy’, or ‘Having been insulted
before, he was more sensitive than ever’.

(2) In general regarding their main syntactic functions, which is the core of our study, their
main differences are, first, that finite verb forms can occur as the verb phrase of independent
clauses because they always contain a subject and predicate, except in the case of commands
and ellipsis whereas non-finite forms cannot, since they may be constructed without a subject,
and usually are. Note that the base form, which has no inflection, is sometimes finite (i.e. You
go to school everyday), when it takes first position in predication, and sometimes non-finite
(i.e. You have gone to school twice today) when it takes second position.

Thus, the four classes of non-finite verb phrases serve to distinguish four classes of non-finite
clauses, for instance, (1) the bare infinitive (i.e. He may arrive tonight); (2) the to-infinitive (i.e.
We want him to arrive soon); (2) the -ing participle (i.e. living) as a non-finite verb in (a) the
progressive aspect following ‘be’ (i.e. He is living in California) and (b) in -ing participle clauses
(i.e. Calling early, I four her in her office); and (4) the -ed participle (i.e. lived/driven) as a non-
finite verb in (a) the present perfect aspect following ‘have’ (i.e. He has lived in Madrid for ten
years), (b) the passive voice following ‘be’ (i.e. Her sister is called Angie) and (c) -ed participle
clauses (i.e. Called early, he took a hot bath).

2.4. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

So far, in order to confine the non-finite forms to particular grammatical categories, we must
review first the difference between open and closed classes. Traditionally, the open classes are
verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they allow the
addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest:
prepositions, conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers
and interjections, which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new
members.

Then, as we can see, when tsking non-finite forms to sentence level, er are namely dealing with
open word classes, since we are dealing with lists of verbs in the bare infinitive and -ing
participle in noun phrase structures (i.e. The driving was no good at all) and adjectival
structures (i.e. That terrifying accident happened yesterday) and in adverb phrases as
modifiers. Moreover, we also find closed classes such as prepositions when dealing with
prepositional phrases although non-finite forms are not the head of the phrase but part of it.

3. MAIN STRUCTURAL FEATURES: FORM, MAIN USES AND FUNCTION.

With respect to the main structural features of the two non-finite forms under study, that is,
the infinitive and the -ing form, both of them will be analysed in terms of form, main uses and
functions, namely following morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic
guidelines. Thus, we shall examine their form regarding morphology (verbal structures) and
phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be approached in terms of syntax (verb
phrase structure) and semantics (noun and verbal meanings/differences and therefore, use) in
order to get an overall view of these two forms. Note that the notions of meaning and use (or
semantics and pragmatics) will go hand in hand since it is the everyday that gives us the clue to
distinguish them.
 3.1. The infinitive.
3.1.1.The infinitive: main forms.

As stated above, the infinitive may take two main forms: the infinitive with ‘to’ (more
commonly known as the full infinitive) as in ‘He has decided to go now’ and the infinitive
without ‘to’ (or bare infinitive) as in ‘He may leave tonight’. Moreover, different types of
infinitives will be examined in next sections when its main uses and functions are addressed.

3.1.1.1. The infinitive with ‘to’.

Fist of all, the infinitive with ‘to’ or full infinitive is formed by the preposition (or sometimes
called proclitic participle) ‘to’ + the base form of the verb (i.e. He decided to leave tonight).
Other frequent structures are ‘so as/in order + to’. These structures are used to state the verb
in assertive contexts (to be/so as to be/in order to be) whereas in non-assertive contexts the
structure is ‘not’ + full infinitive (not to be/so as not to be/in order not to be), hence Hamlet’s
popular statement ‘To be or not to be’. The full infinitive is usually pronounced with the weak
form of /t + schwa/ within the speech chain but if pronounced separately and slowly, as in
short answers (i.e. Do you ski? No, but I used to) we find the strong form /tu:/.

The infinitive form, as well as other grammatical elements like nouns may be classified into
‘simple infinitive’ and ‘complex infinitive’ (Sánchez Benedito, 1975). It is within the various
types of full infinitive forms with ‘to’ that we find the presence of finite forms features like
aspect (present or progressive) and voice (Active or passive). Thus, the ‘simple infinitive’
includes ‘present infinitive’ (to write), ‘present continuous infinitive’ (to be writing), ‘present
infinitive passive’ (to be written) and ‘present continuous passive’ (to be being written). On the
other hand, the ‘complex infinitive’ includes all the perfect forms, for instance, ‘the perfect
infinitive’ (to have written), ‘the perfect continuous infinitive’ (to have been writing), ‘the
perfect infinitive passive’ (to haven been written) and ‘the perfect continuous passive’ (to have
been being written).

