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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

Edible insects: Alternative protein for sustainable food and

nutritional security

H C D Tuhumury1,*
1
Agricultral Product Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture Pattimura
University
Jl Ir. M. Putuhena Poka Ambon Maluku Indonesia 97233

* E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Any food systems applied has to ensure that the food is secure for the people.
Nutritional needs are considered integral to the food security concept and sustainability is also
important. One of the nutritional needs in food is protein. Proteins mostly obtained from
animal-based sources such as meat and fish, plant-based proteins, particularly legumes.
However, the production of meat, more importantly ruminant meat is more and more argued
for some issues including environment, food safety, and animal welfare. In order to ensure
sustainable protein production, the dietary change would be to use alternative protein sources
such as insects. In general, insects have high protein content and excellent production
efficiency compared with other conventional protein food groups. It is necessarily important to
develop the use of insects in various forms, including pastes or powders, concentrates or
isolates which can be used further as ingredients or fortified agents in new food product
formulations. This paper therefore explores the feature of edible insects as sustainable and
viable food source that can contribute to food security including, types of edible insects as food
and their nutritional compositions; and processing of edible insects. In conclusion, insects can
contribute to sustainable food and nutritional security and be a part of the solution to protein
shortages. Insect protein concentrates could potentially be an alternative protein source in food
formulation.

1. Introduction
World population in 2020 has reached 7.8 billion people (UN data) and has been projected to reach
over 9 billion by 2050 [1]. Population would grow geometrically, while food production would grow
arithmetically. Therefore, the increase in population requires double the current food production. To
make it even worse, the climate change and environmental destruction from industrial development
have negatively impact the productivity of food, as more and more land used for food production are
gradually decreasing [2]. Food production has a substantial environmental impact and any food system
applied need to take this issue into account seriously. Any food systems applied has to ensure that the
food is secure for the people. Therefore, food security should be carefully considered in any food
production system. Food security is when all people, at all times have access to sufficient, safe, and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs for and active and healthy life. The four important pillars of
food security are availability, access, utilization and stability.
Nutritional needs are considered integral to the food security concept and sustainability is also
important. One of the nutritional needs in food is protein. Proteins mostly obtained from animal-based
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

sources such as meat and fish, plant-based proteins, particularly legumes. However, the production of
meat, more importantly ruminant meat is more and more argued for some issues including
environment, food safety, and animal welfare [3]. Deforestation, soil erosion, public health hazard,
loss of plant biodiversity and water pollution are mainly the considerable impact of meat production
sector. Due to these significant issues, the use of plant-based protein in the diet gained popularity. Yet,
plant-based protein have been found to lack certain essential amino acids and to be less digestible than
animal-based protein [4][5]. In order to ensure sustainable protein production, the dietary change
would be to use alternative protein sources such as insects.
Insects can be considered as human food or as feed. The production of insects seems to be more
sustainable than livestock production for some particular reasons: lower greenhouse and ammonia
emissions, less land area needed, and potential to be grown on organic [3]. In general, insects have
high protein content and excellent production efficiency compared with other conventional protein
food groups [6]. Moreover, insects are encouraged as a good source of protein and micro and the
production of edible insects in developing countries is supported by FAO of The United Nations.
Edible insect protein also meet The WHO essential amino acid requirements [7] and are more
digestible than plant-based and only little less digestible than animal-based protein [4]. Nevertheless,
eating insects are mostly considered as unfavourable in most countries, especially in western
countries. Therefore, it is necessarily important to develop the use of insects in various forms,
including pastes or powders, concentrates or isolates which can be used further as ingredients or
fortified agents in new food product formulations.
This paper therefore explores the feature of edible insects as sustainable and viable food source that
can contribute to food security including, types of edible insects as food and their nutritional
compositions; the advantage and disadvantage of edible insect production; and processing of edible
insects.

