At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

explainrateofreaction
​
describethepre-conditionsforachemicalreactiontooccur
​
discussfactorsthataffectrateofchemicalreaction,and
​
demonstrate scientific enquiry skills, including observing, predicting, comparing
and contrasting, communicating, asking questions, drawing conclusions, applying
concepts, relating cause and effect, making generalizations and problem solving.

Start-upActivity
Discussthefollowingphenomenaingroupsandpresentyour
conclusiontotheclass.
Determinetheapproximatetimetakenforcompletionofthefollowing
chemicalchanges:
burningofapieceofpaperc.ripeningofbanana
conversionofmilktoyogurtd.charringofsugar
e.formationofsoils
2.Whydosomereactionstakeplacerapidlyandothersslowly?
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11
4.1Introduction

Everychemicalreactionproceedsatadifferentrateorspeed.Somereactionsproceed very
slowly and may take a number of days to complete;while others are very rapid,
requiring only a few seconds. For example, rusting of iron could start quickly, while
ripening of fruits may be completed in a few days. On the other hand, weathering of
stonemaytakemorethanadecadeandthebreakdownofplasticsintheenvironment takes
more than hundred years. However, other reactions, like the combustion of gasoline
or the explosion of gunpowder occur in a few seconds. Can you add more examples
from your experience?

To be useful reactions must occur at a reasonable rate. The area of chemistry that is
concernedwithreactionratesiscalledchemicalkinetics.Theword“kinetic”suggests
movement or change. Chemical kinetics refers to the rate of reaction, which is the
changeover times in the concentration of a reactant or a product.

4.2TheRateofaReaction
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
​
d efinerateofreaction
​
describerateofreactionusinggraphs
​
conductanexperimenttoillustratetherelativerateofreactions
​
listthepre-conditionsforachemicalreactiontooccur,and
explainhowcollision,activationenergyandproperorientationofreactantscausea chemicalreactiontooccur

Activity4.1
Discusseachofthefollowingquestionsinagroupandpresentyour responses to the whole class.
Whatdoes"rate"mean?
Doessugardissolvefasterinhotorincoldtea?Why?
Howcanwemeasuretherateofreaction?
Whatistheimportanceofknowingtherateofreaction?

UNIT4 194
 The Rate of a Reaction
Therateofachemicalreactionmeasuresthechangeinconcentrationofareactantor
aproductperunittime.Thismeansthattherateofareactiondetermineshowfastthe
concentration of a reactant or product changes with time.

For example, for a general reaction:

ReactantsProducts

This equation tells us that, during the course of a reaction, reactant molecules are
consumedwhileproductmoleculesareformed.Asaresult,wecanfollowtheprogress
ofareactionbymonitoringeitherthedecreaseinconcentrationofthereactantsorthe
increase in concentration of the products.

ConsidertheprogressofasimplereactioninwhichAmoleculesareconvertedtoB
molecules:

AB

The decrease in the number of A molecules and the increase in the number of B
molecules with time are shown in Figure 4.1. In general, it is more convenient to
express the rate in terms of change in concentration with time.

Rateofreaction
Changeinconcentrationofsubstance c
changeintime  t

NotethatAdenotesthedifferencebetweenthefinalandinitialstate. Thus, for

the preceding reaction we can express the rate as:

Rate 1  A  B

orrate

2 t t

inwhich,[A]and[B]arethechangesinconcentration(molL1)overaperiodt.
BecausetheconcentrationofAdecreasesduringthetimeinterval, [A]isanegative
quantity. The rate of a reaction is a positive quantity, so a minus sign is needed inthe
rate expression to make the rate positive. On the other hand, the rate of product
formation does not require a minus sign because [B] is a positive quantity (the
concentration of B increases with time).
UNIT4 195
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11

Figure 4.1: The rate of reaction A → B, represented as the decrease of A

molecules with time and the increase of B molecules with time
For more complex reactions, we must be careful in writing the rate expression.