In addition, the fill infinitive may appear with or without a subject, where the latter is the most
common once since no elements are introduced between ‘to’ and the ‘bare infinitive’ (i.e. The
best thing is to tell him right now). However, despite the fact that it is not normally advisable to
put any elements between ‘to’ and the verb, we often find the full infinitive with a subject in
between within the structure: for + subject (usually object pronouns) + full infinitive (i.e. The
best thing would be for her to tell him right now). Moreover, we find other constructions such
as ‘split infinitives¡ where emphatic elements (usually degree adverbs) are placed after the ‘to’
in colloquial English (i.e. It would take ages to really solve this mystery; she’s asking you to
simply tell the truth).

3.1.1.2. The infinitive without ‘to’.

Alike the infinitive with ‘to’, the infinitive without ‘to’ or also known as bare infinitive
(Jespersen 1933; Thomson & Martinet, 1986) and plain infinitive (Zandvoort 1973) is namely
represented by the base form of the verb. Because of its simple structure, it is often connected
syntactically with certain elements in order to form a complete unit, for instance, with auxiliary
verbs, both primary (be, have, do) and modals (can, could, may, etc), idiomatic expressions
(had better, would rather) and certain constructions (make/let + pronoun + bare infinitive). In
addition, it is relevant to mention that the bare infinitive and these structures also form a unit
in phonological terms, that is, regarding accent, stress and intonation within the speech chain
(i.e. You’d better go; she must buy it), particularly when emphasis falls on the base infinitive for
the sake of clarity or detail (i.e. I said you must read it, not write it).

3.1.2.The infinitive: main uses.

As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive main be used in different contexts
depending on its syntactic sentence structure, but it is namely used in certain contexts where
meaning has much to say where form and function cannot tell the difference, for instance,
these two sentences: ‘I like getting unexpected invitations’ and ‘I like to get unexpected
invitations’. There is a subtle difference of meaning that probably a foreign student of English at
the beginner’s level may not grasp at once, for instance, the former means ‘I enjoy unexpected
invitations’ whereas the latter means ‘I want/wish unexpected invitations. Therefore, let us
examine the different uses that the full infinitive and the bare infinitive take in everyday
speech.

3.1.2.1. The infinitive with ‘to’.

The infinitive with ‘to’ is frequently found in everyday speech with nominal features rather
than verbal implying different meanings in different contexts. We must bear in mind through,
due to its nominal features, it will be used in the contexts of noun, adjective, and in less
degree, adverb phrases. So, the infinitive with ‘to’ is namely used (Thomson & Martinet 1986):

(1) as a noun: at the beginning of a sentence functioning as a subject (i.e. To stop smoking is
almost impossible) or in exclamatory sentences (i.e. Wow! To be on holidays again!) as the
object of part of the object of a verb in predicative position (i.e. He wants to drunk a cola) as
the complement of a verb in predicative position, usually after ‘be, become, seem’ (i.e. His
main goal is to pass the exam) after interrogative pronouns functioning as a subordinate noun
phrase (i.e. how/where/when, etc + to know) as in ‘’I know where to find her’.

(2) as a modifier: after certain nouns or indefinite pronouns (i.e. a book to read, shoes to
mend; something to eat) after certain adjectives (i.e. easy to understand, glad to see you,
willing to finish). In case the verb is formed with a particle, this is placed at the end of the
phrase (i.e. It was nice to look at).

(3) to express: purpose or result as predicator complement in adverbial clauses (i.e. He drove
so fast to show off; to speak frankly, I don’t like him); to express commands or instructions (i.e.
No one is to leave this building); to express purpose (i.e. I’ve come to stay). In this case, it may
be substituted by other frequent constructions such as ‘so as/in order + (not) to’. Note that
when the infinitive does not express purpose, it is necessary the use of other elements such as
‘only’ (i.e. I came at six, only to find you gone).

(4) to join two clauses (i.e. He hurried to my house only to find that it was empty).

(5) to replace relative clauses (i.e. He is always the first to come).

(6) after certain verbs: as stated before, after ‘be, become, seem’ (i.e. he seems to be tired)
adter some semi-auxiliaries (i.e. ‘be able to’, ‘be about to’, ‘be due to’, ‘be bound to’, ‘be going
to’, ‘be likely to’, ‘be supposed to’ and ‘have to’); some catenative verbs (i.e. start/finish +
working/to work); some modal idioms (i.e. ‘have got to’, and ‘be to’); and finally, after a set of
verbs which express volition, cognition, perception, and so on. They must be followed by the
full infinitive and not the gerund (i.e. afford, aim, allow, arrange, decide, expect, hope, manage,
swear, tend, promise, volunteer, and so on).
(7) within certain constructions such as: too/enough + adjective/adverb + full infinitive (i.e. It is
too dark to see/He is mature enough to understand the situation); verb + accusative
noun/pronoun + full infinitive (i.e. I want him to come back), which are subordinated to
another part of the sentence, usually a preceding verb.

(8) and finally, as part of idiomatic expressions (i.e. To tell you the truth; He is said to be a
criminal; to be honest, I do not agree with you).

