r te let 5 s ew 00 l N ry 2 a a on ati e b r u rn Inte 5 F n

Streptococcus pneumoniae has always been an important pathogen for man and a big therapeutic success in the early years of antibiotherapy with penicillin. For many years this species was perfectly susceptible and antibiotic susceptibility testing was not necessary. Then things changed dramatically about 25 years ago and resistance emerged in the South Hemisphere, spread to the world and now amounts to 50% of strains for penicillin as well as for other antibiotic families. This is a perfect example of emergence of new resistance. Antibiotic testing of this species is now highly important and bioMrieux has developed a special VITEK2 card for this purpose with an appropriate selection of antibiotics. Knowledge about the resistance of this species is important and we are pleased to offer you this new issue of our Identifying Resistance Newsletter to share this information.

State-of-the-Art
Antibiotic and S.pneumoniae

The bioMrieux solution

Evaluation of the New VITEK 2 System

Did you know?

Web sites Identifying Resistance News NCCLS recommendations Antibiotics VITEK 2 phenotypes

Practical advice
why test S.pneumoniae? what are the key issues with S.pneumoniae infections? What is the reference method for testing S.pneumoniae? The epidemiology of S.pneumoniae

State-of-the-Art

Antibiotic and

S.pneumoniae

Keith Klugman MB BCh, PhD, is Professor of International Health at the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University, in Atlanta, GA, USA. He is also Professor of Medicine in the Division of Infectious Diseases of the School of Medicine at that University and a Visiting Researcher in the Respiratory Diseases Branch of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). He is the Director of the Respiratory and Meningeal Pathogens Research Unit of the University of the Witwatersrand, the Medical Research Council and the National Institute for Communicable Diseases in Johannesburg, South Africa. Professor Klugman is a Member of the US National Committee of the International Union of Microbiological Societies. He has served on expert committees of the World Health Organization in Geneva, the Wellcome Trust in London and the Institute of Medicine in Washington, DC. He serves as a member of the editorial board of 8 international journals on infectious disease and antimicrobial research. Professor Klugman's research interests are in antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance and vaccines for bacterial pathogens particularly the pneumococcus. He has published more than 250 papers to date.
Keith Klugman

Dr. Mark Mackowiak VP for Research & Development, bioMrieux sa

Beta-lactams Although penicillin resistance was first described in the pneumococcus in 1967 (15) the emergence of unusual strains of pneumococci with very high level resistance to amoxicillin has recently been documented (7). These strains are unusual in that while the amoxicillin MICs of

pneumococci are usually lower than those of penicillin, these strains are more resistant to amoxicillin than to penicillin. The strains were first isolated in France but have more recently also been found in the United States. Of recent concern also is the emergence of pneumococci with penicillin MICs 8 g/ml. These strains remain rare,

from diagnosis, the seeds of better health

Identifying Resistance International Newsletter February 2005

State-of-the-Art

Antibiotic and S.pneumoniae

Several antibiotics can inhibit S.pneumoniae. And resistance exist for most of them.

fig. 1 BLA b-lactams, VAN vancomycin, ERY erythromycin, TET tetracyclin, CMP chloramphenicol, RIF rifampin, SXT trimethoprime+sulfamethoxazole, QUN quinolones The three resistance mechanisms are: target alteration, efflux and antibiotic inactivation.

but there is evidence that they may be common in certain geographic areas of the United States and they have strong clonal origins. While changes in penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) remain the basis of betalactam resistance in the pneumococcus by the transformation of pneumococcal pbp genes with DNA from viridans streptococci

to create mosaic genes (8), the discovery of the critical role played by murM in the biosynthesis of the branched chain precursors required to cross-link the cell wall of resistant pneumococci is providing new insight into non-PBP mechanisms that may be important in the development of beta-lactam resistance in this pathogen