2. Types of Edible Insects and Their Nutritional Composition

Evolution has created a large range of arthropod species adapted to their habitats over the past 400
million years. Of the 1.4 million animal species described on earth, approximately 1 million are
insects. Just 5000 out of 1 million insect species mentioned can be considered harmful to crops,
livestock or human being [3]. Among the insect species, there are insects which are edible.
Beetles (Coleoptera) are the most common insects eaten worldwide (31 percent). This is not
surprising considering that about 40 percent of all recognized insect species are present in the group.
The types of edible insects around the world can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Types of edible insects

Order Species Percentage
Coleoptera Beetles 31
Lepidoptera Caterpillars 18
Hemynoptera Bees, wasps, ants 14
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, locusts, 13
crickets
Hemiptera Cicadas, leafhoppers, 10
planthoppers, scale
insects and true bugs
Isoptera Termites 3
Odonata Dragonflies 3
Diptera Flies 2
Other - 5
Source : Cerritos, 2009 [8]

Caterpillar consumption (Lepidoptera), is estimated at 18%. At 14%, bees, wasps and ants
(Hemynoptera) are in third place. Grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (Orthoptera) follow these;

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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

termites (Isoptera) and dragon flies (Odonata) are each 3%[8].Approximately 1,417 species can be
eaten. insects are eaten in their adult or larva stage.
Edible beetles are of many types, including aquatic beetles, wood-boring larvae, and dung beetles
(larva and adults). [9] described 78 species of edible aquatic beetles, primarily belonging to the
families Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, and Hydrophilidae. Only the larvae of these animals are usually eaten.
The palm weevil, Rynchophorus, a significant palm pest throughout Africa, southern Asia and South
America, is by Far the most common edible beetle in the tropics. The weevil of the palm R. Phoenicis
is included in the use of sound in harvesting in tropical and equatorial Africa), R. Ferrugineus in Asia
(Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. In Indonesia,
especially in Papua, and Maluku, there are two species of palm weevil, usually called sago grub/sago
worm, and in their adult stage they are distinguished by the color. The R. billineatus is black while R.
ferrugineus is brown[10]. The larvae of this insects are traditional delicacies in both areas.
For Lepidoptera, during their larval periods (i.e. as caterpillars), butterflies and moths are usually
consumed. But adult butterflies and moths are often eaten, too. Indigenous Australians have been
recorded to eat moths of the cutworm Agrotis infusa (the Bogong moth) and have been observed to eat
hawkmoths (Daphnis spp. and Theretra spp.) after cutting the wings and legs in the Lao People's
Democratic Republic.
In countries like Thailand and Cambodia, in addition to the arachnid scorpions, people enjoy
grasshoppers, crickets, ants, bamboo borers (Omphisa fuscidentalis) [11]. These insects are sold in
Bangkok in markets that visitors seek as exotic food.Weaver ant larvae, bamboo worms, crickets, and
wasps are eaten by many ethnic groups in Laos. In India, some tribes eat red ants, hornets, and
termites[12].
The nutritional values of edible insects can very depending on their metamorphic stage, habitat and
diet even within the same category of species. They are highly variable due to the large range of
species. Also, the preparation and processing methods including drying, boiling or frying used prior to
consumption, like most foods, can also affect nutritional composition. Nutrient composition for
approximately 200 edible insects were compiled by [13]. Many edible insects supply satisfactory
quantities of protein and energy. They also fulfill human needs for amino acids. Not to mention the
mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids and they also rich in micronutrients such as iron, magnesium,
phosphorous, manganese, selenium, and zinc. Insects also contained significant amount of vitamin
including riboflavin, biotin, pantothenic acid, and folic acid.
The protein contents of insects from different orders have been evaluated by [14]. The average
protein content was in the range of 13-77 %. The protein contents per insect order can be seen in Table
2.

Table 2. Crude protein content by insect order

Insect order Stage Range (% Protein)

Coleoptera Adults and larvae 23-66
Lepidoptera Pupae and larvae 14-68
Hemiptera Adults and larvae 42-74
Homoptera Adults, larvae, and eggs 45-57
Hymenotepra Adults, larvae, pupae, and eggs 13-77
Odonata Adults and naiad 46-65
Ortotepra Adults and nymph 23-65
Source: XiaoMing, 2010 [4]

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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