3.1.2.2. The infinitive without ‘to’.

Although the full infinitive is the most common form, the bare infinitive is also found in certain
constructions in everyday speech entailing different meanings but this time with more verbal
features than noun ones. Therefore, the base infinitive is namely used (Thomson & Martinet
1986):

(1) in certain type of sentences: subject attributive sentences where the subject is a whole
sentence (i.e. What you’ve done is (to) spoil everything); some interrogative sentences which
express surprise or doubt (i.e. Help them? Never in my life; Barbar marry you? Don’t be silly!);
in interrogative sentences which being with ‘why’ or ‘why not’ (i.e. Why wait for them?; Why
not go now?); in answers to questions (i.e. What shall we do if you don’t come on time? –
Begin without me). Note that in any other case we shall use the to-infinite as expressing
purpose (i.e. Why did you come so early? – To watch the match).

(2) after certain verbs: after auxiliary modal verbs (i.e. can, could, may, might, will, shall,
should, ought to, must) and semi-auxiliaries (i.e. have to); with verbs of perception such as
‘hear’, ‘see’, ‘watch’, ‘feel’ and so on (i.e. I saw him enter) when the action is done and
completed (in opposition to ‘I saw him walking’ where the action was taking place). However,
note that in the passive voice these verbs are used with ‘to-infinitive’ constructions (i.e. He was
seen to enter); the modal idioms (had better/would rather); and modal auxiliary marginal verbs
(i.e. can/need/dare/could/might/may/etc). However, note that in the passive, they take the to-
infinitive (i.e. He was dared to fight); with some other verbs and expressions that take the bare
infinitive, for instance, verb + noun/pronoun + bare infinitive (i.e. make/let); and with the verb
‘help’ (i.e. I helped him cut the grass) although sometimes it takes the to-infinitive (i.e. He
helped me to do my homework).

3.1.3.The infinitive: main functions.

As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive main functions are closely related to the
functions of clauses since non-finite forms may only be embedded in the syntactic structure of
the sentence by means of clauses. We must bear in mind that the functions of subject and
predicate are two obligatory parts of the sentence, where both the to-infinitive and the bare
infinitive may work (i.e. To smoke [subject] can kill [predicate]). Then, both the infinitive with
‘to’ or without ‘to’ will depend heavily on the type of clause they represent syntactically and
also, to the main uses they express from a semantic point of view.

Clauses, then, are classified in terms of the functions they can play in the structure of the
sentence where we can namely distinguish the following types: subject clauses, direct object
clauses, indirect object clauses, benefactive object clauses, subject attribute clauses, object
attribute clauses, predicator complement clauses and adverbial clauses (Aarts 1988).

With respect to the functions that infinitive forms may carry out, Aarts (1988) states that “with
the exception of the indirect object and the benefactive object (a type of indirect object),
sentence functions can be realized by both finite and non-finite clauses” in which the infinitive
forms are included. So let us examine the main functions that both the full infinitive and the
bare infinitive can take: (1) the infinitive as subject, (2) the infinitive as direct object, (3) the
infinitive as a verb complement, (4) the infinitive after verb + object, (5) the infinitive with
subject, (6) the split infinitive, (7) the infinitive as a connective link and (8) the infinitive as an
adverbial clauses.

3.1.3.1. The infinitive as subject.

The infinitive or the infinitive phrase may take the function of subject of a clause when (1) it is
placed at the beginning of a sentence with the verbs ‘appear, be, seem’ (i.e. to have breakfast
in bed is nice).

(2) or when it is at the end of the sentence as an attributive subject (i.e. To know her is to love
her). We must bear in mind that the infinitive forms have nominal character so they may
function as nouns (to behave like this would be madness). Note that the -ing participle may be
also used as the subject of a sentence when the action is being considered in a general sense
(i.e. Saving money seems impossible).

(3) we use the ‘it’ construction because it is more usual to place the pronoun ‘it’ fist. Then the
infinitive is moved to the end of the sentence (i.e. It was easy to do it). Usually infinitive
constructions of this type consist of ‘it + be + adjective + infinitive’ (i.e. It would be a crime not
to buy it).

(4) it is preceded by verbs of cognition, such as ‘believe, consider, discover, expect, find, think
and wonder (if)’ (i.e. He thought it would be a crime not to tell him). Moreover, note its use
with interrogatives (i.e. Would it be safe to camp here?).

(5) within this construction the verbs ‘cost’ and ‘take’ are also used (i.e. It takes half an hour to
get the castle).

(6) finally, the perfect infinitive can also be used as the subject of a sentence (i.e. To have told
me a lie is unforgettable) and similarly we may use ‘it’ first (i.e. It is better to have loved and
lost than never to have loved at all).

3.1.3.2. The infinitive as direct object.

The infinitive or the infinitive phrase may take the function of direct object of a clause when (1)
it is placed after certain verbs, such as ‘agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, bother, care
(negative), choose, claim, condescend, consent, decide, decline, demand, determine, fail,
forget, happen, hesitate, hope, learn, long, manage, neglect, offer, plan, prepare, proceed,
refuse, remember, resolve, swear, threaten, try and vow’ among others (Thomson & Martinet
1986); for instance, ‘He determined/decided/learnt + to leave the city).

