Sultanate of Oman.

Highway Design Standards 2010

Preface and Introduction

1 GENERAL
The Oman Highway Design Standards comprise of a set of two documents, Volumes 1 and 2, which present
technical advice and guidelines across a comprehensive range of highway design elements and standards. An
associated Volume 3 provides standard specifications for road and bridge construction, covering materials,
equipment, methods, measurement and payment.

The Oman Highway Design Standards have been prepared under the guidance of a Technical Committee with
representation from :

n Ministry of Transport and Communications - DGRLT

n Royal Oman Police
n Supreme Committee for Town Planning
n Muscat Municipality
n Municipality of Dhofar
n Ministry of Municipalities and Water Resources

The purpose of the Highway Design Standards Volumes 1 and 2 is to set down the basic principles governing
the design of all road construction projects in the Sultanate of Oman. The Standards cover the initiation and
appraisal of such schemes, their design and measurement, and aspects of best implementation practice for their
construction.

The Oman Highway Design Standards provide broad guidance on the responsibilities of particular authorities and
organizations and on procedures. While every effort has been made to render these accurate, these standards
are not intended to be, nor should they be treated as being, legal advice. It is the responsibility of the designer
to ascertain the correct procedures for the particular circumstances by discussion with the relevant authorities.

These Standards are a development of, and supersede, the previous standards prepared, amended and used as a
basis for design over past years. Parts of the Standards control aspects of design that directly affect the experience
of road users, for example road geometric link and junction design. It has been considered important to maintain
the user experience at a level as close as practicable to that to which drivers have become accustomed. Where
changes have been made, they have been on the basis of safety alone.

The basis of drainage design has been revised to consider the effects of greater rainfall intensities and periods in
an attempt to mitigate the effects of extreme storm conditions on the road network.

Other changes have been made to reflect the general updating of standards worldwide that has gone on in the
years since the previous and now superseded standards were produced.

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 2 USE OF THE STANDARDS 4 MONITORING AND UPDATING OF THE DESIGN STANDARDS
Highway design makes use of many engineering disciplines, the outputs from which must be integrated to It is expected that all records of design variation requests will be monitored by the Ministry of Transport and
produce a satisfactory overall design. It is the nature of a document such as this, that the separate disciplines are Communications, DGRLT. The outcomes from this monitoring process will be the recognition of any recurring
treated as individual entities but it must be emphasized that they cannot be treated entirely separately during the patterns in these requests which might indicate that an updating of the standards in those particular technical
design process. Successful highway design is to some extent an iterative process and the necessary iterations areas of concern would be appropriate.
inevitably cross the interdisciplinary boundaries. Good management of highway design recognizes this, makes
due allowance and uses the cross boundary interfaces to refine and improve the finished product.
5 REFERENCES
This set of Highway Design Standards is intended to provide a series of guidelines and not to take on the role of a
The major sources of background design information used in the development of these Standards have been :
design handbook. It has been produced for competent practicing designers, and emphasis is placed on when and
what is required to be considered, rather than fine detail of how the work should be done. Those seeking further GCCS Gulf Co-operation Council Standards.
information can consult the many publications on the subjects covered or referred to from the references given. US - TRB United States - Transportation Research Board.
These Standards cannot provide guidance for all aspects of all highway design situations. It is assumed that the Carries out research into all aspects of transportation. The TRB is a unit of the US National Research
various work disciplines will be undertaken by those with relevant specialist knowledge to enable them to arrive Council, serving both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering.
at economic and safe solutions based on theory, experience and engineering judgment. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Circumstances may arise in which a designer will judge that some particular detail of these standards is not Lays down guidelines for the design and construction of highways.
appropriate for the conditions relating to a certain design situation. Allowance for this circumstance is made UK – HA United Kingdom - Highways Agency
through the provision of the “Design Variation Procedure”. Responsible for all aspects of UK Trunk Road Design, Construction and Maintenance.

Further references, which are more subject specific, are provided within each section of this document.
3 DESIGN VARIATION PROCEDURE
If a design organization considers that a design for a particular project would be improved if a particular aspect 6 COPYRIGHT
of these Standards were to be changed or relaxed in some way, a request for a variation in the Standards should
be submitted to the appropriate section within the Overseeing Authority: Such a request should be in writing, This document has been prepared, published and serial numbered by the Ministry of Transport and

setting out : Communications, DGRLT. This document or parts there of, may not be reproduced in any form without the
written permission of the Ministry of Transport and Communications.
n Variation requested.
n Reasons why the standard set out in this document is inappropriate in the particular case.
n Full implications of both working to the existing standard and to the variation.

The Overseeing Authority will accept, reject or suggest an alternative to the variation requested. On acceptance
of a variation the Overseeing Authority will issue a “Variation Acceptance Notice” which is applicable to the
particular case set out in the formal request for a variation. This Notice then forms a retrospective part of the
design brief issued to the design consultant for the project in question.

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

AADT Bathymetry Chrysotile
Average Annual Daily Traffic. The depths of water in oceans, seas, and lakes. Fibrous form of the Serpentine mineral.

AASHTO Beach Erosion CIE

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. The carrying away of beach materials by wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or wind. International Commission on illumination.

ACI Beach Fill CJ

American Concrete Institute. Sand placed on a beach; beach nourishment. Construction Joint.

ADT Beach Nourishment Client Authority

Average Daily Traffic. The direct placement of large amounts of good quality sand on the beach to widen the beach. Specific Authority that has commissioned the highway design work via a direct contract.

Advisory Standards (highway design) Beach width Closed Joint

Important standards but allow some flexibility in application to accommodate design The horizontal dimension of the beach measured normal from some defined location A deck joint designed to prevent the passage of debris through the joint and to safeguard
constraints or be compatible with local conditions described by the word “should”. landward of the shoreline. pedestrian and cycle traffic.

AISC Bearing Colluvium

American Institute of Steel Construction. A structural device that transmits loads while facilitating translation and/or rotation. Hill wash and scree deposits

Alongshore (marine) Bearing Joint Color rendering (lighting)