(13). Within the setting of the specific PBP changes found in a highly penicillin-resistant Hungarian strain with an MIC of 16 g/ml, it was found that murM played a critical role in the expression of that very high level of resistance (28). The role of murM is however complex, and an altered murM does not seem to play an essential role in the manifestation of all high-level penicillin resistant pneumococci (9). Macrolides The dominant mechanisms of macrolide resistance in the pneumococcus are the efflux mechanism (predominantly mefA) and the presence of the rRNA methylation gene, ermB which additionally confers resistance to lincosamides such as clindamycin and to streptograminB. Usually pneumococci have only one of these resistance genes but the concurrence of the genes was described in South Africa, in a global pneumococcal clone called the Taiwan19F 14 clone (21). This clone now comprises a significant percentage of macrolide - resistant pneumococci in many other countries. Closely related versions of the mef and erm genes exist primarily in Streptococcus pyogenes. The ermA gene from Streptococcus pyogenes has been found in a pneumococcal strain from Greece (29) and together with the ermB gene in a pneumococcus from Spain (3). The mefA gene from the pneumococcus, formerly called mefE, is located in a transposable element called MEGA (macrolides efflux genetic assembly) (14), which lacks the genes for transposition in transposon1207.1 around the mefA gene from Streptococcus pyogenes, which has also been documented in S. pneumoniae (27). Of particular interest is the recent emergence of mutation based resistance to macrolides in the pneumococcus. The pneumococcus has four rRNA genes and there is a doseresponse to increasing levels of resistance as mutations occur in the macrolide binding areas of the RNA (30). Resistance to macrolides in pneumococci bearing these mutations have been found rarely, but are widely distributed, having been found in Europe, North America, South East Asia and Australia (11). It has also been

shown that mutations in the L4 and L22 proteins can confer clinically relevant macrolide resistance in the pneumococcus (23, 31) and combinations of mutation in these genes and rRNA can confer resistance to the streptogramins as well as to the ketolides (26). Oxazolidinones The first reports of linezolid - resistant pneumococci have been made (12) and the molecular basis of the resistance is being sought. Tetracycline Most tetracycline resistance in the pneumococcus is conferred by the presence of the tetM gene and although the tetO gene has been described in two discrete geographic locations (South Africa and USA), these strains remain rare (19, 34). Rifampin The molecular basis of resistance to the rifamycins is mutation in the beta subunit of RNA polymerase rpoB. A number of mutations in the gene associated with resistance have been described (10, 25). Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole The molecular basis of resistance to these agents are base mutations, insertions and deletions in the genes encoding

the enzyme substrates of the drugs (1, 18). Chloramphenicol Resistance to chloramphenicol in the pneumococcus is mediated by the acquisition of a gene encoding chloramphenicol acetyl transferase. An interesting aspect of this mechanism is that the gene is located on a plasmid, probably derived from the staphylococcus, which has entered the pneumococcus by linearization and inclusion on a transposable element (33). Vancomycin Although no vancomycin-resistant pneumococcus has been described, there are reports of a tolerance phenotype, the clinical role of which remains to be fully established (22, 24). Fluoroquinolones The emerging resistance to fluoroquinolones is mediated mostly by changes in the QRDR of the topoisomerase enzymes. There is also efflux mediated resistance that is thought only to be clinically relevant mostly at low levels of resistance. Although there is evidence for clonal spread of fluoroquinolone resistance in Hong Kong (16), most of the emerging resistance in North America has been sporadic mutation in strains isolated from patients with a previous history

MOSAIC GENES

PBP
wild

1A

1B

2X

2A

2B

Tolerant

Low level R.

High level R.

High level R.

High level R.

References

1.

Adrian, P. V., and K. P. Klugman. 1997. Mutations in the dihydrofolate reductase gene of trimethoprim-resistant isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 41:2406-13. Balsalobre, L., M. J. Ferrandiz, J. Linares, F. Tubau, and A. G. de la Campa. 2003. Viridans group streptococci are donors in horizontal transfer of topoisomerase IV genes to Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47:2072-81. Betriu, C., E. Culebras, M. Gomez, I. Rodriguez-Avial, B. A. Sanchez, M. C. Agreda, and J. J. Picazo. 2003. Erythromycin and clindamycin resistance and telithromycin susceptibility in Streptococcus agalactiae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47:1112-4. Chen, D. K., A. McGeer, J. C. de Azavedo, and D. E. Low. 1999. Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. Canadian Bacterial Surveillance Network. New England Journal of Medicine 341:233-9. Corso, A., E. P. Severina, V. F. Petruk, Y. R. Mauriz, and A. Tomasz. 1998. Molecular characterization of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates causing respiratory disease in the United States. Microbial Drug Resistance 4:325-37. de la Campa, A. G., E. Garcia, A. Fenoll, and R. Munoz. 1997. Molecular bases of three characteristic phenotypes of pneumococcus: optochin-sensitivity, coumarin-sensitivity, and quinoloneresistance. Microbial Drug Resistance 3:177-93. Doit, C., C. Loukil, F. Fitoussi, P. Geslin, and E. Bingen. 1999. Emergence in france of multiple clones of clinical Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates with high-level resistance to amoxicillin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43:1480-3. Dowson, C. G., A. Hutchison, J. A. Brannigan, R. C. George, D. Hansman, J. Linares, A. Tomasz, J. M. Smith, and B. G. Spratt. 1989. Horizontal transfer of penicillin-binding protein genes in penicillin-resistant clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:8842-6. du Plessis, M., E. Bingen, and K. P. Klugman. 2002. Analysis of penicillin-binding protein genes of clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae with reduced susceptibility to amoxicillin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:2349-57.