Consider,forexample,the reaction:

2A→B

Two moles ofAdisappear for each mole of B that forms, that is, the rate at which B
forms is one half the rate at whichAdisappears. We write the rate as either:

Rate 1  A  B

orrate

2 t t
Similarly,forthereaction:

aA+bB cC + dD

1   A  1   B  1   C 1   D 
therateisgivenbyRate=   

a t b t c t d t

UNIT4 196
 The Rate of a Reaction

Example4.1
1. Writetherateexpressionsforthefollowingreactionsintermsofthe
disappearanceofthereactantsandtheappearanceoftheproducts:
a. I(aq)+OCl(aq)Cl(aq)+OI(aq)
b. 3O(g)2O(g)
2
c. 4NH(g)+5O(g)4NO(g)+6HO(g)
3 2
Solution:
a. Becauseeachofthestoichiometriccoefficientsequals1,
I- OCI Cl OI
Rate=       
   
t t t t

b. Herethecoefficientsare3and2,so
Rate= 1  O2  1  O3 
 
3 2 t

t

c. Inthisreaction:

1  NH 3  1  O 2  1NO H2O
1
Rate=    
4 t 5 4 6 t

t t

2. Inthereactionofnitricoxidewithhydrogen,
2NO(g) +2H(g)N(g) + 2HO(g)
2 2
IftherateofdisappearanceofNOis5.0×10–5molL–1s–1,whatisthe
rateofreactionfortheformationofN2?
Solution:
TherateofreactionfortheformationofN2
Rate=

UNIT4 197
 N 2 
1 

NO 1
 5.0
105molL1s
1

t 2 t 2

Rate=2.5×105molL1s1

UNIT4 198
CHEMISTRYGRADE11

Exercise4.1
1. Writetherateexpressionforthefollowingreaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
a. theformationofCO2andH2O
b. thedisappearanceofCH4andO2
2. Thereactionfortheformationofammoniaisgivenas
N2(g)+ 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Writetheratereactionfor:
a. theformationofNH3
b. thedisappearanceofN2andH2
3. Considerthereactionof:
4NO2(g)+O2(g)2N2O5(g)
Supposethat,ataparticularmomentduringthereaction,molecular
oxygenisreactingattherateof0.037molL1s1.
a. AtwhatrateisN2O5beingformed?
b. AtwhatrateisNO2reacting?
4. Considerthereactionof:
4PH3(g)P4(g) + 6H2(g)

Supposethat,ataparticularmomentduringthereaction,molecular
hydrogenisbeingformedattherateof0.078molL1s1.
a. AtwhatrateisP4beingformed?
b. AtwhatrateisPH3reacting?

DeterminationofRateofReaction
Reactionrateischangeinanobservablepropertyovertime.Theobservableproperty should
be selected based upon what can be measured in the laboratory. This
couldbeacolourchange,atemperaturechange,apressurechange,amasschange,or
theappearanceofanewsubstance(forexample,amountofprecipitateformed). The
observable (measurable) properties can be used to determine the change in
concentration over time.

UNIT4 198
 The Rate of a Reaction

Consider, for example, the thermal decomposition of gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide,

N2O5, to give the brown gas nitrogen dioxide:

2NO(g) 4NO(g)+ O(g)

25 2

Colorless Brown Colorless

Changes in concentration as a function of time can be determined by measuring the

increaseinpressureas2gasmoleculesareconvertedto5gasmolecules.Alternatively,
concentrationchangescanbemonitoredbymeasuringtheintensityofthebrowncolor
duetoNO2formation.Reactantandproductconcentrationsasafunctionoftimeat55
CarelistedinTable4.1.Usingthisdata,wecancalculatethe rate:
1  N 2 O 5  1  NO 2 
O2
Rateofreaction  
2 t 4 t t
Table4.1:Concentrations(molL−1s−1)asafunctionoftimeat55°Cforthe thermal
decomposition of gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide ( N2O5)