Parallel to and near the shoreline; longshore. A deck joint provided at bearings and other deck supports to facilitate horizontal translation The effect of a light source on the color appearance of objects in conscious or subconscious
and rotation of abutting structural elements. It may or may not provide for differential comparison with their color appearance under a reference light source.
ANSI
vertical translation of these elements.
American National Standards Institute. Combined Method
BoQ Part of the reinforcement is pretensioned and part post-tensioned.
Anticline
Bill of Quantity.
Fold structure convex upwards. Compression Seal
Bracket (arm) A preformed elastomeric device that is precompressed in the gap of a joint with expected total
Area of Influence (traffic)
An attachment, to a lamp post or pole, from which a luminaire is attached. range of movement less than 50 mm.
The extent of highway network surrounding a project which may be subject to traffic flow
demand changes directly caused by the subject project when opened. BS / BS EN Conflict area (traffic)
British Standards / British Standards harmonized with EC Standards. Area on a road system where a strong potential exists for collisions between vehicles or
Armor Layer
between vehicles and pedestrians.
Protective layer on the outside or top of a revetment or seawall composed of armor units. Bulkhead
A structure or partition to retain or prevent sliding of the land. A secondary purpose is to Construction Joint
ASCE
protect the upland against damage from wave action. A temporary joint used to permit sequential construction.
American Society of Civil Engineers.
c/w and cwy Cross Shore
ASTM
Carriageway (abbrev). Perpendicular to the shoreline.
American Society for Testing and Materials.
Cable and Tendon CRSI
AWS
Cable and tendon both refer to a bundle of prestressing steel of the same type and size Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute.
American Welding Society.
bundled together to be contained within a duct and stressed, individually or collectively,
Deck Joint
Backshore from the same anchorage.
A structural discontinuity between two elements, at least one of which is a deck element. It
The zone of the shore or beach lying between the foreshore and the coastline comprising
Camber (structures) is designed to permit relative translation and/or rotation of abutting structural elements
the berm or berms and acted upon by waves only during severe storms, especially when
The intentional curvature of the formwork, formed initially to compensate for subsequent
combined with exceptionally high water. Deepwater
deflection under load.
Water so deep that surface waves are little affected by the ocean bottom. Generally, water
Bajada
CAN/CSA deeper than one-half the surface wavelength is considered deep water.
Zone of coalescing alluvial fans.
National Standard of Canada.
Deflation
Ballast
Carriageway Erosion by wind.
A device used with an electric-discharge lamp to obtain the necessary circuit conditions
The part of the highway corridor used for the passage of vehicles.
(voltage, current, …) for starting and operating. Demand Critical Welds
CE Those welds, the failure of which would result in significant degradation of the strength
Bar
Corps of Engineers (USA). and stiffness of the Seismic-Load-Resisting System and which are indicated as “Demand
A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material
Critical” or “Seismic Critical” on Drawings.
built on the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents. Cementitious Materials
Portland cement alone or in combination with one or more of blended hydraulic cement, fly Departure (highway design)
Barchan Dune
ash and other pozzolans, ground granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume. A change in standard which requires careful investigation as to the safety and cost
Classical crescent shaped sand dune with horns pointing downwind.
consequences before approval from overseeing authority can be sought.
CEN
Barrier Island
European Committee for Standardization. Design Storm
An unconsolidated, elongated body of sand or gravel lying above the hightide level and
A hypothetical extreme storm whose wave’s coastal protection structures will often be
separated from the mainland by a lagoon or marsh. It is commonly between two inlets, has Cenozoic
designed to withstand. The severity of the storm (i.e. return period) is chosen in view of
dunes, vegetated areas, and swampy terrains extending from the beach into the lagoon. Division of Geological time (0 to 70 million years ago).
the acceptable level of risk of damage or failure. A design storm consists of a design wave
condition, a design water level and a duration.
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 Design Wave Faults Heavy Sections
In the design of harbors, harbor works, etc., the type or types of waves selected as having Dislocation of a rock mass. “Rolled and built-up sections as follows:
the characteristics against which protection is desired. i. S
 hapes included in ASTM A 6/A 6M with flanges thicker than 38 mm.
FCAW
DGRLT Flux Cored Arc Welding. ii. Welded built-up members with plates thicker than 50 mm.
Directorate General for Roads and Land Transport (of the Ministry of Transport and iii. Column base plates thicker than 50 mm.”
FFS
Communications).
Free flow speed (abbrev). hgv
Diapir Heavy Goods Vehicle.
Fixed Bearing
Mobile rock body that has pierced overlying strata.
A bearing that prevents differential longitudinal translation of abutting structural elements. High mast lighting
Disability glare It may or may not provide for differential lateral translation or rotation. System of lighting for large areas using masts carrying clusters of luminaires.
Effect of stray light in the eye whereby visibility and visual performance are reduced.
Flood HPI
Disc Bearing 1) Period when tide level is rising; often taken to mean the flood current which occurs Metal halide.
A bearing that accommodates rotation by deformation of a single elastomeric disc molded during this period.
HPMV
from a urethane compound. It may be movable, guided, unguided, or fixed. Movement is 2) A flow beyond the carrying capacity of a channel.
High Pressure Mercury vapor.
accommodated by sliding of polished stainless steel on PFTE.
Floodway
HPS
DMRB Strengthened and protected road construction across the bed of a dry wadi to allow wadi
High pressure sodium.
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Highways Agency) UK. flow over it in times of flood.
ICD
DS Foot bridge
Inscribed Circle Diameter.
Design Standard. Bridge over an obstacle to pedestrians, provided for the passage of pedestrians only.
IDF curves (hydrology)
DSD Foreshore
Intensity - Duration - Frequency curves.
Decision Sight Distance. The part of the shore, lying between the crest of the seaward berm (or upper limit of wave
wash at high tide) and the ordinary low-water mark, that is ordinarily traversed by the IEC
DSTF
uprush and backrush of the waves as the tides rise and fall. International Electrotechnical Commission.
Design Service Traffic Flow.
Forms and Formwork Illuminance E(lux)
Duct marker
The section of the temporary works used to give the required shape and support to poured The areal density of the luminous flux incident at a point on a surface. It is the quotient of
Marker used to identify locations of underground utilities.
concrete. It consists primarily of sheeting material, such as wood, plywood, metal sheet or the luminous flux by the area of the surface when the latter is uniformly illuminated.
Dunes plastic sheet, in direct contact with the concrete and joists or stringers that directly support
IP
Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. the sheeting.
Protection number for the resistance to the ingress of dirt and water.
Efficacy (lm/w) Freeboard
Joint
Amount of light emitted measured in lumen (lm) by a lamp for each watt (w) of power consumed. 1) the vertical distance between the water level and the top of a coastal levee or dike.
A structural discontinuity between two elements. The structural members used to frame or
EIRR 2) the distance from the waterline to the lowchord of the bottom of a suspended deck such
form the discontinuity.
Economic Internal Rate of Return. as a bridge deck or offshore platform. or
3) the distance from the crest of the design wave to the low-chord of the bottom of a Joint Seal
ELV (electrical) suspended deck such as a bridge deck or offshore platform. A poured or preformed elastomeric device designed to prevent moisture and debris from
Extra Low Voltage. penetrating joints.
Frontage
Emergency lane Land adjacent to the highway (ie which “fronts” onto it). Kaolinite
Lane parallel to the traffic lane(s) not destined for normal traffic, but for emergency (police) Potassium Aluminum Silicate clay material.
vehicles and/or for broken-down vehicles. Also known as shoulder. FYRR
First year rate of return. Karstification
EN (standards/specifications) Holes and cavities in limestone brought about by solution.
European Norm. Geotextile
A synthetic fabric which may be woven or non-woven used as a filter. Klippe
Energy saving Isolated erosional remnant of a nappe in thrusted terrains.
Practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. GGBFS
Ground granulated blast furnace slag. Lagoon
Erosion A shallow body of water, like a pond or sound, partly or completely separated from the sea
The wearing away of land by the action of natural forces. On a beach, the carrying away of Glare
by a barrier island or reef. Sometimes connected to the sea via an inlet.
beach material by wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or by deflation. The sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is sufficiently greater than
the luminance to which the eyes are adapted to cause annoyance, discomfort, or less in Lamp life
ESA/ESALs visual performance and visibility. The average life of a lamp defined as the total operating hours at which 80 percent of any
Equivalent Standard Axle/Equivalent Standard Axle Loads – ESA is a standardized axle load group of lamps is still operating.
Gore Area
to which all vehicle axle loads are reduced for pavement design purposes.
Area between merge/diverge ramps and mainline close to the mainline carriageway which Lamp restrike time
Estuary contains the Painted Nose (the point where ramp and mainline carriageway edges diverge/ The amount of time it takes for a hot lamp to reestablish the arc discharge.
1) The region near a river mouth in which the fresh water of the river mixes with the merge), Physical Nose, and Gore Nose. The Gore Nose is formed where the triangular LEED (environmental)
salt water of the sea and which received both fluvial and littoral sediment influx. shaped highway surfacing is stopped between the mainline and ramp shoulder edges. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
2) The part of a river that is affected by tides.
Gypsum Lithologies
Eustatic Calcium Sulphate. Type of sedimentary rock, e.g. Sandstone, clay, limestone, etc.
Changes in sea level brought about by climate changes.
HA Littoral
Expressway Highways Agency (UK) Coastal area between high and low tide.
A dual carriageway high speed National or Arterial Route having grade separated junctions
Hard Strip Loess
and full access control.
One metre width of paving at edge of travel lane – to protect from deterioration, allow Deposit of windblown silt.
Facies minimum wander and allow provision of painted edge lines.
The sum total of the characteristics of a rock including when, where and how it formed and Longitudinal
Harzburgite Parallel with the main span direction of a structure
what it looks like.
A variety of peridotite made up of olivine and low Ca pyroxene
Falsework Longitudinal Joint
Headland A joint parallel to the span direction of a structure provided to separate a deck or
Any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure while it is not self-
A promontory extending out into a body of water. superstructure into two independent structural systems
supporting.