(2) Other verbs or expressions can also be used with a ‘that-clause’ (i.e. I promise to tell you = I
promise that I will tell you) and some of them require an introductory ‘it’ (i.e. It
occurred/happened/appeared/seemed/turn out to me that he was concealing something).

(3) However, sometimes a verb + full infinitive does not have the same meaning as the same
verb used with a that-clause, for instance, the verbs ‘learn, forget and remember’ (i.e. He learn
to swim vs He learnt (was told) that it would be difficult to swim). This construction is also
possible in the continuous infinitive with the verbs “agree, arrange, decide, determine, hope,
manage, plan and the auxiliary verbs” (i.e. He decided to be following them). The perfect
infinitive is also possible (i.e. He would have liked to see it).

(4) It is within this function as direct object that we find the structure ‘verb +
how/what/when/where/which/why + full infinitive’. In it the most frequently used verbs are
“ask, decide, discover, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, see, show, think, understand,
want to know and wonder” among others (i.e. I don’t know what to do; I showed her how to do
it). Also, ‘whether + full infinitive’ is also used (i.e. I wonder whether to write or phone’).

3.1.3.3. The infinitive as a verb complement.

The infinitive may also function as a verb complement and, in particular, after certain verbs or
expressions. For instance:

(1) the bare infinitive after the auxiliary verbs “be, can, dare, do, have, may, must, need, ought,
shall, will, used” (i.e. He need to leave the city now).

(2) the full infinitive after verbs expressing ‘likes and dislikes’ (i.e. care, hate, like, love and
prefer) although they can also function with the gerund form.

(3) after verbs of knowing and thinking, such as ‘assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose,
understand, think, estimate and presume) as in ‘I consider him to be the best candidate’.

(4) after certain phrases that can also be followed by an infinitive, such as “be about, be able +
afford, do one’s best, do what one can, make an effort, make up one’s mind, set out, and turn
out” among others (i.e. We can’t afford to live in the centre; she is just about to leave).

3.1.3.4. The infinitive after verb + object.

The infinitive may function as a direct object or as an infinitive with accusative, that is, within
the structure verb + object + infinitive (with or without ‘to’), whose translation corresponds to
‘que + subjunctive’ in Spanish (i.e. I would like him to sing in public). We shall sum up the main
cases referring to the infinitive with ‘to’ and also to the bare infinitive.

(1) We find the full infinitive (and also the bare infinitive) after:

(a) verbs of knowing and thinking (mentioned above): ‘advise, allow, command, consider,
enable, encourage, implore, invite, judge, know, let, make, oblige, order, persuade, remind,
show, tell how, train, urge, warn and watch’ among others (i.e. He allowed his son to go out
late); and in particular when the passive voice is used (i.e. He is thought/invited/commanded
to go). Note that the infinitive with accusative is particularly found when the verb complement
is the verb ‘to be’ (i.e. He is thought to be older).

(b) after verbs expressing volition, such as ‘want, request, force, cause’ (i.e. I wanted him to tell
me the truth).

(c) after verbs of command or request in indirect speech (i.e. order, tell, request, ask) as in ‘I
told/ordered/asked him to stay’.

(d) after verbs of perception, we may find the full or bare infinitive (and sometimes the
gerund). For instance, with the verbs ‘feel, hear, see and watch’ we usually find the bare
infinitive in active forms (i.e. I heard him lock the door) and the full infinitive in the passive form
(i.e. He was seen to enter the office). Note that these verbs are frequently used with present
participles (i.e. He was seen entering the office) when they describe a progressive action.
(2) after certain structures, such as:

(a) with the verbs ‘let’ and ‘make’ + object. In the active they take the bare infinitve (i.e. He
made him cry) whereas in the passive they take the full infinitive (i.e. He was made to cry).

(b) would rather/sooner, rather/sooner than (i.e. I’d rather wait until tomorrow).

(c) had better (i.e. You had better finish at once).

(d) help (i.e. He help you (to) carry those heavy bags).

3.1.3.5. The infinitive with subject.

As stated before, the full infinitive may appear with or without a subject, where the latter is the
most common one since no elements are introduced between ‘to’ and the ‘bare infinitive’ (i.e.
The best thing is to tell him right now). However, we often find the full infinitive with a subject
in between within the structure: for + subject (usually object pronouns) + full infinitive (i.e. The
best thing would be for her to tell him right now).

3.1.3.6. The split infinitive.

Moreover, we find other constructions such as ‘split infinitives’ where emphatic elements
(usually degree adverbs) are placed after the ‘to’ in colloquial English (i.e. IT would take ages to
really solve this mystery; she’s asking you to simply tell the truth). This type of infinitive stands
for conventional sentences such as ‘to cover the floor completely’ vs. ‘to completely cover the
floor’.