Time (s) N2O5 NO2 O2

0 0.0200 0 0
100 0.0169 0.0063 0.0016
200 0.0142 0.0115 0.0029
300 0.0120 0.0160 0.0040
400 0.0101 0.0197 0.0049
500 0.0086 0.0229 0.0057
600 0.0072 0.0256 0.0064
700 0.0061 0.0278 0.0070

Note:TheconcentrationsofNO2andO2increaseastheconcentrationofN2O5decreases.Inthedeco
mpositionofN2O5,therateofformationofO2isgivenbythe
equation:
O2 Conc.ofOattimetConc.ofOattimet
RateofformationofO2  2 2 2 1

t t2t1
During the time period 300 to 400 s, for example, the average rate of formation of O2
is9106molL1s1:

UNIT4 199
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11 The Rate of a Reaction

RateofformationofO=   O 2  0.0049M0.0040M
 9
106molL1s1
2
t 400s300s

TheaveragerateofformationofNO2duringthetimeperiod300-400sis
3.710-5molL1s1,whichisfourtimestherateofformationofO,aswiththe
2

4:1ratioofthecoefficientsofNO2andO2inthechemicalequationforthedecomposition of
N2O5.
RateofformationofNO   NO 2  0.0197M0.0160M 105molL1s1
 3.7
2
t 400s300s
Similarly,duringthetimeperiod300–400s,theaveragerateofdecompositionof
NOis1.910-5molL1s1;
N2O5
25
0.0101M0.0120M
RateofformationofN2O5
=  400s300s
t5
1.910 molL s 1 1

It’salsoimportanttospecifythetimewhenquotingaratebecausetheratechanges
asthereactionproceeds.Forexample,theaveragerateofformationofNO2is
3.710-5molL1s1duringthetimeperiod300–400s,butitisonly2.210-5mol L1s1during
the period 600 –700 s.
Ingeneral,therateofreactionatthebeginningisfastanditdecreasesasthereaction proceeds.
Whatcould be the possible reasonfor thisdecrease in therate of reaction with time?
Plotting the data of Table 4.1 gives the three curves in Figure 4.2. Looking at the
time period 300 – 400 s on the O 2 curve, [O2] and t is represented, respectively,by
the vertical and horizontal sides of a right triangle. The slope of the third side,the
hypotenuse of the triangle, is [O2]/t, the average rate of O2 formation during that
period.The steeper the slope of the hypotenuse, the faster the rate. For example,
compare the hypotenuse of the triangle defined by [NO2] and t during the time
period 300 – 400 s and 600 –700 s.

UNIT4 200
 The Rate of a Reaction

Figure 4.2: Concentration as a function of time when gaseous

N2O5decomposes to gaseous NO2and O2at 55 °C

It is important to realize that, given the initial concentrations in Table 4.1 the
concentrations of NO2(g) and O2(g) can be calculated from the concentration of
N2O5(g) at any time. The following example illustrates such a calculation.

UNIT4 201
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11 The Rate of a Reaction

Example4.2
UsingthedatainTable4.1,if[N2O5]=1.2010molLat300s,
–2 1

calculate[NO2]and[O2]att=300s.
Solution:
The chemical equation is:N2O5 (g)2NO2 (g)+½ O2 (g). The number of moles per liter of N2

4.1.[N2O5]0=2.0010molL.–2 1

MolarityofN2O5(g)reacted=[N2O5]0[N2O5]
=2.00×10–2molL11.20×10–2molL1
=0.810–2molL1.
Accordingtothechemicalequation,2molesofNO2 (g)areprovidedforeverymoleofN2O5(g)th

2molL-1NO 
MolarityofNO2 g  produced=0.810 –2
molL -1
N2O52 -1
 1molLNO 25
=1.610-2molL-1
Similarly,forO2(g)wehave:
1molL-1NO 
 2 2
2 
–2 -1
MolarityofOgproduced =0.8×10molLNO 2 51molL-1NO
 25

 
0.4102molL1

Often, chemists want to know the rate of a reaction at a specific time t rather thanthe
rate averaged over a time interval t. For example, what is the rate of formation of
NO2 at time t = 350 s? Such instantaneous rate is calculated from the slope of a
tangent drawn at any points on the graph of concentrations versus time (Figure 4.2).
Theslopeoftangenttakenattheinitialpointofthegraphisassumedtobeequaltoits initial
rate. In the initial rate the change in concentration of a reactant or product as a
function of time is measured within minutes (or seconds) the reaction starts.