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Longshore Mean Lower Water (MLW) Oedometer
Parallel to and near the shoreline; alongshore. The average height of the low waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of Apparatus for measuring compressibility or consolidation characteristics of clay samples.
observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results
LoS Offset
to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All low water heights are included in the average
Level of Service (abbrev) A measure of the conditions experienced by a driver resulting General term relating to curbs - distance from edge of lane to curb face - variable for shy-
where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Only lower low water heights are
from a combination of the characteristics of the road and the traffic level. distance, parking, or safety clearance at islands etc.
included in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So determined, mean low water in
LPS the latter case is the same as mean lower low water. Offshore
Low pressure sodium 1) In beach terminology, the comparatively flat zone of variable width, extending from the
Mean Sea Level
shoreface to the edge of the continental shelf. It is continually submerged.
LRFD The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period,
2) The direction seaward from the shore.
Load-and-resistance factor design. usually determined from hourly height readings. Not necessarily equal to mean tide level.
3) The zone beyond the nearshore zone where sediment motion induced by waves alone
Lumen lm Median (1) effectively ceases and where the influence of the sea bed on wave action is small in
The luminous flux emitted within a unit solid angle (one steradian) by a point source having The continuous island at the centre of a dual carriageway. comparison with the effect of wind.
a uniform luminous intensity of one candela. 4) The breaker zone directly seaward of the low tide line.
Median (2)
Luminaire In roundabout design, the description of the central line formed equidistantly between two Offside
A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to boundaries. The road edge to the left of the driver.
distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps and to connect the lamps to the power
Mesozoic Onshore
supply.
Division of geological time (70 to 225 million years ago). A direction landward from the sea.
Luminaire efficiency
Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing Overburden
The ratio of luminous flux emitted by a luminaire to that emitted by the lamp (s) used therein.
A bearing that carries vertical load by direct contact between two metal surfaces and that Cohesionless deposits that overlie sound rock.
Luminance L (cd/m2) accommodates movement by rocking or rolling of one surface with respect to the other.
Overhang
The quotient of the luminous flux at an element of the surface surrounding the point, and
Metamorphics The horizontal distance between a vertical line passing through the luminaire center and
propagated in directions defined by an elementary cone containing the given direction,
Rocks, either sedimentary or Igneous, that have been altered by heat and/or temperature. the nearest curb of the road.
by the product of the solid angle of the cone and area of the orthogonal projection of
the element of the surface on a plane perpendicular to the given direction. The luminous Metastable Overseeing Authority
flux may be leaving, passing through, and/or arriving at the surface. Note: In common Out of equilibrium with the environment. Potentially unstable. General term for an Authority that has jurisdiction or power of approval over a particular
usage, the term “brightness” usually refers to the strength of sensation which results from aspect of all or part of the highway design work. This can be the Client who has
Minor Road
viewing surfaces or spaces from which light comes to the eye. This sensation is determined commissioned the design or other bodies such as the RoP, Enviromental Agencies etc.
The road or roads that have to give priority over major roads.
in part by the definitely measurable luminance defined above and in part by conditions of
Overtopping
observation such as the state of adaptation of the eye. Monochromatic
Passing of water over the top of a structure as a result of wave runup or surge action.
Light with a single frequency.
Maintained (lighting)
Pay Zone
In-service, diminished luminance or illuminance by the maintenance factor. Mounting height
Formation which yields oil economically.
Nominal vertical distance between the geometric centre of a road lighting luminaire and
Maintenance Factor
the surface of the road. pc
A factor used to denote the ratio of the illuminance on a given area after a period of time to the
Passenger car.
initial illuminance on the same area Movable Bearing
A bearing that facilitates differential horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in PCC
Maintenance factor (lighting)
a longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It may or may not provide for rotation. Police Control Center.
A factor used to denote the ratio of the illuminance on a given area after a period of time to
the initial illuminance on the same area msa (pavement design) pcu
million (equivalent) standard axles Passenger car unit - the equivalent traffic effect of a single passenger car.
Major Road
The road which is assigned a permanent priority of traffic movement over that of the other Multirotational Bearing Peak Period
road or roads A bearing consisting of a rotational element of the pot type, disc type, or spherical type when The wave period determined by the inverse of the frequency at which the wave energy
used as a fixed bearing and that may, in addition, have sliding surfaces to accommodate spectrum reaches it’s maximum.
Mandatory Standards
translation when used as an expansion bearing. Translation may be constrained to a
Essential for achievement of overall design objectives - indicated by the use of the word Pedestrian Refuge
specified direction by guide bars.
“must” or “shall” A raised island, protected by non-mountable curb, of sufficient size, purpose built or part of
MUTCD a channelization scheme, providing a safe standing area for pedestrians.
Mature Highway
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
A highway that has been estabished for some time and unlikey to change significantly in Penninsula
functional and operational characteristics. n/a An elongated body of land nearly surrounded by water and connected to a larger body of
Not applicable/not appropriate. land by a neck or isthmus.
MCP
Manual of Concrete Practice (by ACI) Nappe Peridotite
Large fold with basalt thrust plane. Magnesium silicate mineral. Major constituent of the earth’s upper mantle.
Mean High Water(MHW)
The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of Nearshore Permian
observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results 1) In beach terminology an indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline well Division of Geological time (about 250 million years before present).
to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All high water heights are included in the average beyond the breaker zone.
Permissive Standards
where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Only the higher high water heights 2) The zone which extends from the swash zone to the position marking the start of the All standards other than mandatory or advisory are indicated by the word “may” These are
are included in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So determined, mean high offshore zone, typically at water depths of the order of 20 m. permissive and no requirement for application is intended.
water in the latter case is the same as mean higher high water.
Nearside PFA
Mean Higher High Water(MHHW) The road edge to the right of the driver. Pulverised Fuel Ash
The average height of the higher high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of
NMU Piedmont
observation, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the result to
Non-motorised user. Literally “mountain foot” - area of land at foot of mountain.
the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
NPV Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP)
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW)
Net Present Value. A pad made exclusively of elastomer, which provides limited translation and rotation.
The average height of the lower low waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of
observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results ODOT Plastic Concrete
to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. Frequently abbreviated to lower low water. Oregon Department of Transportation. Term to describe stiff or semi hardened concrete.

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 Platoon (traffic) Return Period Sealed Joint
A group of bunched vehicles travelling together, usually related to traffic signal operation Average period of time between occurrences of a given event. A joint provided with a joint seal.
close to capacity.
Revetment Seismic Waves
Pleistocene A layer or layers of stone, concrete, etc., to protect an embankment, or shore structure, Shock waves transmitted through rock.
Division of Geological (less than 2 million years before present). against erosion by wave action or currents.
Seismic-Load-Resisting System
Pliocene RipRap Elements of structural-steel frame designated as “SLRS” or along grid lines designated as
Division of the Tertiary Period A protective layer or facing of quarrystone, usually well graded within a wide size limit, “SLRS” on Drawings, including columns, beams, and braces and their connections.
randomly placed to prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of an embankment or bluff; also
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Serpentine
the stone so used.
Also known as Teflon. Alteration product of Peridotite brought about by considerable reduction in temperature
Road Design Group and pressure.
Post-Tensioning
Design Catergory of a road based on the operational characterstic of a highway in a
The process when the prestressing steel is tensioned after the concrete has hardened. The Setback
particular functional classification.
tendons are installed in voids or ducts within the concrete and are stressed and anchored The lateral offset of the pole from the face of the curb or edge of the travelled way.
against the concrete after the development of the required concrete strength. As a final Road User Safety Audit (RUSA)
Shallow Water
operation under this method, the voids or ducts are pressure-grouted An independent check at key design stages in the design process on the safety of a highway/
1) Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves are noticeably affected by bottom
junction design from the road users perspective.
Pot Bearing topography.
A bearing that carries vertical load by compression of an elastomeric disc confined in a Road/Roadway 2) More strictly, in hydrodynamics with regard to progressive gravity waves, water in
steel cylinder and that accommodates rotation by deformation of the disc. Term which is interchangable with the word “highway.” which the depth is less than 1/25 the wavelength.