20. McGee, L., C. E. Goldsmith, and K. P. Klugman. 2002. Fluoroquinolone resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae belonging to international multiresistant clones. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 49:173-176.

2.

21. McGee, L., K. P. Klugman, A. Wasas, T. Capper, and A. Brink. 2001.

Serotype 19f multiresistant pneumococcal clone harboring two erythromycin resistance determinants (erm(B) and mef(A)) in South Africa. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 45:1595-8.

of fluoroquinolone exposure (4). There is however potential for the rapid emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance, as this phenotype has now been documented in a number of well-recognized international global clones in Europe (20) and in the US (5, 17). A recent report of interest is the demonstration that a proportion of fluoroquinolone-resistant pneumococci appear to have acquired the resistance genotype by horizontal transfer from viridans streptococci (2). Optochin Although not used clinically since the beginning of the last century, optochin is widely used in the laboratory identification of pneumococci. The molecular basis of resistance to the agent, related to the quinine class of antimalarials is a single base mutations in the atpC gene (6). It is of concern that the important phenotype for pneumococcal identification, of optochin sensitivity, can be lost by a single base mutation. Summary The multiply-resistant pneumococcus continues to evolve. Knowledge of the molecular basis of antibiotic resistance can give insights into the likely evolution of resistance in the organism. The introduction of conjugate pneumococcal vaccine has been shown in the U.S. to reduce the prevalence of antibioticresistant pneumococci (32) and this vaccine may slow the emergence of newly acquired resistance determinants in strains belonging to conjugate vaccine serotypes. Surveillance of the emergence of resistance in non vaccine serotypes is therefore of utmost importance.
fig. 2 S.pneumoniae has six different PBPs named: PBP 1A, PBP1B, PBP2A, BPB2B, PBP2X to build its cell wall. They are targets of b-lactam antibiotics. Their sequences can partially change following genetic exchanges with other bacterial species, giving these "mosaic genes". Red sections are imported sequences, and combinations of the exchanged sections give various levels of resistance.

3.