UNIT4 202
 The Rate of a Reaction
Example4.3

Consider the gas-phase reaction that occurs when we mix 1.000 moles of
hydrogen and 2.000 moles of iodine chloride at 230 C in a closed 1.000-liter
container.
H2(g)+2ICl(g)→I2(g)+2HCl(g)
Fromtheexperimentaldatagiveninthetablebelow,determinethe
instantaneousrateofreactionattime,t=2s.
Time(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
[ICl](molL ) 2.000 1.348 1.052 0.872 0.748 0.656 0.586 0.530 0.484
[H2](molL)−1
1.000 0.674 0.526 0.436 0.374 0.328 0.293 0.265 0.242

Solution:First,plotH2concentrationversustimeforthereactionof1.000MH2 with
2.000 MICl. Then, drawatangentlinetothecurve. Theinstantaneousrateof
reactionatanytime,t,equalsthenegativeoftheslopeofthetangenttothiscurve at time
t. Figure 4.3 shows how to find the instantaneousrate at t = 2 seconds.

Figure4.3:Aplotofthehydrogenconcentrationversustime, using
data of the above table

UNIT4 203
CHEMISTRYGRADE11

Exercise4.2
1.Usingtheinitialconcentrationsandthefactthat
1
[O2]=0.64×10mol.Latt=600sinTable4.1,
–2

calculate[N2O5]and[NO2]att=600s.
2.Considerthereaction:
2C2H4(g)→C4H8(g)

Fromtheexperimentaldatagiveninthetablebelow,plotagraphfor
theconsumptionofethylene,C2H4,versustime.
Calculatetherateofreactionbetweenthetimeintervals10sto30s.
Calculatetherateofreactionat45s.

Time(s) 0 10 20 40 60 100

[C24H](molL−1) 0.884 0.621 0.479 0.328 0.250 0.169

Experiment4.1
Measuring the Rate Reaction
Objective:Tomeasuretherateofreactionbetweenmarblechips(CaCO3)and dilute
HCl acid.
Apparatus: Direct reading balance, 100 mL conical flask, stopwatch, cotton
wool.
Chemicals:2M dilute HCl acid , and marble chips/CaCO3.
Procedure:
1. SetuptheapparatusasshowninFigure4.4,butwithoutthemarble chips at
first.
2. Add 20 g of pure marble chips, in a clean 100 mLconical flask.
3. Add40 mLof 2Mdilute HCl acid to the conical flask.
4. Plug the cotton wool in position immediately.
5. Readthemassoftheflaskanditscontentsandstartthe stopwatch.
6. Record the mass at one minute intervals for 10 minutes.

UNIT4 204
 The Rate of a Reaction

Figure4.4:Thelaboratorysetupforthemeasurementofrateofreaction
Observations and analysis:
1. Use the following table to record your observations.
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mass(g)
Decreaseinmass(g)
Plotagraphwithtime(minutes)onthehorizontalaxisandrateonthevertical axis.
Draw a smooth curve through as many points as possible.
Notethatinthisexperimentchangeinmassisproportionaltochangein concentration.
2. Whathappenstothemassduringthereaction?Explainthiswiththehelpof
a balanced equation.
3. Whatinformation can be obtainedfrom the slope ofthisgraph at any point?
4. Why is the graph
a. steep at the start of the reaction?
b. lesssteep inthe middleof the reaction?
c. horizontal at the end of the reaction?

UNIT4 205
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11 The Rate of a Reaction

Calculate:
a.The average rate of the reaction.b.The rate of reaction at 2 minutes.
Describehowtherateofreactionchangeswithtime.
Canwemeasuretherateofthisreactionbymeasuringtheamount/volume
ofCO2evolved?
Draw a graph of the expected result by plotting volume of CO2 evolved vstime.