Poured Seal Routes Shore

A seal made from a material that remains flexible (asphaltic, polymeric, or other), which is A length of road which may be made up of several connected linear sections of road, but The narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea, including the zone between
poured into the gap of a joint and is expected to adhere to the sides of the gap. Typically with a common functional classification. high and low water lines. A shore of unconsolidated material is usually called a beach. Also
used only when expected total range of movement is less than 40 mm. used in a general sense to mean the coastal area (e.g., to live at the shore).
ROW/RoW
Practical Capacity (traffic) Highway Right of Way. Shoreline
A level of capacity below the theoretical saturation capacity, which makes due allowance The intersection of a specified plane of water with the shore or beach (e.g., the high water
RQD
for actual site realities. shoreline would be the intersection of the plane of mean high water with the shore or beach).
Rock Quality Designation (an indicator of rock fracturing).
The line delineating the shoreline on National Ocean Service nautical charts and surveys
Prepared Sub-grade
R-table approximates the mean high water line.
Top layer of sub-grade, directly below the pavement structure, using selected material,
A table for a particular pavement type which provides reduced luminance coefficients in
compacted to a design strength for pavement support. Significant Wave Height
terms of the variable angles, beta and tan gamma.
The primary measure of energy in a sea state. that is calculated either as the average height
Prestressing Steel
Run-up of the one-third highest waves or via energy density spectral analysis methods.
Steel wire, strand or bars used for prestressing of concrete.
The upper level reached by a wave on a beach or coastal structure, relative to Stillwater level.
Sinkholes
Prestressing System
Sabkhahs Solution holes in limestone.
A proprietary system of applying prestress and includes anchorages, couplers and jacks but
Low lying salt flat.
does not necessarily include prestressing steel and cable ducts. Sliding Bearing
Sand Bar A bearing that accommodates movement by translation of one surface relative to another.
Pretensioning
A submerged or emerged embankment of sand built on the sea floor in shallow water by
The process when the prestressing steel is tensioned against independent anchorages SLRS
waves and currents.
before the concrete is placed round it. The prestressing strand or tendons are stressed prior Seismic-load-resisting system.
to being embedded in the concrete placed for the member. After the concrete has attained Sand Pit
SOL
the required strength, the prestressing force is released from the external anchorages and A narrow sand embankment, created by an excess of deposition at its seaward terminus,
Setting Out Line.
transferred, by bond, into the concrete. with its distal end (the end away from the point of origin) terminating in open water.
SPT
Protected Zone Saturation Capacity
Standard Penetrometer Test.
Structural members or portions of structural members indicated as “Protected Zone” on Theoretical maximum traffic flow capacity.
Drawings. Connections of structural and nonstructural elements to protected zones are SRTL
SBP
limited. Segregated Right Turn Lane (used to improve traffic carrying efficiency of roundabouts).
Shoulder Break Point - point at which embankment side slope surface and highway verge
Proterozoic surface intersect. SSD
A period of Earth’s history that began 2.5 billion years ago and ended 543 million years Stopping Sight distance.
Scaffold
ago. A temporarily provided structure that provides access, or on or from which persons work, SSPC
PTFE or that is used to support material, plant or equipment. Structural Steel Painting Council.
Polytetrafluorethylene also known as Teflon. SCM Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing
PTFE Sliding Bearing Supplementary cementing materials. A bearing made from alternate laminates of steel and elastomer bonded together during
A bearing that carries vertical load through contact stresses between a PTFE sheet and vulcanization. Vertical loads are carried by compression of the elastomer. Movements parallel
Scoping (environmental)
its mating surface, and that permits movements by sliding of the PTFE over the mating to the reinforcing layers and rotations are accommodated by deformation of the elastomer.
A survey and consultation process followed early in a project cycle to establish major
surface. environmental concerns on which to base the subsequent environmental studies. Still Water Level (SWL)
RCBC Commonly abbreviated to SWL. The surface of the water if all wave and wind action were
Scour
Reinforced Concrete Box Culvert. to cease.
Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe of a structure.
RCSC Storm Surge
Scour Protection
Research Council on Structural Connections. A rise in average (typically over several minutes) water level above the normal astronomical
Protection against erosion.
tide level due to the action of a storm. Storm surge results from wind stress, atmospheric
Reef SCS pressure reduction, and wave setup.
Offshore consolidated rock. Often refers to coral fringing reefs in tropical waters. Soil Conservation Services.
Structural Steel
Relaxation (highway design) SCTP Elements of structural-steel frame, as classified by AISC 303, “Code of Standard Practice for
Undesirable but acceptable drop to a minimum standard. Supreme Committee for Town Planning. Steel Buildings and Bridges.”
Residual Soil SDO Sub-grade
Soil residue that remains after rock has been dissolved or weathered away. Sohar Development Office. Embankment fill (commomn material) compacted normally.

4
Subsidiary roads Vented Floodway
Access roads, residential roads and associated pedestrians areas, foot paths and cycle As floodway but elevated and supported on culverts to allow the wadi to flow beneath road,
tracks. as well as overtop in more severe floods.

Subway VOC
An underground passage for pedestrians. Vehicle Operating Cost.

Superelevation Waterproofed Joints

Lateral slope applied to a road to assist drivers negotiate curves. Open or closed joints that have been provided with some form of trough below the joint to
contain and conduct deck discharge away from the structure.
Surf Zone
The zone of wave action extending from the water line (which varies with tide, surge, set-up, Wave Height
etc.) out to the most seaward point of the zone (breaker zone) at which waves approaching The vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough.
the coastline commence breaking, typically in water depths of between 5 to 10 meters.
Wave Period
Swash Zone The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength. The time for two
The zone of wave action on the beach, which moves as water levels vary, extending from successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
the limit of run-down to the limit of runup.
Wavelength
Tendon (structural) The horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured
Steel cable consisting of a bunch of grouped steel wires. perpendicular to the crest.

Thrust Wetlands
A low angle reverse fault. Lands whose saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil
development and the types of plant and animal communities that live in the soil and on its
TI (Threshold Increment)
surface (e.g. Mangrove forests).
Measure of loss of visibility caused by the disability glare from the road lighting
luminaires.

Tidal Current
The alternating horizontal movement of water associated with the rise and fall of the tide
caused by the astronomical tide-producing forces.

Tidal Inlet
1) An inlet maintained by tidal flow.
2) Loosely, any inlet in which the tide ebbs and flows.

Tide
The periodic rising and falling of the water that results from gravitational attraction of the
Moon and Sun and other astronomical bodies acting upon the rotating Earth. Although the
accompanying horizontal movement of the water resulting from the same cause is also
sometimes called the tide, it is preferable to designate the latter as tidal current, reserving
the name tide for the vertical movement.

Toe
Lowest part of a revetment or seawall slope, generally forming the transition to the seabed.

Tower
A composite structure, usually tall, used principally to carry vertical loading.

Traffic Mix
The composition of traffic in respect of their vehicular classification.

Translation
Horizontal movement of the bridge in the longitudinal or transverse direction.

Transverse
The horizontal direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.

TRB
Transportation Research Board (US).

TRL
Transport Research Laboratory (UK).

Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone with maximum winds less than 34 m/sec (75 mile per hour). Less strength
when compared with hurricane or typhoon (winds greater than 34 m/sec).

Tsunami
A long-period wave caused by an underwater disturbance such as a volcanic eruption or
earthquake. Commonly miscalled “tidal wave.”

Ultramafic
Igneous with low silica content (less than 45%).

UTC
Urban Traffic Control

v/c ratio
Volume to Capacity ratio (abbrev) The ratio of the volume of traffic flowing on a road
against a measure of capacity.