3.1.3.7. The infinitive as a connective link.

The infinitive may also function as a connective link after the adverb ‘only’ to express a
disappointing sequel (i.e. He hurried to the shop only to find it was closed). However, we may
omit the adverb ‘only’ without the idea of misfortune (i.e. He returned home to find Sally had
bought what he needed) but this use is mainly confined to such verbs as ‘find, hear, learn, see,
be told’ among others.

3.1.3.8. The infinitive as an adverbial clause.

The infinitive as an adverbial clause refers to certain infinitive phrases that can be placed at the
beginning or sometimes at the end of a sentence. These idiomatic expressions work as
introductory sentences which are similar to introductory sentence adverbs, for instance, ‘To be
perfectly frank; to be honest; to be fair; to cut a long story short; to tell you the truth’ among
others.

3.2. The -ing form.

In this section we shall examine the -ing form, together with their main uses and functions. But
before we shall address an important distinction which will be present in our study of the -ing
form regarding its structure, uses and functions, that is, the distinction between the definitions
of ‘gerund’ and ‘present participle’.

3.2.1.‘Gerund’ vs. ‘Present participle’.

Following Sánchez Benedito (1975), we must distinguish between the -ing form as ‘gerund’ and
‘present participle’ mainly because the verbal form ‘-ing’ has two main different functions: (1)
as a verbal adjective or participle, hence the definition ‘present participle’, which imples
adjectival and verbal features. This form corresponds in Spanish to a gerund (She is working) or
an adjective (a smiling boy).

Secondly, (2) the -ing form may be realized as a verbal noun, hence the definition ‘gerund’,
which implies noun and verbal features. Note that in Spanish the gerund to an infinitive ( I like
playing tennis) or to a noun (The reading of the paly will take place tonight). We shall not
include here the nouns which end in -ing already, such as ‘ceiling, stocking’ and so on, which
have nothing to do with the -ing participle.

Therefore, depending on their adjective or noun features, we will be dealing with ‘present
participles’ or ‘gerunds’. Yet, we shall translate them into Spanish: (1) as a gerund (i.e. they are
reading); (2) as adjectives which indicate actions (i.e. the crying girl = the girl that is crying); (3)
as an infinitive (i.e. before going to bed); (4) as a noun (i.e. Fishing is my favourite sport); (5) as
a whole sentence (i.e. I didn’t like him saying that); and (6) to form compound nouns (i.e. a
washing-machine). Therefore, we are ready now to analyse separately the main forms, uses
and functions of the -ing forms as present participle and gerund.

3.2.2.The -ing: form.

Alike the infinitive, there is only one way to construct the -ing form, that is, the base form of
the verb + -ing. In order to add the suffix -ing to the base form, we must pay attention to
certain spelling rules, such as the omission of final -e when adding -inf (i.e. come vs coming);
the addition of a double final consonant (i.e. sit vs sitting); and the addition of -ing to final -y
(i.e. study vs studying).

Regarding word formation, the -ing form will show different features depending on tis
adjectival, verbal or noun features. Thus, when considered as an adjective (present participle),
it has both adjectival and verbal features, and it is shown in active and passive forms. Thus, in
the active, we find present (doing) and perfect forms (having done); in the passive, we find
again present (being done) and perfect forms, usually to refer to past tenses (having been
done).

However, it will be when used as a noun that we shall find more changes in the way it is formed
since it will undergo the same word-formation rules as for nouns (plural, genitive, addition of
articles, etc) as we shall see in the next section under the heading of the -ing main uses.

3.2.3.The -ing: main uses.

The main uses of the -ing form depend heavily on its adjectival, verbal or noun features and
therefore, the -ing form can be used in different contexts as adjectives, verbs and nouns do.
Yet, the -ing form may be used:

3.2.3.1. As an adjective.

As an adjective (present participle), which has both adjectival and verbal features, it is used in
attributive and predicative position. Thus, first, in attributive position (a burning candle) it
functions as an adjective, so we find no addition of plural markers or articles to define it. Note
that the present participle in adjectival function must be accented together with the noun it is
defining (a ‘burning ’candle) as it is done the formation of compound nouns; secondly, in
predicative position (The girl is playing with her friends) it functions as part of a verb in order to
show the progressive aspect. Note that this -ing form is equivalent to the Spanish gerund (i.e.
jugando).
 3.2.3.2. As a verb.

When the -ing form has verbal features (present participle), the -ing form enjoys the status of a
verb and may take, first, a direct object (i.e. He likes drinking wine) and second, it may be
modified by an adverb (i.e. He likes eating slowly). Moreover, it may even take its own subject
when the subject of the -ing form and the subject of the sentence are the same (i.e. The last
bus having gone, we had to wait for a taxi). In addition, it may function as an adverbial
subordinate sentence (i.e. Being the only man at the party, he had a great success with
women) or predicator complement after prepositions (i.e. After visiting me, he went home).