Conditionsneededforachemicalreaction

Activity4.2
Formagroupofthreeanddiscusseachofthefollowingquestions,then presentyourresponsesto
1.Ethanolcaneasilyburninairduetothefollowingreaction:
CH3CH2OH+O2→CO2+H2O
Inactualpractice,youarerequiredtousealighter(igniter)tostartthe
reaction.Why?

2.ConsiderthefollowingreactionNO2Cl + Cl→ NO2 +Cl

Whichoftheabovecollisionsmightbesuccessfultoformtheproduct?

Chemical reactions are usually explained by the collision theory. The assumption of
the collision theory is that chemical reactions take place due to collisions between
molecules.

Collisionsbetweenreactants
Thecollisiontheoryofrateofreactionisthat,inorderforareactiontooccurbetween
reactingspecies(atoms,ionsormolecules),theymustfirstcollide(comeincontact).
Therateofreactionisdirectlyproportionaltothenumberofcollisionspersecond(the
frequency of collision).

UNIT4 206
 The Rate of a Reaction

Rateα numberofcollisions
second
1. ProperOrientation
Accordingtocollisiontheory,themorecollisionstherearethefastertherateofreaction would
be. However, not all collisions between reacting species result in a reaction. This is
because collisions between reactants can be either effective or ineffective.
Effectivecollisionsarecollisionsthatresultinareactiontoformthedesiredproducts.
Ineffectivecollisionsarecollisionsthatdonotresultinareactiontoformthedesired
products. Thus, the collision between molecules should have the proper orientation
(Figure 4.5).

Figure4.5:TheeffectofmolecularorientationonthereactionofNOandO3

2. Activationenergy
If the collisions between the reactant molecules do not have sufficient energy, then
noreactionwilloccur.Therefore,forthereactiontotakeplacecollisionmustalways occur
with sufficient energy to break the bonds in the reactants and form new bonds in the
product. Thus, minimum amount of energy needed for the reaction is known as
activation energy, Ea.

Accordingtothekineticmoleculartheory,theaveragekineticenergyoftheparticles
ofasubstanceisdirectlyproportionaltotheabsolutetemperature.Asthetemperature of the
reacting species is raised, the average kinetic energy of the reacting particles
increases considerably. This causes the particles of the reactants to collide more
frequently and with greater energy. This results in increase in reaction rate.
UNIT4 207
 CHEMISTRYGRADE11 The Rate of a Reaction
4.3FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

listfactorsthataffecttherateofachemicalreaction
​
describe the effects of changes in temperature, concentration or pressure and surface are
explaintheeffectofcatalystsontheratesofchemicalreaction
​
doanexperimentonhowthefactorsaffecttherateofchemicalreaction.
​

Activity4.3
Discusseachofthefollowingquestionsingroups,andpresentyour responses to the whole class.
Howistheburningofcharcoalaffectedby
increasingtheamountofairused
addingmorecharcoal
Howcanyouincreasetherateofcombustionofagivenblockofwood?
Whydosugarcrystalsdissolvemoreeasilyinhotwaterthanincoldwater?
Whydoespowderedsugardissolvedeasilyascomparedtoequivalent amounts of sugar crystals?
The rates at which reactants are consumed and products are formed during chemical
reactions vary greatly. Even a chemical reaction involving the same reactants may
havedifferentratesunderdifferentconditions.Changeintemperature,concentration,
nature of reactant, surface area and presence of a catalyst, result in changes in rate of
reaction.
i. Natureofthereactants
Activity4.4
Comparehowfastthefollowingsubstancesburnandpresentyour responses to the whole class.
a.paperb.woodcharcoalc.alcohold.copperwire

ConsiderExperiment4.2tostudytheeffectofthenatureofreactantsonrateof
reaction.