The amino acid compositions of edible insects are good in replacing cereal proteins. Amino acids
such as lysine and tryptophan,and threonine are well represented in some edible insect species. These
amino acids are often lack in cereal protein which are essential staple food around the world. For
instance, several caterpillars, palm weevil larvae, and aquatic insects have lysine score higher than 100
mg per 100 g protein[15].
Edible insects are also important source of fat. The quality and structure of oils extracted from
several insects were investigated by [16]. Their oils are rich in fatty acids that are polyunsaturated. For
example African palm weevil (Rhynhcophrus phoenicis) had a fat content of 54% with 38%
palmitoleic acid (MUFA) and 45% linoleic acid (PUFA). In landlocked developing countries with
lower access to fish, insects could play an important role contributing the polyunsaturated fatty acid
such as oleic, linoleic and α-linolenic acid.
The mineral and vitamin contents of edible insects are greatly varied across species and orders.
Edible insects are excellent source of iron. Many edible insects have an iron content equal to or greater
than that of beef. Some examples, iron content of locusts, and mopane caterpillar have respective iron
content of 8-20 mg, and 31-77 mg per 100g compared to beef with 6 mg iron per 100 g [15], [17].
Since they are rich in iron, the inclusion of them in the diet could improve iron status, especially to
prevent anaemia in developing countries. Insects are also commonly believed to be good sources of
zinc. Palm weevil larvae has 26.5 mg zinc compared to beef with 12.5 g zinc per 100 g of dry weight
[15]. Bukkens [15] also showed for a whole range of insects that thiamine (also known as vitamin B1)
ranged from 0.1 mg to 4 mg per 100 g of dry matter. Vitamin B12 occurs only in food of animal origin
and is well represented in mealworm larvae, Tenebrio molitor and house crickets. Many species have
very low levels of vitamin B12.
In summary, edible insects are highly nutritious and Highly nutritious and cheapest source of
animal protein and fat which is comparable to milk and meat. Insect proteins are highly digestible
(between 77% and 98%) Protein has high lysine and threonine and limited levels of either tryptophan
or methionine. The fat content ranges from 7% to 77 % , rich in ω-3 and ω - 6 compared to cattle and
pigs, a nd has low cholesterol level. They also have high thiamine and riboflavin than whole bread or
an egg. Insects can also be a source of fiber due to their high chitin content has high Fe, Zn can
alleviate deficiency in women's diet i.e. pregnant women and vegetarian diet. Due to high protein,
polyunsaturated fatty acids, and micronutrients of the edible insects, the consumption of these
materials are endorsed by FAO and European Commission (EC) as the availability of nutritious food
is becoming increasingly difficult [18].

3. Processing of Edible Insects

The FAO has started to encourage edible insects as feasible dietary alternatives for humans, which has
ignited a surge of interests in edible insects [19]. By 2023, the global edible insect market is projected
to hit USD 522 million [20]. However, negative perceptions of insects limit the expansion of its global
market. Novice consumers view insects as a disgust, ignore insects as a daily food in the diet, and fully
disregard their nutritional value [3].
Therefore, as the availability of edible insect grows, insect-based ingredients should be developed
rather than consuming the products that still retain their original appearance. Incorporating edible
insects into already familiar foods maybe more acceptable to an insect-phobic culture, and using
insects as food ingredients is beneficial for the development of long-term business models. One
example in our context in Maluku, Indonesia is incorporating sago grub as flesh ingredients in poplar
snack food, sago crackers [21].
Insects are increasingly being seen as the food of the future to replace conventional animal protein
consumption. In the Netherlands, attempts to encourage eating insects include experiments aimed at
customizing insects for western tastes, with certain insects such as locusts and mealworm being sold at
retail markets. One important effort to eliminate visual associations and improve palatability is to
grind insects into powder or meal. Researchers have also looked into the functional properties of
insects protein such as gelling ability, foam capacity, emulsion capacity, and solubility in different
buffers or solvents [6], [7], [22]. These experiments would make it easier to use edible insects as a
food ingredient in conventional foods.

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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