5
 Sultanate
Sultanate of
of Oman.
Oman. Highway
HighwayDesign
DesignStandards
Standards2009
2010

1
Highway
Table of Contents
Strategy Volume 2

Preface and Introduction

11 Structures

12 Drainage Design

13 Coastal Protection of Highways

14 Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

15 Landscaping

16 Roadside Safety, Curbs, Parking and Bus Provision

Pedestrian Safety Measures and

17
Local/Development Access

18 Road Lighting and Electrical Installations

19 Traffic Signs and Road Markings

Utilities, Road Reinstatement

20
and Traffic Management at Road Works

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

 Volume

1 Highway Strategy

Planning Procedures,
2
Scheme Appraisal and Design

3 Road Cross Sections and Capacities

4 Road Link Geometry

Junction Selection
5
and Capacity Considerations

6 Priority Junctions and U- Turn Facilities

7 Roundabouts

8 Traffic Signalled Junctions

9 Grade Separated Junctions

10 Pavement Design
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

12
Drainage Design

12.1 INTRODUCTION 12-1 12.5 CULVERTS 12-26 12.8 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 12-44
12.1.1 General Description 12-1 12.5.1 Data Collection 12-26 12.8.1 General 12-44
12.1.2 Objective 12-1 12.5.2 Location 12-26 12.8.2 Subsurface Drain Pipes 12-44
12.1.3 Scope of Work 12-1 12.5.3 Shape, Size and Material 12-27
12.1.4 Hydraulic Considerations in Highway Planning 12.5.4 Design Considerations 12-27 12.9 HYDRAULIC DESIGN FOR BRIDGES 12-45
and Location 12-1 12.5.5 Hydraulics 12-28 12.9.1 General 12-45
12.5.6 Design Procedure 12-29 12.9.2 Bridge Survey Requirement: 12-45
12.2 CATCHMENT DISCHARGE ESTIMATION 12-2 12.5.7 Culvert End Treatment 12.9.3 Design and Check Flood Return Period 12-46
(aprons, headwalls and wingwalls) 12-33
12.2.1 Weather Patterns and Hydrological Zones 12-2 12.9.4 Selection of Hydrodynamic Package 12-46
12.5.8 Entrance and Outlet Configuration 12-33
12.2.2 The Rational Method 12-6 12.9.5 Bridge Afflux Criteria 12-46
12.5.9 Protection Works for Culverts and Approaches 12-33
12.2.3 Time of Concentration 12-7 12.9.6 Bridge Underclearance Criteria 12-46
12.5.10 Debris Control 12-34
12.2.4 Flood Return Period 12-8 12.9.7 Debris Blockage Criteria 12-47
12.5.11 Multiple Use Culverts 12-35
12.2.5 The SCS Unit Hydrograph Method 12-8 12.9.8 Bridge Span Criteria 12-48
12.2.6 Regression Equations 12-11 12.9.9 Scour Design Criteria and Scour
12.6 STORM NETWORKS 12-35
Countermeasures 12-48
12.3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ANALYSIS 12-16 12.6.1 Storm Networks Considerations 12-35 12.9.10 General Design Criteria 12-50
12.6.2 Major/Minor Drainage Concept 12-36 12.9.11 Required Documentation 12-51
12.3.1 General 12-16
12.6.3 Pavement Drainage 12-37
12.3.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 12-17
12.6.4 Inlet Location and Sizing 12-37 12.10 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 12-51
12.3.3 Effects of Channel Alterations 12-19
12.6.5 Inlet Types 12-38
12.3.4 Channel Stabilization and Bank Protection 12.10.1 Potential Impacts of Unmanaged Runoff
12.6.6 Storm Drains 12-39 Resulting from Highway Construction 12-51
Requirement 12-19
12.6.7 Storage Facilities 12-40 12.10.2 Implementation of Stormwater
12.3.5 Roadside and Median Ditches / Channels 12-19
12.6.8 Outfalls 12-41 Management Controls 12-51
12.6.9 Pumping Stations 12-41 12.10.3 Stormwater Management Control Facilities 12-52
12.4 FLOODWAYS AND VENTED FLOODWAYS 12-22
12.6.10 Computer Models 12-42 12.10.4 Erosion and Sedimentation Control
12.4.1 Introduction 12-22
During Construction 12-53
12.4.2 Design Considerations 12-22
12.7 EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 12-42
12.4.3 Hydraulic Design 12-23 12.11 REFERENCES 12-53
12.7.1 General 12-42
12.4.4 Design Procedure 12-24
12.7.2 Erosion and Sediment Control Measures 12-43
12.4.5 Protection 12-25
List of Figures
Figure 12.2.1.1: Different Zones of the Generated Figure 12.4.3.2: Discharge Coefficients for Flow Over Figure 12.9.2.1: Survey Extent for No Skew Case
IDF Curves 12-3 Floodways 12-24 (ODOT Hydraulic Manual) 12-45
Figure 12.2.1.2a: Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 1 Figure 12.4.5.1: Typical Floodway Batter Protection 12-25 Figure 12.9.2.2: Survey Extent for Skew Case
(High Intensity Zones) 12-3 (ODOT Hydraulic Manual) 12-45
Figure 12.5.2.1: Culvert Located in Natural Watercourse 12-26
Figure 12.2.1.2b: Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 2 Figure 12.9.2.3: Survey Extent for Bridge on Bend Case
Figure 12.5.2.2: Culvert Located in Realignment Natural
(Low Intensity Zones) 12-3 (ODOT Hydraulic Manual) 12-46
Watercourse 12-26
Figure 12.2.1.2c: Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 3 Figure 12.9.5.1: Comparison of Water Surface Profile
Figure 12.5.6.1: Headwater Depth for Concrete Box
(Musandam Zones) 12-3 with/without Bridge Crossing 12-46
Culverts with Inlet Control 12-30
Figure 12.2.6.1a: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth Figure 12.9.6.1: Definition of Bridge Underclearance
Figure 12.5.6.2: Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe
within Oman (2 year) 12-12 and Local Freeboard 12-47
Culverts with Inlet Control 12-30
Figure 12.2.6.1b: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth Figure 12.9.7.1: Typical Methods of Representing Floating
Figure 12.5.6.3: Headwater Computation Form 12-31
within Oman (5 year) 12-12 Debris at a Bridge Pier (Defra / EA, 2004) 12-47
Figure 12.5.6.4: Headwater Depth for Concrete Box
Figure 12.2.6.1c: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth Figure 12.9.7.2: Timber Debris Fins with Sloping
Culverts with Outlet Control 12-31
within Oman (10 year) 12-13 Leading Edge 12-47
Figure 12.5.6.5: Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe
Figure 12.2.6.1d: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth Figure 12.9.7.3: Debris Deflectors 12-47
Culverts with Outlet Control 12-31
within Oman (25 year) 12-13
Figure 12.5.6.6: Critical Depth for Culverts 12-32 Figure 12.9.9.1: Typical Parameters for Contraction Scour
Figure 12.2.6.1e: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (Laursen’s Equation) 12-48
within Oman (50 year) 12-14 Figure 12.5.8.1: Typical Culvert Inlet and Outlet 12-33
Figure 12.9.9.2: Typical Pile Cap Foundation Level 12-49
Figure 12.2.6.1f: Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth Figure 12.5.8.2: Side-Tapered Inlet for Concrete
Pipe Culvert 12-33 Figure 12.9.9.3: Typical Scour Countermeasures
within Oman (100 year) 12-14
(Launching Apron) to Avoid Abutment Fill Failure 12-49
Figure 12.2.6.2: Example Calculations of the MSS 12-15 Figure 12.5.10.1: Steel rail debris deflector
(looking downstream) 12-34 Figure 12.9.9.4: Horizontal Extent of Scour Protection 12-50
Figure 12.2.7.1: Comparison between the Oman 2002
Figure 12.5.10.2: Steel Debris Rack in Urban Area 12-34 Figure 12.9.10.1: Relief Culvert Adjacent to a Bridge 12-50
empirical equation and new regression equations
for 50 years return period for floods less than or Figure 12.5.9.1: Protection Arrangement at Figure 12.9.10.2: Avoid Drainage Structure Crossing at
equal 2000 m3/s 12-16 Inlet of Culvert 12-35 Bend Locations 12-50
Figure 12.2.7.2: Comparison between the Oman 2002 Figure 12.5.9.2: Protection Arrangement at
formula and new equations set for 100 years return Outlet of Culvert 12-36 List of Tables
period for floods less than or equal 2000 m3/s 12-16
Figure 12.6.3.1: Gutter Flow Parameters 12-37 Table 12.2.1.1a: Values of the Generated IDF for
Figure 12.3.5.1: Anchor Lugs and Cut-Off Walls Detail 12-21 Zone IDFC 1 (High Intensity Zones) 12-4
Figure 12.6.5.1: Parallel Grate Inlet (Not Bicycle Safe) 12-39
Figure 12.3.5.2: Exterior Side Bend Protection 12-21 Table 12.2.1.1b: Values of the Generated IDF for
Figure 12.6.5.2: Bicycle-Safe Grate 12-39
Figure 12.4.3.1: Indicative Velocities of Flow Over a Zone IDFC 2 (Low Intensity Zones) 12-4
Typical Vented Floodway 12-23 Figure 12.6.5.3: Curb Opening Inlet 12-39
Table 12.2.1.1c: Values of the Generated IDF for
Zone IDFC 3 (Musandam Zones) 12-5
Table 12.2.1.2: Constant Values for IDF Equations for Table 12.6.3.1: Minimum Design Return Period and
the Three Hydrological Zones 12-6 Allowable Water Spread 12-37
Table 12.2.2.1: Runoff Coefficients Associated with the Table 12.6.6.1: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients
Rational Formula (ASCE, 1960) 12-7 for Pipes 12-39
Table 12.2.2.2: Runoff Coefficients for Rural Areas Table 12.6.9.1: Recommended Velocity in Pipes for
(ASCE, 1960) 12-7 Pump Suction and Discharge 12-42
Table 12.2.3.1: Kirpich Formula Correction Factor for Table 12.10.3.1: Particle Settling Velocities 12-52
Specific Flow Conditions 12-8
Table 12.2.4.1: Minimum Design Flood Return Period 12-8 Drawings
Table 12.2.5.1: Dimensionless Pond Adjusting Factor GD 12-01: Ditch Inlet Details 12-55
(USDA, 1986) 12-9
GD 12-02: Ditch Outlet Details 12-56
Table 12.2.5.2: Coefficients for Unit Peak Discharge
GD 12-03: Vented Floodway Details 12-57
Equation (USDA, 1986) 12-9
GD 12-04: Floodway Details 12-58
Table 12.2.5.3: Runoff Curve Number for Urban Areas
(USDA, 1986) 12-9 GD 12-05: Floodway Marker Post and Depth
Gauge Details 12-59
Table 12.2.5.4: Runoff Curve Number for Cultivated
Agricultural lands (USDA, 1986) 12-10 SD 12-06: Pipe Culvert Details 12-60
Table 12.2.5.5: Runoff Curve Number for Uncultivated SD 12-07: Box Culvert Details 12-61
Agricultural Land (USDA, 1986) 12-10
GD 12-08: Grate Inlet Details 12-62
Table 12.2.5.6: Runoff Curve Number for Arid and
GD 12-09: Curb Inlet Details 12-63
Semiarid Rangelands (USDA, 1986) 12-11
SD 12-10: Manhole Type “A” – H < 3500 12-64
Table 12.2.5.7: Hydrologic Soil Groups Definition
(USDA, 1986) 12-11 SD 12-11: Manhole Type “B” – 3500 < H < 7000 12-65