UNIT4 208
 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Experiment4.2
TheEffectofNatureofReactantsonRateofReaction
Objective:Tostudytheeffectofthenatureofreactantforthereactionofcopper and
magnesiummetals with hydrochloric acid.
Apparatus: Balance, test tubes, test tube stand.

Chemicals: Copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), 2M hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Procedure:
1. Measure equal masses of copper and magnesium metals using a balance.
2. Recordtheweighedmassofthesemetalsandaddeachtoseparatetest
tubes.
3. AssemblethetesttubesasshowninFigure4.6.
4. Addequal volume of 5 mLof 1MHCl to both the test tubes.
Wearyoursafetygogglesand gloves.
5. Observerelativeratesofreactioninbothtesttubesandrecordyourobservations.

Figure4.6:ThereactionofmagnesiumwithHClacidObservationsand
analysis
1.Which of thesetwo metals,copper or magnesium,reactsfaster?Why?

UNIT4 209
 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Writethebalancedchemicalequationforthereactionof
a. copper with HCl acidb. magnesium with HCl acid
Whatdo youlearn fromthisexperiment?
Perform a similar activity using different metals such as aluminum, and zinc. In which case

Therateofareactiondependsonthechemicalnatureofthesubstancesinthereaction. The
combination of two oppositely charged ions usually occurs very rapidly. For
example, the reaction of an acid with a base is:
HO++OH–→2HO
3

Theacid-basereactionofHClandNaOHismuchfasterthanthedecompositionof
hydrogenperoxide,whichinvolvesthereorganizationofmolecules.
2H2O2→ 2H2O+ O2

Even similar reactions may have different rates under the same conditions. For
example,ifsmallpiecesofthemetalironandsodiumareleftinair,thesodiumreacts
completely overnight, whereas the iron is barely affected. The active metals sodium
andcalciumbothreactwithwatertoformhydrogengasandthecorrespondingmetal
hydroxide. Yet calcium reacts at a moderate rate, whereas sodium reacts so rapidly
that the reaction is almost explosive.
Canyouwritethebalancedequationforthereactionofsodiumandcalciumwithwater?

ii. SurfaceAreaofReactants

Activity4.5
Form a group of three or four and answer the following questions, then presentyourrespons
Why does a wood fire burn faster if the logs are chopped into smaller pieces?
Which form of zinc metal is easier to dissolve in dilute HCl, large piecesof Zn or powdered Zn

UNIT4 210
 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Experiment4.3
EffectofsurfaceAreaonReactionRate
Objective:Tostudytheeffectofsurfaceareaofreactantsontherateofreaction using
cube chalk and powdered chalk with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Apparatus: Direct reading balance, 100 mL conical flask, stopwatch,
cottonwool.
Chemicals:Cube chalk, powered chalk and 2Mdilute HCl solution
Procedure:RepeatExperiment4.1butuse20gofsmallcubicalchalkandthen

powdered chalk in place of marble

chips.Observations:Inwhichcaseisthegasproducedfaste
r? Observations and analysis:

1. Comparetheratecurve,averagerateandreactionrateat2minuteswiththat
of Experiment 4.1. Explain your observations.

2. Sketchagraphfortheconsumptionofeachsizeofchalk(cubechalkand
powdered chalk)against time on the same graph sheet.
3. Writeaconclusiontothe experiment.

Reactionscanbeclassifiedashomogeneous(samephase)andheterogeneous(different
phases).Forexample,thecombustionofgraphiteisaheterogeneousreactionbecause it
involves a solid with gas. In this case, the reaction occurs only at the interface
(boundary) between two phases.Ahomogeneous reaction occurs only in one phase.
For example:
NO(g) ½N2(g)+½O2(g)
Except for substances in the gaseous state or in solution, reactions occur at the
boundary,orinterface,betweentwophases.Hence,therateofreactionbetween two phases
depends to a great extent on the surface area of contact between them.
Finelydividedsolids,reactmorerapidlythanthesameamountofthesubstance
inalargebodybecauseofthegreatersurfaceareaavailable.