3.2.3.3. As a noun.

And finally, since the -ing form or gerund may function as a verb or a noun, we find on the one
hand, noun formation features such as plural formation, addition of articles, genitive
construction and so on. Thus, it may add a plural (i.e. His talkings are so boring); and article
(i.e. Your travelling was successful); a genitive (i.e. I can’t stand my mother’s complainings); the
addition of prepositions (i.e. The sinking of the ‘Titanic’); noun compound (i.e. washing-up
liquid) or coordination with other nouns (i.e. Diet or jogging is what she has to do); and finally,
the functions a noun can take: subject (i.e. Smoking is bad for your health); object (i.e. She
loves horse-riding); predicator complement (i.e. This is working hard), or prepositional
complement (i.e. He usually gives me a surprise by preparing dinner with candles).

3.2.4.The -ing: main functions.

The main functions, as stated above, of the -ing form depend heavily on its adjectival, verbal or
noun features as seen above, and therefore, the -ing form can function in different contexts as
adjectives, verbs and nouns do. Yet, the -ing form may function in the following cases: (1) as
subject of sentence (i.e. Dancing is really funny); (2) as the predicate of a sentence (i.e. Seeing
is believing); (3) as complement or direct object of certain verbs (i.e. His hobby is fishing; He
loves dancing); (4) after prepositions when used as a verb complement (i.e. He was interested
in painting); (5) as relative clauses (i.e. The children playing in the garden did not hear her
mum); (6) as an adverbial subordinate clause (i.e. Seeing that he was upset, they apologized for
being late); (7) as idiomatic expressions.

3.2.4.1. As subject.

As stated before, the gerund may function as the subject of a sentence (when used as a noun)
when an action is being considered in a general sense (i.e. Reading German is easier than
speaking it) whereas the to-infinitive us sued when referring to a specific time (i.e. I would like
to read German rather than speaking it). Note the difference between the two sentences
where the former means ‘always’ or ‘in general’ and the latter means ‘now’ or ‘at a specific
time’.

The gerund, then, can be the subject of a clause placed after certain verbs of knowing and
thinking (Cognition) such as ‘believe, consider, discover, expect, find, think’ and so on (i.e. He
thought that parking in the city was so difficult). In addition, the gerund is used in short
prohibitions, such as ‘No smoking’, ‘No parking’, ‘No swimming’, and so on, although these
cannot be followed by an object since prohibitions involve an object which is often expressed
by the imperative form (i.e. Do not smoke cigarettes here).

3.2.4.2. As predicate.
The gerund may also function as the predicate of a sentence, as in ‘Seeing is believing’. This
function is usually related to the verbs ‘be, seem, become’.

3.2.4.3. As verb complement.

The gerund may also function as a verb complement or direct object, as in ‘I hate fishing’. This
function is usually related to certain transitive verbs, such as ‘admit, anticipate, avoid, consider,
deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, excuse, fancy, keep, mean, mind, miss, postpone, recollect, resist,
save, suggest, and understand’ among others.

It is also related to certain verbs making reference to ‘likes, dislikes’, such as ‘care, like, love,
hate, detest and wish’ (i.e. They like/detest dancing); ‘preference’ (i.e. I prefer running to
jogging); ‘volition’ when we are not thinking of a particular action but are considering the
subject’s tastes generally (i.e. She would like riding if she could ride better); and ‘continuity’
shown by verbs such as ‘start, go on, continue, keep on, finish, end’ (i.e. He kept on talking all
night long).

There is a specific construction with this type of verbs, which can take the previous
construction or that of verb + a possessive adjective or pronoun + gerund. ‘If a verb +
preposition is followed directly by the gerund, the gerund refers then to the subject of the verb
(i.e. Tom insisted on working = Tom worked). But if we put a possessive adjective or pronoun
before the gerund, the gerund refers to the person denoted by the possessive adjective or
pronoun’ (i.e. He insisted on my/me working = I had to work) (Thomson & Martinet 1986).

3.2.4.4. After prepositions.

When a preposition is followed by a verb, the -ing form must be used, except for the
preposition ‘to’. ‘To’ can cause confusion as it can be either a part of an infinitive or a
preposition. Thus, after the auxiliary verbs ‘be, have ought, used’ and after ‘be going’, it is part
of the following verb and is only added to remind us that the preceding verb takes the
infinitive. Also, ‘to’ is often placed after certain verbs which are usually followed by gerund, for
instance ‘hate, hope, intend, love, mean, plan, etc’ and some others, but then they have
different meanings (i.e. I love dancing vs. I love to dance).

However, ‘to’ may not always indicate a to-infinitive. For instance, it is used in certain
expressions, such as ‘look forward to, take to, be accustomed to, get used to, be used to, in
addition to, devoted to + gerund’ (i.e. I am looking forward to seeing you). Following Thomson
& Martinet (1986), ‘a good way of finding out whether a ‘to’ is a preposition or a part of an
infinitive is to see if it is possible to put a noun/pronoun after it. For instance, ‘I am used to
listening to the radio/it every morning = preposition).