Table 12.2.7.1: Growth Fact Values for each Return Period 12-15 SD 12-12: Standard Chamber Rings 12-66

Table 12.3.2.1: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients SD 12-13: Miscellaneous Manhole Details 12-67
for Channels 12-18
Table 12.5.3.1: Box Culvert Clear Width and
Height Combination 12-27
Table 12.5.5.1: Maximum Allowable Velocities for
Various Stream Bed Materials 12-28
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
12.1 INTRODUCTION 12.1.2.4 It should be noted that computer programs are currently used for the performance of many computations.
However, they are no replacement for the judgments necessary. The user of computer programs must understand
12.1.1 General Description how the program performs the calculations and what assumptions are made, i.e., how appropriate is the use of
the computer program to the problem being addressed.
12.1.1.1 The Sultanate of Oman lies on the eastern fringes of one of the driest desert areas in the world and has
extreme variability in rainfall patterns. Inner areas are very dry. Northern coastal areas are humid with moderate 12.1.2.5 During planning and design of highway drainage systems, Consultants and other concerned authorities
to low rainfall. The southern region of Dhofar have a monsoon season between June and September with heavy should coordinate closely with the Directorate General of Water Resources. This should be through all stages of
rainfall. Consequently, the drainage requirements will vary for every part of the country because of the extreme a highway project development, from initial data collection to the production of hydrology studies for detailed
variability of the rainfall pattern. design. Where the Directorate believes that there are issues of concern, they will be transmitted to the project
proponent for consideration and subsequent instruction to the designer/concerned parties accordingly.
12.1.1.2 The hydrological characteristics in Oman have a tendency to produce short duration high intensity
storms giving rise to flash floods with consequent damage and disruption to the transport network. The designer 12.1.3 Scope Of Work
should be aware of the potential ferocity of flood waters, and develop a drainage conveyance and protection
system which is equally robust in all its elements. 12.1.3.1 The Highway Design Standards provides the designer with a framework that is intended to promote
efficiency in design and construction of roadways. This Section is concerned primarily with the hydrological
12.1.1.3 The weather conditions vary in Oman as briefly described below: and hydraulic design and construction of surface and subsurface drainage systems including, piped networks,
n Muscat has a moderate climate during day times and even much pleasant during evenings throughout channels, bridges, floodways and culverts, as well as pollution control measures.
the year except for the period from mid April till mid August, where temperature may exceed 45 C
12.1.3.2 Drainage design occurs within the broader context of road design and this Section should be applied in
degree in June and July.
conjunction with all other sections of the Highway Design Standards.
n Salalah (Dhofar region) offers pleasant climate in winter and moderate temperature during June to
September.
12.1.4 Hydraulic Considerations in Highway Planning And Location
n Sharqiya region and Ras Al Hadd in specific offers moderate temperature throughout the year,
pleasant in winter and dry weather in summer. 12.1.4.1 Location / Alignment Selection activity generally takes place after transportation planning and prior
n The interior of Oman, has very high temperature and dry weather throughout the year although it to highway design, but blends into both. The highway location should satisfy both the broad goals of the
gets slightly better in winter. transportation system and the local goals of the immediate environs. The participation of the hydraulics engineer
n The coastal area is humid due to the 1700 km long beaches from Hurmoz to Yemen. The mountain during the location phase should ensure the proper consideration of the many items that affect or are affected by
chain running parallel to the coast prevent the dry weather coming from the interior and thus, no drainage as described in the following paragraphs.
desert climate feeling along the coast, especially from Muscat to UAE borders in the north.
12.1.4.2 The hydraulics engineer needs to know the general scope of the highway project and possible plans
of other agencies and developers regarding future projects in the watershed through which the highway may
12.1.2 Objective pass. The hydraulics engineer should share appropriate data, which is used to support any important hydraulic
12.1.2.1 This Section presents approaches, methods, and procedures for the design of drainage systems on recommendations, with these same sources and with regulatory agencies that issue permits or implement
highway projects. Although many procedures are systematically presented, they are only a tool. The designer of decisions that could affect the project.
the drainage facility remains responsible for analyzing project setting and selecting the approach and the proper
12.1.4.3 Early coordination between the transportation engineers and the hydraulics engineer may help
design tools to mitigate the flooding problems.
minimize potential problems and provide substantial economic savings. Transportation engineers can be alerted
12.1.2.2 A drainage system will commonly address one or more elements, namely: to unstable reaches of streams that may be avoided by slight changes in the alignment. Critical areas sensitive
to flooding should be identified. Estimated structure sizes and costs can be provided. Expensive bridges or
n Collection and disposal of rainfall on road surfaces
extensive encroachments on sensitive environmental areas may provide cause to modify the alignment.
n Subsurface drainage for road pavements
n Overland water flows 12.1.4.4 During the alignment selection phase of project development, the flow characteristics at highway-
stream crossings should be considered, not only to determine the effects of the highway upon the stream and its
12.1.2.3 Therefore the objective of this Section is to enable designers to: floodplain, but also the effects of the stream upon the highway. In addition the occurrence of erosion and sediment,
n Understand the characteristics of rainfall and run-off and how to control it, must be considered, at least in broad terms. This includes the existing conditions and those
n Appreciate environmental considerations relating to the concentration and discharge of water that will result from the proposed project. Such a determination can assist in identifying those locations where
n Design effective surface and subsurface drainage systems difficult and costly construction or maintenance problems could be encountered. Sometimes, a minor change
n Design channels and floodways and vented floodways in roadway location or structure alignment can resolve these problems. If possible, several alternative solutions
n Design bridges and culverts should be considered. If it appears that solutions may require major changes, studies should be expanded and
become more detailed, even at these early stages.
n Appreciate the principles of pollution control and appropriate treatment measures.

12-1
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

12.1.4.5 The location of the highway when crossing a stream is important for several reasons. Hydrologic and 12.1.4.6 Storm drainage systems discharge (outfall) points should be located early in the project development,
hydraulic considerations are different when crossing near the confluence of two streams as compared to a single especially for large systems, for right-of-way considerations and the possibility of combining the collection of
stream. Higher backwaters may be better tolerated in rural areas than in urban locations. Tidal areas present a list stormwater from several watersheds or for connecting to an existing system. The capacity of existing systems
of entirely different hydraulic considerations. Whether the structure is a bridge or a culvert can make a difference to accept the flows from these collection points and water quality considerations would be the main concerns at
in the hydraulic study as well. this point in the project.