UNIT4 211
 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

iii. ConcentrationofReactants

Activity4.6
Answerthefollowingquestionsingroupsandpresentyourresponsestothe whole class.
Whydoeswoodburnmorerapidlyinpureoxygenthaninair?
Whydoeslimestone(CaCO3)deterioratemorerapidlyinhighly
pollutedairthaninlesspollutedair?

ConsiderExperiment4.4tostudytheeffectofconcentrationofacidontherateof reaction
between CaCO3 and hydrochloric acid.

Experiment4.4
EffectofConcentrationonReactionRate
Objective:Tostudytheeffectofconcentrationsofhydrochloricacidonrateof reaction
with marble chips.
Apparatus: Direct reading balance, 100 mL conical flask, stopwatch,
cottonwool
Chemicals: 1M HCl, 2M HCl dilute solutions and marble chips (CaCO3).
Procedure: Repeat Experiment 4.1 but you have to use 1M dilute HCl acid in
place of 2M dilute HCl acid.

Observations and analysis:

1. ComparetherateofreactionwiththatinExperiment4.1.Whichreaction
ismore vigorous? Explain.
2. Whichofthetworeactionswillproducemorecarbondioxide?Explain your
answer.
3. What would happen to the rate curve and average rate if:
a. 1MHCl isreplacedwith 4MdiluteHCl acid? Explain.
b. 1MHClisreplacedwith 0.5Mdilute HClacid? Explain.
4. Sketchagraphforeachof0.5M,1M,2Mand4MdiluteHClacidagainst
time on the same graph sheet.

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 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

At a fixed temperature, the rate of a given reaction depends on the concentration of

thereactants.Reactionratesoftenincreaseswhentheconcentrationofoneormoreof the
reactants increases.This is because increasing the concentration produces more
contactsbetweenthereactingparticles,whichresultsinincreasingtherateofreaction. In
the case of reactions that involve gaseous reactants, an increase in pressure can
increase the concentration of the gases which may lead to an increase in the rate of
reaction.However,pressurechangehasnoeffectontherateofreactionifthereactants are
either solids or liquids.
iv. TemperatureofReactants

Activity4.7
Formagroupandanswerthefollowingquestions,thenpresentyour responses to the whole class.
Whydowekeepfoodsinrefrigeratorratherthanatroomtemperature?
Comparetheoxidationofwoodorcoalatordinaryandhigh temperatures?

InExperiment4.5,youwill studytheeffectof temperatureontherateofreactionof

Na2S2O3withHCl.

Experiment4.5
TheEffectofTemperatureonReactionRate
Objective:Tostudytheeffectoftemperatureontherateofreactionbetween
sodium thiosulphateand hydrochloric acid.
Apparatus:100mLbeakers,testtubes,thermometers,whitepaper,pencil.
Chemicals:0.5MHCl acid,0.1MNa2S2O3solution,piecesof ice.
Procedure:
Take25mLof0.1MNa2S2O3solutioninatesttubeand25mLof0.5MHCl
acid inanother test tube.
Preparethreesuchsetsandmaintainthematdifferent temperatures.
Set (i) at 0 °C [by keeping them in an ice bath as shown in Figure4.7(a)]. Set (ii) at room tempera
Set(iii)at 40°C(by heatingthe twosolutionsin awater bath).

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 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

3. Putacrosssignonawhitecardboardandplaceacleandry100mLbeaker
above it.
4. Now,pourthecontentsofset(i)inthebeakerandstartastopwatch
immediately.
5. Carefullystirthemixturewiththermometerandrecordthetimetakenfor
thecrosstodisappear[Figure4.7(b)].
6. Repeatsteps3, 4,and 5 withset 2 andset 3, respectively.
7. Tabulateyourresultsastemperaturein°Cversustimein minutes.