In addition, there is a number of verb + preposition or adverb combinations, more commonly

3.2.4.5. As relative clauses.

Given the adjectival character of the -ing form, it may also function as a relative sentence by
substituting the relative pronouns which, who, that. For instance, ‘The man who is coming
towards us is my uncle’ may be realized by the sentence ‘The man coming towards us is my
uncle’.
 3.2.4.6. As adverbial clauses.

The -ing form may also function as an adverbial clause in absolute construction. Note that this
construction is considered to be informal or little literary and therefore, in colloquial English it
is usual to introduce the subordinate clause by a conjunction, for instance, ‘Being the best
candidate, he won the elections’ vs ‘As he was the best candidate, he won the elections.

3.2.4.7. As idiomatic expressions.

In colloquial English we usually find the -ing form functioning in everyday usage in
constructions such as ‘it is no good/use, there’s no point in, what’s the point of, feel like,
cannot stand, cannot help, it’s worth, to be fond of, what/how about…? + gerund among many
others. In addition, we find some idiomatic expression, such as ‘Generally speaking, I think it is
a mistake’, ‘Considering the circumstances…’, Bearing in mind the reports…’ etc.

3.3. The infinitive vs. the -ing form.

As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive and the -ing form may be used in different
contexts depending on their syntactic sentence structure, but they are namely used
indistinctively in certain contexts where form and function cannot tell the difference, and
therefore we can only rely on meaning. For instance, these two sentences: ‘I like getting
unexpected invitations’ and ‘I like to get unexpected invitations’. There is a subtle difference of
meaning that probably a foreign student of English at the beginner’s level may not grasp at
once, for instance, the former means ‘I enjoy unexpected invitations’ whereas the latter means
‘I want/wish unexpected invitations’.

We shall distinguish two types of verbs when both forms are used indistinctively, first, those
which do not have any changes in meaning; and second, those which undergo semantic
changes. Therefore, let us examine the different uses that the full infinitive and the bare
infinitive take in everyday speech.

First of all, there is a group of verbs which do not change in meaning when they are followed
by a full infinitive or a gerund. This group of verbs includes verbs of ‘start, continuity and end’
(i.e. start, begin, continue, keep on, go on, finish, end – I started to play/playing chess).
However, one of these verbs, ‘stop’ will undergo relevant changes which will be examined next.
In addition, verbs indicating ‘likes and dislikes’ may also take the full infinitive or gerund with
slight differences of meaning.

Secondly, we find a reduced group of verbs which undergo relevant changes in meaning. For
instance, ‘remember and forget; regret and dread; like, love, hate and prefer; try, mean; need
and want; go on; and stop’. Thus, (1) remember and forget take the gerund when they refer to
an action which occurred beforehand (i.e. Do you remember taking this bus?/I’ll never forget
arriving in Rome) whereas they take an infinitive when they refer to an action which comes
afterwards (i.e. Remember to take the car keys/I’m afraid you will forget to take the car keys).

(2) Verbs ‘regret’ and ‘dread’ take the gerund when they refer to the past or likely future (i.e.
Do you regret not having studied?/I’m dreading going to the dentist). However, ‘dread’ takes
the infinitive ‘to think’ and ‘regret’ takes the infinitives ‘to say’, ‘to tell’ and ‘to inform’ to talk
about the future (i.e. I dread to think what might have happened if you’d stopped insulting
me/I regret to tell you that you are not pregnant).
(3) Verbs ‘like, love, hate and prefer’ may take either a gerund or an infinitive when they mean
‘enjoy’ or ‘take pleasure in’ (i.e. I simply love cooking/Do you prefer typing or writing by hand?)
but in negative sentences they usually take the gerund (i.e. I don’t like cooking). Yet, when they
mean ‘want’ or ‘wish’, they take the infinitive (i.e. Would you like to have a tea?) and when
‘prefer’ is used in a comparison, the gerund is always used (i.e. He prefers skating to
snowboarding).

(4) when the verb ‘try’ takes the gerund (i.e. Try climbing that wall. Maybe you can see the old
house from up there), the meaning is ‘experiment’ meaning that you’ll have no difficulty in
climbing the wall but the action may or may not be successful in enabling you to jump.
However, when the infinitive is used, the meaning is ‘attempt’, where you may be or not be
successful in climbing the wall (i.e. Try to climb that wall).

(5) When the verb ‘mean’ is used with the gerund (i.e. The job means moving to another area),
the verb means ‘involve’ but when it is used with the infinitive (i.e. We are meant to be
together), it means ‘intend’.

(6) Verbs ‘need and want’ mean ‘be in need of’ when used with the gerund (i.e. The hedge
needs trimming) whereas the infinitive ‘need’ means ‘have a need’ (i.e. We’ll need to take a
bus tomorrow) while ‘want’ means ‘should/ought to’ or ‘wish’ (i.e. You want to ask John. He’s
the expert).