22. Mitchell, L., and E. Tuomanen. 2001. Vancomycin-tolerant Streptococcus pneumoniae and its clinical significance. Pediatr Infect Dis J 20:531-3. 23. Musher, D. M., M. E. Dowell, V. D. Shortridge, R. K. Flamm, J. H. Jorgensen, P. Le Magueres, and K. L. Krause. 2002. Emergence of macrolide resistance during treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. New England Journal of Medicine 346:630-1. 24. Novak, R., B. Henriques, E. Charpentier, S. Normark, and E. Tuomanen. 1999. Emergence of vancomycin tolerance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Nature 399:590-3. 25. Padayachee, T., and K. P. Klugman. 1999. Molecular basis of rifampin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 43:2361-5. 26. Perez-Trallero, E., J. M. Marimon, L. Iglesias, and J. Larruskain. 2003. Fluoroquinolone and macrolide treatment failure in pneumococcal pneumonia and selection of multidrug-resistant isolates. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1159-62. 27. Santagati, M., F. Iannelli, M. R. Oggioni, S. Stefani, and G. Pozzi. 2000. Characterization of a genetic element carrying the macrolide efflux gene mef(A) in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:2585-7. 28. Smith, A. M., and K. P. Klugman. 2001. Alterations in MurM, a cell wall muropeptide branching enzyme, increase high-level penicillin and cephalosporin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 45:2393-6. 29. Syrogiannopoulos, G. A., I. N. Grivea, A. Tait-Kamradt, G. D. Katopodis, N. G. Beratis, J. Sutcliffe, P. C. Appelbaum, and T. A. Davies. 2001. Identification of an erm(A) erythromycin resistance methylase gene in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in Greece. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45:342-4. 30. Tait-Kamradt, A., T. Davies, P. C. Appelbaum, F. Depardieu, P. Courvalin, J. Petitpas, L. Wondrack, A. Walker, M. R. Jacobs, and J. Sutcliffe. 2000. Two new mechanisms of macrolide resistance in clinical strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae from Eastern Europe and North America. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:3395-401. 31. Tait-Kamradt, A., T. Davies, M. Cronan, M. R. Jacobs, P. C. Appelbaum, and J. Sutcliffe. 2000. Mutations in 23S rRNA and ribosomal protein L4 account for resistance in pneumococcal strains selected in vitro by macrolide passage. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:2118-25. 32. Whitney, C. G., M. M. Farley, J. Hadler, L. H. Harrison, N. M. Bennett, R. Lynfield, A. Reingold, P. R. Cieslak, T. Pilishvili, D. Jackson, R. R. Facklam, J. H. Jorgensen, and A. Schuchat. 2003. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N Engl J Med 348:1737-46. 33. Widdowson, C. A., P. V. Adrian, and K. P. Klugman. 2000. Acquisition of chloramphenicol resistance by the linearization and integration of the entire staphylococcal plasmid pC194 into the chromosome of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 44:393-5. 34. Widdowson, C. A., K. P. Klugman, and D. Hanslo. 1996. Identification of the tetracycline resistance gene, tet(O), in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy 40:2891-3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. Enright, M., P. Zawadski, P. Pickerill, and C. G. Dowson. 1998. Molecular evolution of rifampicin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Drug Resist 4:65-70. 11. Farrell, D. J., S. Douthwaite, I. Morrissey, S. Bakker, J. Poehlsgaard, L. Jakobsen, and D. Felmingham. 2003. Macrolide Resistance by Ribosomal Mutation in Clinical Isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from the PROTEKT 1999-2000 Study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:1777-1783. 12. Farrell, D. J., I. Morrissey, S. Bakker, S. Buckridge, J. Borger, and D. Felmingham. 2003. Presented at the 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago, IL. 13. Fiser, A., S. R. Filipe, and A. Tomasz. 2003. Cell wall branches, penicillin resistance and the secrets of the MurM protein. Trends Microbiol 11:547-53. 14. Gay, K., and D. S. Stephens. 2001. Structure and dissemination of a chromosomal insertion element encoding macrolide efflux in Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 184:56-65. 15. Hansman, D., and M. Bullen. 1967. A resistant pneumococcus. Lancet ii:264-265. 16. Ho, P. L., W. C. Yam, T. K. Cheung, W. W. Ng, T. L. Que, D. N. Tsang, T. K. Ng, and W. H. Seto. 2001. Fluoroquinolone resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae in Hong Kong linked to the Spanish 23F clone. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7:906-908. 17. Johnson, C. N., W. H. Benjamin Jr, Jr., S. A. Moser, S. K. Hollingshead, X. Zheng, M. J. Crain, M. H. Nahm, and K. B. Waites. 2003. Genetic relatedness of levofloxacin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from North America. J Clin Microbiol 41:2458-64.

18. Lopez, P., M. Espinosa, B. Greenberg, and S. A. Lacks. 1987. Sulfonamide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae: DNA sequence of the gene encoding dihydropteroate synthase and characterization of the enzyme. J Bacteriol 169:4320-6. 19. Luna, V. A., and M. C. Roberts. 1998. The presence of the tetO gene in a variety of tetracycline-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes from Washington State. J Antimicrob Chemother 42:613-9.

The bioMrieux solution

Did you know?

Evaluation of the New VITEK 2 System for Determination of the Susceptibility of Clinical Isolates de Streptococcus pneumoniae
Monica Chavez, Jose Luis Garcia Lopez, Julian Coronilla, Anastasio Valverde, M. Carmen Serrano, Rosa Claro, Estrella Martin Mazuello (Sevilla, Spain) Chemotherapy 2002; 48:26-30 214 clinical isolates The VITEK 2 allows rapid determination of the antimicrobial susceptibility of S.pneumoniae and demonstrates a good degree of agreement with the Sensititre method of the antimicrobials tested.

WEB SITES
http://www.cdc.gov http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod
Streptococcus pneumoniae Disease Technical Information and Additional Information Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Disease

http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs
Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Report

Evaluation ot the VITEK 2 System for Susceptibility testing of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates
W.H.F. Goessens, N. Lemmens-den Toom, J. Hageman, P.W.M. Hermands, M. Sluijter, R. de Groot, H.A. Verbrugh (Rotterdam, the Netherlands) Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis (2000) 19:618-622 In conclusion, VITEK 2 shows good agreement with the reference method, as demonstrated by the low number of major errors, but it has a tendency to overestimate MICs, resulting in minor errors 200 isolates. 50 penicillin-susceptible and 150 intermediate or penicillin-resistant isolates.