Figure4.7:Laboratoryset-upforthestudyoftheeffectof temperature on rate

of reaction
Observations and analysis:
1. Whatwastheappearanceofthemixtureatthestartofthereaction,andatthe
endofthereaction?Explainthechangesusingtheequationforthereaction.
2. Plot the graph of time (minutes) on the horizontal axis against rate on
thevertical axis.
3. Underwhichconditionoftemperaturedoesthecrosstake:
a. theshortesttimetodisappear,and
b. the longest time to disappear.
4. Drawaconclusionabouttherelationshipbetweentheaveragereactionrate
and temperature.

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 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Temperature usually has a major effect on the rate of reaction. Molecules at higher
temperatures have more thermal energy. Generally, an increase in the temperatureof
a reaction mixture increases the rate of chemical reactions. This is because, as the
temperature of the reaction mixture raises, the average kinetic energy of the reacting
particles increases. So, they collide more frequently and with greater energy.
Theeffectoftemperatureonrateofreactioncanbeexperiencedinourdailylife.For
example,foodscookfasterathighertemperaturethanatlowerones.Weuseaburner
orahotplateinthelaboratorytoincreasethespeedofreactionsthatproceedslowlyat
ordinarytemperatures.Inmanycases,therateofareactioninahomogeneoussystem is
approximately doubled by an increase in temperature of only 10 C.
v. PresenceofaCatalyst

Activity4.8
Answerthefollowingquestionsingroupsandpresentyourresponseto the whole class.
Howdoinhibitorsextendtheshelf-lifeofapackageoffood?
Whatcatalystdoyouknowinyourbodyandthesurroundings?
Whyisyeastaddedtothedoughinthemakingofbread?What happensifyoudon’taddyeasttothedoug

Now,youwillperformExperiment4.6tostudytheeffectofacatalystontherateof
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2

Experiment4.6:
TheEffectofaCatalystontheRateofReaction
Objective:Toinvestigatetheeffectofacatalystonrateofdecomposition
of hydrogen peroxide.
Apparatus:Conicalflask,gassyringe,deliverytube.
Chemicals:0.5% by volume H2O2solution, MnO2.

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 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Procedure:
1. Set-uptheapparatusasshowninFigure4.8.Setthevolumeofthegas
syringeat0mL.Add 25.0mLof0.1MH2O2solution,butwithoutmanganese
(IV)oxide,MnO2,andstartstopwatch immediately.
2. Record the volume of gas collected in gas syringe at minute intervals until
each reaction is almost complete.
3. Repeatsteps1and 2with 1g of MnO2.
Observations and analysis:
1. Identifythe gasand write abalanced chemical equation for the reaction.
2. Underwhichconditiondoesgassyringecontainsmoreofthegasatanyone time?
Give an explanation for this observation.
3. DescribetheappearanceofMnO2beforeandafterthe reaction.
4. Plotgraphsofrateontheverticalaxisandtime(minutes)onthehorizontal
axisfortwodifferentsetsofreadings.Whichsetofreadingwereused?Why?
5. Writeaconclusionaboutthereactionrate:
a. in the presence of a catalyst
b. in the absence of a catalyst

Figure4.8:Investigationintotheeffectofmanganese(IV)oxide on
hydrogen peroxide

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 FactorsAffectingtheRateofaChemicalReaction

Acatalyst is a substance that changes reaction rate by providing a different reaction

mechanismonewithaloweractivationenergy,Ea.Anactivationenergyistheminimum
energyrequiredtostartachemicalreaction.Catalystsarenotusedupbythereactions,
rathertheyarerecoveredattheendofthereaction.Althoughacatalystspeedsupthe reaction, it does
not alter the position of equilibrium.

Figure4.9:Acatalystprovidesanalternatepathwaywithaloweractivation energy
barrier for the reaction

Chemicalcatalystscanbeeitherpositiveornegative.Positivecatalystsincreasethe
rate of reaction by lowering theEa.

Example4.4

2SO2(g)+O2(g)→2SO3(g);V2O5(s)ascatalyst.

Negativecatalystsorinhibitorsdecreasetherateofreactionbyincreasingthevalue of Ea.

Example4.5

OCl–(aq)+I–(aq)→OI–(aq)+Cl–(aq);OH–(aq)asinhibitor.

UNIT4 217