The simplest processing technique for edible insect is the traditional ways of cooking it. Steaming,
roasting, smoking, baking, stewing, frying, and curing are some of the typical edible insect cooking
methods. Sometimes blanching is used before these procedures to reduce the number of foodborne
microorganisms and inactivate enzymes. Obviously, each technologies produces products with distinct
sensory and nutritional characteristics [23].
The processing of edible insects begins with insects post-harvesting and ends with the production
of food products. Despite the fact that the number of current processes in the edible food industry is
enormous and varies depending on the species used and the final product to be produced, the majority
of them can be classified into relatively small number of operations based on the same basic principles
including blanching and drying.
Blanching is used a pre-treatment for most commercialized edible insects, both on an industrial and
artisanal scale, to reduce microbial counts and inactivate degradative enzymes that cause food
poisoning and spoilage. It is done by immersing the food in boiling water for a brief period of time,
then extracting it and immersing it in ice water or putting it under cold running water to avoid the
thermal process [24]. To boost antimicrobial effects with minimal quality loss, blanching treatments
should be customized to each specific insect species and be combined with techniques to reduce the
presence of bacterial spores However, in order to meet the needs of customers and industrial
manufacturing, these procedures must retain the nutritional value of the products as well as other
essential quality characteristics including texture and color [25].
Drying methods usually applied in the processing of edible insects including sun-drying, freeze-
drying, and oven-drying. These techniques can be used for drying either whole edible insects or
insects flours and powders. One of the preferred technologies for increasing human consumption of
insects, mostly in Western countries, is drying and grinding whole, perfectly recognizable edible
insects into unrecognizable powder[26]. However, all the drying methods caused changes in protein,
fat, and fiber content. The most visible quality changes during drying is color. For example, powder
made from the larvae of T. molitor had decreased lightness when oven-dried compared to freeze-dried
[27]. Different drying technologies have an effect on certain consistency parameters in addition to
reduction in water content. The drying technology used and the technical conditions applied could
affect protein functional properties, lipid oxidation, and color. Therefore, what technology chosen
should consider the way insects will be eaten either whole, powdered ingredient, or sole ingredient.
Among all insect products, insect protein is important. However, their functional properties must be
carefully tested during transition process in order to integrate them into various foods. Depending on
the raw material and its proximate composition, protein-enriched ingredients such as edible insect
flour/powder are obtained using various methods and techniques. Nonetheless, a general 5-step food
protein processing procedures, including: 1. Pre-treatment; 2. Defatting; 3. Solubilization and recovery
of protein; 4. Purification; and 5. Drying [4].
Protein concentrates and isolates have desirable functional properties depending on their origin and
processing, and thus may be used in food formulation. Proteins, on the other hand, from complex
structures that interact with other elements including proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and minerals.
Functional properties of insect proteins also in accordance with other protein functionality such as
solubility, emulsification, foam formation, gelation, water-holding capacity, and oil absorption
capacity.
Edible insects may be considered a novel protein source in the food industry, as some insect
products functioned similarly to traditional food proteins, as mentioned above. However, when these
insects are added to food matrices, their functional properties are still largely unknown. Some insect
flours, defatted flours and protein concentrates have been incorporated in food matrix including meat
products and analogs[28], snack[29], pasta[30], and bread[31].

4. Prospects and Challenges

One of the challenges of consuming edible insects is the food safety. Microorganism, allergic
reactions, and toxicity. For microbial safety, insect gut, body surface, and mouthpart is considered as a
main habitat for microorganisms which can act as pathogenic vector. Despite the fact that insect-
specific pathogenic microorganisms pose no threat to human health, they can only colonize insect cells

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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 883 (2021) 012029 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/883/1/012029

or tissues. Contamination of human pathogenic microorganisms does, however, occur, and this
contamination can be managed by carefully managing breeding conditions[32].
Some edible insects had allergic cross-reactive proteins with arachnids and crustaceans, which are
known as arthropods, in allergic reactions. Furthermore, food dye carmine is derived from the bodies
of female cochineal insects, and this dye can cause allergic reactions in some patients. We must pay
attention to the unknown possible allergens found in edible insects, given that only a few studies on
allergic reactions to edible insects have been conducted. More research and investigation is needed to
determine the hazards of substances such as allergens and toxic substances, as well as their effects on
pathological symptoms in humans[32].
Other important challenge is the consumer acceptance. One of the most significant obstacles to
their integration into food products is Westerners' inability to try edible insects.Insects are marketed as
a delicacy in some experimental restaurants. Most consumers are repelled by the idea of eating them.
Food neophobia and disgust are two major barriers to insect consumption. Therefore, it is necessary to
understand consumer psychology and desires, and adjust their preparation strategies accordingly such
as innovative development of insect-based food [33].
Despite the challenges mentioned above, a number of scientists believe insects have the potential to
be a sustainable food source. The production of insect-based protein powder is expected to be more
environmentally friendly than traditional protein-rich foods. In order to maximize the potential of the
edible insect proteins, optimizing insect rearing and harvesting is therefore critical. Depending on the
insect species, rearing methods, and processing techniques used, data on protein content and
functionality varies greatly. Future research should concentrate on determining the best processing
conditions for producing insect protein isolates that are ideal for food formulation, have good
functional properties, are cost-effective, and are environmentally sustainable.

5. Conclusions
Edible insects with their nutritional composition especially high protein content and all the essential
amino acids, are a promising alternative protein source for the world's increasing population. Insects
can contribute to sustainable food and nutritional security and be a part of the solution to protein
shortages. Since whole insects are still unpopular in Western cultures, insect protein concentrates may
be a viable alternative protein source in food formulation.

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International Seminar on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Food Security and Health IOP Publishing
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