Identifying Resistance Symposium in Korea (No.3)

Rapid Automated Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Streptococcus pneumoniae by Use of the bioMrieux VITEK 2
James Jorgensen, Arthur L. Barry, M.M. Traczewski, Daniel F. Sahm, M. Leticia McElmeel, and Sharon A. Crawford (San Antonio, Wilsoville, St Louis, USA) J. Clin. Microbiol. Aug 2000, p. 2814-2818 The VITEK 2 provided rapid, reliable susceptibility category determinations with both the challenge and clinical isolates examined in this study. 54 challenge strains and 407 and 423 clinical isolates. On November 18th, 2004 was held the third Identifying Resistance Symposium in Seoul. The guest speaker was Prof. Roland Leclercq from the Academic Hospital of Caen, France. He presented the current knowledge on resistance to macrolides. Dr J.P. Marcel focused on Identifying Resistance. Prof Wee-Yeal Lee described glycopeptide resistance to enterococci, Prof Mi-Na Kim, Linezolid resistance in enterococci and Staphylococci in Korea. Prof D-H Shin updated knowledge on Antimicrobial resistance in biofilm. Audience was around 80 people. These symposiums are the opportunity to gather top opinion leaders on antibiotic resistance in Korea, especially from Seoul National Hospital and Yonsei University. Guest speakers mark the event as they are top specialists from Europe. In previous years guest speakers were Prof. P. Courvalin then Prof. C. Poyart.

Laboratory PathCare in CapeTown (South Africa)

This lab has been the first VITEK2 user in Africa. They are using it for routine testing, and are happy with it, especially with detection of mechanisms of resistance.

Did you know?

Practical advice

why test S.pneumoniae?

nccls recommendations
ref: M100-S14 (M7) January 2004 Table 2G lists MIC Interpretive Standards for S.pneumoniae
Relevant antibiotics are assigned to four classes (A, B, C, oral) Class A only contains three molecules

Resistance (vs penicillin) reaches 50% in some countries the spread is continuing. what are the key issues with S.pneumoniae infections? Severe infections such as meningitis. Specific breakpoints have been established to easily identify intermediate and resistant strains in these csf infections. What is the reference method for testing S.pneumoniae? Broth MicroDilution (BMD) and not agar dilution. (nccls) The epidemiology of S.pneumoniae For several decades S.pneumoniae was totally susceptible to antibiotics. Resistance started in 1977 and spread widely in the 90's to reach very high level is some countries. This spread is mainly clonal. Accurate testing enables to measure the spread of resistance. The fight against this pathogen also includes vaccines.

1. penicillin G
S results can be extended to 19 other molecules (comment 4) I/R results should not lead to test a series of six drugs (comment 1) 2. erythromycin S or R results can be extended to three closely related antibiotics (comment 11) 3. trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for CSF isolates, reporting should be restricted to five antibiotics: penicillin, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, meropenem and vancomycin. (comment 1) specific low breakpoints (S<0.5, I=1, R > 2) should be used for cefotaxime and ceftriaxone. (comment 7) and cefepime should not be reported in the USA for such isolates (no FDA-approved indication) (comment 6)

02-05 / 002GB99003E / This document is not legally binding. bioMrieux reserves the right to modify specifications without notice. bioMrieux, the blue logo, Identifying Resistance and VITEK are registered and protected trademarks belonging to bioMrieux sa or one of its subsidiaries / Printed in France / THERA McCann Healthcare / RCS Lyon B 398 160 242

Antibiotics
several families of antibiotics can be used against S.pneumoniae infections. b-lactams Penicillin G, Ampicillin, Imipenem, Ertapenem, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Cefepime, Cefpirome, Cefuroxime-axetil aminoglycosides Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol tetracyclines Tetracycline macrolides Erythromycin, Lincomycin, Telithromycin Pristinamycin oxazolidodinones Linezolid vancomycin Teicoplanin, Vancomycin trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole Trimeth. + Sulfamethoxazole fluoroquinolones Sparfloxacin, Trovafloxacin, Levofloxacin, Gatifloxacin, Moxifloxacin, Fosfomycin rifampin Rifampin

VITEK 2 Phenotypes V4.0

Phenotypes identified with the four main families b-lactams alteration of PBP High Level resistance alteration of PBP Low Level resistance macrolides resistant (MLSb) resistant (efflux) resistant to streptogramines quinolones quinolone resistance glycopeptides (no resistance so far)
for more information : [email protected]

INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER Director of publications : Thierry Bernard Editor : Jean Pierre Marcel

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