(7) The verb ‘go on’ means ‘continue an action’ with the gerund (i.e. He went on describing his
house) whereas it means ‘introduce a new action’ with the infinitive (i.e. After describing his
mansion, he went on to describe his castle).

(8) And finally, the verb ‘stop’ means ‘cease’ with a gerund (i.e. He stopped smoking) whereas it
means ‘to interrupt one action in order to perform another’ with the infinitive (i.e. He stopped
to smoke).

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

The relevant difference between the two non-finite forms dealt with in this study are so
important to the learning of a foreign language since differences between the vocabulary
related to non-finite forms of the learner’s native language (L1) and that of the foreign
language (L2) may lead to several problems, such as the incorrect use of each of them,
especially because of the syntactic, morphological, pragmatic and semantic processes implied
in these categories.

This study has looked at the structure of the infinite and the -ing form in terms of form, main
uses and functions, that is, regarding morphological and phonological forms, and syntactic,
semantic and pragmatic functions, all those related by the relevance of usage in everyday
speech. This study is mainly intended for teachers to help Spanish-speaking students establish
a relative similarity between the two languages that would find it useful for communicative in
the European framework we are living in nowadays.

According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student may find especially troublesome
the sue of the infinitive and the -ing form, and particularly when there are subtle differences
between their uses. Then, when communicating in English he has to know first the specific
constructions in which both forms are embedded (i.e. I am looking forward to + gerund) and,
second, which non-finite form to use when certain situations are given depending on the
context (i.e. He stopped crying/to cry: ‘cease’ or ‘interrupt’?) and on top of that, learn long lists
of verbs related to each type of non-finite form (i.e. He likes/avoid/prefer playing chess).

This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they deal with the two non-
finite forms and their semantic offer. For instance, the most common mistakes for Spanish
students, both at ESO and Bachillerato level, is to write incorrectly the infinitive of purpose (i.e.
He came home yesterday to have dinner); to learn that prepositions are followed by the -ing
form (i.e. He insisted on having dinner) or sometimes by omitting certain elements (i.e. She is
used to singing in contests). Often, they make serious grammatical mistakes.

It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit
linguistic knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum
(BOE 2002), the use of non-finite forms is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in the sue of
verbs regarding ‘likes and dislikes’ (like, love, hate, prefer) to talk about their everyday life and,
usually in the context of ‘hobbies’, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex
verbal forms, such as verbs followed by infinitive or gerund, or certain constructions (i.e. It’s
worth studying all night/I am looking forward to seeing you), past habits (i.e. He was/got used
+ gerund) and above all, idiomatic expressions in certain modal idioms (i.e. Generally speaking,
…/Seeing is believing, etc).

So, the importance of how to handle non-finite forms cannot be understated since you can
communicate but not successfully because of the relevant distinction of meaning between the
use of both, especially when we may use indistinctively infinitive or -ing forms. We must not
forget that Spanish students are likely to write the infinitive of purpose incorrectly (i.e. He
came for to talk to me) or not to write the -ing form after prepositions (i.e. He is interested in
dance), and so on.

Current communicative methods foster the ‘teaching’ of this kind of specific linguistic
information to help students recognize the main differences with the L2 words. Learners
cannot do it all on their own. Language learners, even 2 nd year Bachillerato students, do not
automatically recognize similarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have
these associations brough to their attention.

So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the infinitive and the
-ing form by means of form, main functions and uses within verb phrase morphology,
phonology, syntax, semantics and usage in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going
through the localization of non-finite forms in syntactic structures, to a broad presentation of
the main grammatical categories involved in it. We hope students are able to understand the
relevance of handling correctly the expression of both forms to successfully communicate in
everyday life.

5. CONCLUSION.

All in all, although the question ‘What is an infinitive or gerund?’ may appear simple and
straightforward, it implies a broad description of non-finite forms in terms of form, function
and use so as to get to the paradigms of morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and use
which, combined, give way to the study we have presented here. The appropriate answer
suitable for students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO students, using
simple structures (hobbies: gerunds) or so complex if we are dealing with Bachillerato
students, who must be able to handle more complex verb structures (to be used to + gerund).
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of non-finite forms since we
are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful
communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 21 dealing with The
infinitive and the -ing form whose main aim was to introduce the student to the different
paradigms that shape the whole set of verbal forms in English regarding their form, main uses
and functions.

In fact, the correct expression of these two non-finite forms is currently considered to be a
central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language
since students must be able to use and distinguish these forms in their everyday life to avoid
embarrassing situations. As stated before, the teaching of them comprises four major
components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of
which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and
semantic.

Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real
life situations, now we are part of the European Union. The expression of these verbal
paradigms in form, use and function, proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and
consequently, we must encourage our students to have a good managing of it.