1) A
 highway crossing at or near to the confluence of two or more streams is a complex hydrologic and 12.1.4.7 During the location phase, it is important for the hydraulics engineer to be aware of utility locations and
hydraulic location that should be avoided. The hydrology design should consider several combinations of types and their relationship to the proposed highway project. Locations of overhead and underground power
storm events. Such locations require an analysis involving the hydraulics of confluences. This includes an lines, underground water and sewer lines, and utility facilities, such as pumping stations or access points to any
analysis of the various combinations of flood events and how they may change flow distributions, hydraulic appurtenant tunnel chambers, will be found by others. The hydraulics engineer must then evaluate if and how
gradients, headwaters, and velocities. Stream stability can also be more critical at confluences because the these features may affect the various hydraulic structures or conversely be affected by them.
middle and point bar formation can cause abrupt changes in flow directions. Pier location and alignment and
culvert alignment near confluences should be carefully analyzed for these effects.
2) Crossings of tidal waters present the hydraulics engineer with special considerations such as regular changes
12.2 CATCHMENT DISCHARGE ESTIMATION
in water level from astronomically induced tides, storm surges from wind and high waves, or even seismic
waves or tsunamis.
12.2.1 Weather Patterns and Hydrological Zones
3) The use of land adjacent to the stream must be considered. The effects of increased flood stages or increased 12.2.1.1 Oman experiences a combination of rainfall mechanisms which may be summarized as:
velocities may affect property land use, both upstream and downstream and the existing property may suffer
n Cold Fronts occurring during the winter between October and April and characterized by large areal
extensive physical damage from an increased flood stage especially in urban areas.
extent, low intensity and long duration.
4) The location of a stream crossing may influence and limit the type of structure that can be used. Decisions
n Monsoon Rains originating with the moist from Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea and causing low
made during the preliminary phases of project development should not constrain the final recommendations
frequent light rain, drizzle during the late June to Late September (Khareef).
of the hydraulics engineer. Detailed surveys and comprehensive hydrologic and hydraulic studies are needed
n Tropical Cyclones generated from Arabian Sea during May-June and October-November and
to make conclusive recommendations.
consisting of bands of locally heavy rain cells within a large area prominently in the south of the
5) Longitudinal encroachments, where the highway is located within the stream floodplain boundary and the
country.
highway alignment is approximately parallel to the stream, should be avoided wherever practicable and
n Convective Storms characterized by scattered high intensity and short duration often resulting in
alternative routes outside the floodplain are available. The following hazards associated with building within
flash flood and occurring all over at no particular time or season.
the floodplain must be recognized during the planning and location stages so that either precautions against
12.2.1.2 Based on the diverse rainfall patterns and the geography and topography of the country, the Sultanate
damage can be taken or changes made to the location.
may be divided into the following three hydrological zones:
6) Hazards associated with longitudinal encroachments are greatest in narrow or V-shaped valleys with steep
gradients. At flood stage, the stream covers all or most of the valley section. If the encroachment significantly n Northern Oman (including all wilayas except Al Wusta and Dhofar) mainly affected by the convective
constricts the natural stream and flood conveyance section, the possible effects could be (1) acceleration storms and rarely Cyclones.
of flow resulting in attack on the highway embankment or, if the embankment is sufficiently armoured, the n Wilaya of Dhofar mainly affected by the Monsoon, convective storms and Cyclones.
erosive power can attack the streambed or opposite bank; (2) potential flooding of upstream property due to n Wilaya of Al Wusta experiencing a weather/rainfall pattern combining characteristics from above
backwater effects from the construction; (3) accumulation of drift and (4) flooding of road. regions.
7) Locations in U-shaped valleys with broad terraces above the channel may be secure from flooding except
12.2.1.3 In the absence of recorded discharges on the studied catchments, rainfall runoff transformation methods
during rare or infrequent floods.These latter valley locations usually involve streams in alluvium, and problems
are to be used: the Rational Method, the Soil Conservation Service unit hydrograph method and Regression
may develop from the outward and downstream migration of bends, from aggrading or degrading channels,
Equations. In the case of available recorded discharges on the studied catchments, frequency analysis of recorded
and at confluences.
peak discharges and volumes are to be used in conjunction with rainfall runoff transformation methods.
8) The obvious disadvantages of an encroaching location are the increased flood risk, potential for losing the
highway, cost to protect the facility and environmental impacts. It may be necessary to provide additional 12.2.1.4 All three transformation methods require rainfall information given in the following three Intensity
waterway opening through the constricted section by widening along the opposite bank or providing adequate Duration Frequency (IDF) curves, each to be applied in a different zone in Oman. Figure 12.2.1.1 shows the
transition sections into and away from the constriction and sufficient conveyance modification to increase the validity area for each of the three IDFs based on regional frequency analysis. Figures 12.2.1.2 (a to c) shows the
channel capacity. three IDFs, while Table 12.2.1.1 (a to c) shows their tabulated values. It should be noted that there exists a zone in
9) Channel encroachment locations may require channel modifications such as stream and bank excavation, and Oman where no rainfall information is available. It is termed in Figure 12.2.1.1 as “Zone 4”. For design purposes,
replacement of tree and rock cover with lining materials. Environmental impacts in the form of silt and erosion, until more information becomes available, it is suggested to adopt IDFC2, which is the one with lower rainfall
deterioration of wildlife habitat, and loss of wetlands may result from locations adjacent to channels. intensities, in “Zone 4”.

12-2
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
2 Yrs 5 Yrs 10 Yrs 25 Yrs
50 Yrs 100 Yrs 200 Yrs 500 Yrs
1000

± IDFC3
IDFC3
100

I (mm/hr)
10

0.1
IDFC2 0.01 0.1 1
Time of Concentration (hrs)
10 100

Figure 12.2.1.2a Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 1 (High Intensity Zones)


2 Yrs 5 Yrs 10 Yrs 25 Yrs

IDFC1 50 Yrs 100 Yrs 200 Yrs 500 Yrs

1000

IDFC2
100

I (mm/hr)
10
IDFC1

1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Time of Concentration (hrs)

Figure 12.2.1.2b Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 2 (Low Intensity Zones)


 2 Yrs 5 Yrs 10 Yrs 25 Yrs

Zone 4 50 Yrs 100 Yrs 200 Yrs 500 Yrs

1000
LEGEND

ESCWA Roads, Route Nos

Roads with Existing Route Nos.

IDF Zones 100

IDFC1

I (mm/hr)
IDFC1
IDFC2
IDFC3 10

Zone 4

0 50 100 200 300 400 500

Kilometers 1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Time of Concentration (hrs)

Figure 12.2.1.1 Different Zones of the Generated IDF Curves Figure 12.2.1.2c Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 3 (Musandam Zones)

12-3
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

Return Period (years) Return Period (years) Return Period (years)

Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100 Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100 Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100
I (mm/hr) I (mm/hr) I (mm/hr)
0.083 37.2 69.1 96.8 142.9 188.2 246.5 (Continued) 0.083 44.6 72.9 92.9 119.9 142.2 167.7
0.25 26.2 48.6 68.1 100.4 132.3 173.3 12.25 1.7 3.2 4.5 6.7 8.8 11.6 0.25 31.3 51.2 65.3 84.3 100 117.9
0.5 21.8 40.5 56.7 83.7 110.3 144.4 12.5 1.7 3.2 4.5 6.6 8.7 11.3 0.5 26.1 42.7 54.4 70.2 83.3 98.3
0.75 17.7 32.9 46.1 68.1 89.7 117.5 12.75 1.7 3.1 4.4 6.4 8.5 11.1 0.75 21.2 34.7 44.3 57.1 67.8 79.9
1 14.2 26.3 36.9 54.4 71.7 93.9 13 1.6 3.1 4.3 6.3 8.3 10.9 1 17 27.7 35.4 45.6 54.2 63.9
1.25 11.8 21.9 30.6 45.2 59.5 78 13.25 1.6 3 4.2 6.2 8.2 10.7 1.25 14.1 23 29.4 37.9 45 53.1
1.5 10.2 18.9 26.5 39.1 51.5 67.4 13.5 1.6 2.9 4.1 6.1 8 10.5 1.5 12.2 19.9 25.4 32.8 38.9 45.9
1.75 9 16.8 23.5 34.7 45.7 59.8 13.75 1.6 2.9 4.1 6 7.9 10.3 1.75 10.8 17.7 22.5 29.1 34.5 40.7
2 8.2 15.2 21.3 31.4 41.3 54.2 14 1.5 2.8 4 5.9 7.7 10.1 2 9.8 16 20.4 26.3 31.2 36.8
2.25 7.5 13.9 19.5 28.8 38 49.7 14.25 1.5 2.8 3.9 5.8 7.6 10 2.25 9 14.7 18.7 24.2 28.7 33.8
2.5 7 13 18.1 26.8 35.3 46.2 14.5 1.5 2.7 3.8 5.7 7.5 9.8 2.5 8.4 13.7 17.4 22.5 26.7 31.4
2.75 6.5 12.1 17 25.1 33.1 43.3 14.75 1.5 2.7 3.8 5.6 7.4 9.6 2.75 7.8 12.8 16.3 21.1 25 29.5
3 6.2 11.5 16.1 23.7 31.2 40.9 15 1.4 2.7 3.7 5.5 7.2 9.5 3 7.4 12.1 15.4 19.9 23.6 27.8
3.25 5.7 10.6 14.9 22 29 38 15.25 1.4 2.6 3.7 5.4 7.1 9.3 3.25 6.9 11.2 14.3 18.5 21.9 25.8
3.5 5.3 9.9 13.9 20.5 27 35.4 15.5 1.4 2.6 3.6 5.3 7 9.2 3.5 6.4 10.5 13.3 17.2 20.4 24.1
3.75 5 9.3 13 19.2 25.4 33.2 15.75 1.4 2.5 3.6 5.2 6.9 9 3.75 6 9.8 12.5 16.1 19.2 22.6
4 4.7 8.8 12.3 18.1 23.9 31.3 16 1.3 2.5 3.5 5.2 6.8 8.9 4 5.7 9.2 11.8 15.2 18.1 21.3
4.25 4.5 8.3 11.6 17.1 22.6 29.6 16.25 1.3 2.5 3.4 5.1 6.7 8.8 4.25 5.4 8.7 11.1 14.4 17.1 20.1
4.5 4.2 7.9 11 16.3 21.4 28.1 16.5 1.3 2.4 3.4 5 6.6 8.6 4.5 5.1 8.3 10.6 13.7 16.2 19.1
4.75 4 7.5 10.5 15.5 20.4 26.7 16.75 1.3 2.4 3.3 4.9 6.5 8.5 4.75 4.8 7.9 10.1 13 15.4 18.2
5 3.9 7.2 10 14.8 19.5 25.5 17 1.3 2.4 3.3 4.9 6.4 8.4 5 4.6 7.5 9.6 12.4 14.7 17.4
5.25 3.7 6.8 9.6 14.1 18.6 24.4 17.25 1.3 2.3 3.3 4.8 6.3 8.3 5.25 4.4 7.2 9.2 11.9 14.1 16.6
5.5 3.5 6.6 9.2 13.6 17.9 23.4 17.5 1.2 2.3 3.2 4.7 6.2 8.2 5.5 4.2 6.9 8.8 11.4 13.5 15.9
5.75 3.4 6.3 8.8 13 17.2 22.5 17.75 1.2 2.3 3.2 4.7 6.1 8.1 5.75 4.1 6.6 8.5 10.9 13 15.3
6 3.3 6.1 8.5 12.6 16.5 21.7 18 1.2 2.2 3.1 4.6 6.1 7.9 6 3.9 6.4 8.2 10.5 12.5 14.7
6.25 3.2 5.9 8.2 12.1 15.9 20.9 18.25 1.2 2.2 3.1 4.5 6 7.8 6.25 3.8 6.2 7.9 10.1 12 14.2
6.5 3 5.6 7.9 11.7 15.4 20.1 18.5 1.2 2.2 3 4.5 5.9 7.7 6.5 3.6 6 7.6 9.8 11.6 13.7
6.75 2.9 5.5 7.6 11.3 14.9 19.5 18.75 1.2 2.1 3 4.4 5.8 7.6 6.75 3.5 5.8 7.3 9.5 11.2 13.2
7 2.8 5.3 7.4 10.9 14.4 18.8 19 1.1 2.1 3 4.4 5.8 7.5 7 3.4 5.6 7.1 9.2 10.9 12.8
7.25 2.8 5.1 7.2 10.6 13.9 18.3 19.25 1.1 2.1 2.9 4.3 5.7 7.4 7.25 3.3 5.4 6.9 8.9 10.5 12.4
7.5 2.7 5 7 10.3 13.5 17.7 19.5 1.1 2.1 2.9 4.3 5.6 7.3 7.5 3.2 5.2 6.7 8.6 10.2 12.1
7.75 2.6 4.8 6.8 10 13.1 17.2 19.75 1.1 2 2.9 4.2 5.5 7.3 7.75 3.1 5.1 6.5 8.4 9.9 11.7
8 2.5 4.7 6.6 9.7 12.8 16.7 20 1.1 2 2.8 4.2 5.5 7.2 8 3 4.9 6.3 8.1 9.7 11.4
8.25 2.5 4.6 6.4 9.4 12.4 16.3 20.25 1.1 2 2.8 4.1 5.4 7.1 8.25 2.9 4.8 6.1 7.9 9.4 11.1
8.5 2.4 4.4 6.2 9.2 12.1 15.9 20.5 1.1 2 2.8 4.1 5.3 7 8.5 2.9 4.7 6 7.7 9.1 10.8
8.75 2.3 4.3 6.1 9 11.8 15.5 20.75 1 1.9 2.7 4 5.3 6.9 8.75 2.8 4.6 5.8 7.5 8.9 10.5
9 2.3 4.2 5.9 8.7 11.5 15.1 21 1 1.9 2.7 4 5.2 6.8 9 2.7 4.5 5.7 7.3 8.7 10.3
9.25 2.2 4.1 5.8 8.5 11.2 14.7 21.25 1 1.9 2.7 3.9 5.2 6.8 9.25 2.7 4.4 5.5 7.2 8.5 10
9.5 2.2 4 5.7 8.3 11 14.4 21.5 1 1.9 2.6 3.9 5.1 6.7 9.5 2.6 4.3 5.4 7 8.3 9.8
9.75 2.1 3.9 5.5 8.2 10.7 14.1 21.75 1 1.9 2.6 3.8 5.1 6.6 9.75 2.5 4.2 5.3 6.8 8.1 9.6
10 2.1 3.9 5.4 8 10.5 13.8 22 1 1.8 2.6 3.8 5 6.5 10 2.5 4.1 5.2 6.7 7.9 9.4
10.25 2 3.8 5.3 7.8 10.3 13.5 22.25 1 1.8 2.5 3.8 4.9 6.5 10.25 2.4 4 5.1 6.6 7.8 9.2
10.5 2 3.7 5.2 7.7 10.1 13.2 22.5 1 1.8 2.5 3.7 4.9 6.4 10.5 2.4 3.9 5 6.4 7.6 9
10.75 2 3.6 5.1 7.5 9.9 12.9 22.75 1 1.8 2.5 3.7 4.8 6.3 10.75 2.3 3.8 4.9 6.3 7.5 8.8
11 1.9 3.6 5 7.4 9.7 12.7 23 0.9 1.8 2.5 3.6 4.8 6.3 11 2.3 3.8 4.8 6.2 7.3 8.6
11.25 1.9 3.5 4.9 7.2 9.5 12.5 23.25 0.9 1.7 2.4 3.6 4.7 6.2 11.25 2.3 3.7 4.7 6.1 7.2 8.5
11.5 1.8 3.4 4.8 7.1 9.3 12.2 23.5 0.9 1.7 2.4 3.6 4.7 6.1 11.5 2.2 3.6 4.6 5.9 7.1 8.3
11.75 1.8 3.4 4.7 7 9.2 12 23.75 0.9 1.7 2.4 3.5 4.6 6.1 11.75 2.2 3.5 4.5 5.8 6.9 8.2
12 1.8 3.3 4.6 6.8 9 11.8 24 0.9 1.7 2.4 3.5 4.6 6 12 2.1 3.5 4.4 5.7 6.8 8
12-4
Table 12.2.1.1a Values of the Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 1 (High Intensity Zones) Table 12.2.1.1b Values of the Generated IDF for Zone IDFC 2 (Low Intensity Zones)
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
Return Period (years) Return Period (years) Return Period (years)
Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100 Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100 Time (hr) 2 5 10 25 50 100
I (mm/hr) I (mm/hr) I (mm/hr)
(Continued) 0.083 74.9 117.6 145.8 182.2 210.8 241.2 (Continued)
12.25 2.1 3.4 4.4 5.6 6.7 7.9 0.25 52.7 82.7 102.5 128.1 148.1 169.6 12.25 3.5 5.5 6.8 8.5 9.9 11.3
12.5 2 3.3 4.3 5.5 6.5 7.7 0.5 43.9 68.9 85.4 106.7 123.5 141.3 12.5 3.4 5.4 6.7 8.4 9.7 11.1
12.75 2 3.3 4.2 5.4 6.4 7.6 0.75 35.7 56.1 69.4 86.8 100.4 114.9 12.75 3.4 5.3 6.6 8.2 9.5 10.9
13 2 3.2 4.1 5.3 6.3 7.4 1 28.5 44.8 55.5 69.4 80.2 91.8 13 3.3 5.2 6.4 8.1 9.3 10.7
13.25 1.9 3.2 4 5.2 6.2 7.3 1.25 23.7 37.2 46.1 57.6 66.7 76.3 13.25 3.3 5.1 6.3 7.9 9.2 10.5
13.5 1.9 3.1 4 5.1 6.1 7.2 1.5 20.5 32.2 39.8 49.8 57.6 65.9 13.5 3.2 5 6.2 7.8 9 10.3
13.75 1.9 3.1 3.9 5 6 7 1.75 18.2 28.6 35.4 44.2 51.1 58.5 13.75 3.1 4.9 6.1 7.6 8.8 10.1
14 1.8 3 3.8 4.9 5.9 6.9 2 16.5 25.8 32 40 46.3 53 14 3.1 4.8 6 7.5 8.7 9.9
14.25 1.8 2.9 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.8 2.25 15.1 23.7 29.4 36.8 42.5 48.7 14.25 3 4.8 5.9 7.4 8.5 9.8
14.5 1.8 2.9 3.7 4.8 5.7 6.7 2.5 14 22.1 27.3 34.2 39.5 45.2 14.5 3 4.7 5.8 7.2 8.4 9.6
14.75 1.7 2.8 3.6 4.7 5.6 6.6 2.75 13.2 20.7 25.6 32 37 42.4 14.75 2.9 4.6 5.7 7.1 8.2 9.4
15 1.7 2.8 3.6 4.6 5.5 6.5 3 12.4 19.5 24.2 30.2 35 40 15 2.9 4.5 5.6 7 8.1 9.3
15.25 1.7 2.8 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.3 3.25 11.5 18.1 22.4 28.1 32.4 37.1 15.25 2.8 4.5 5.5 6.9 8 9.1
15.5 1.7 2.7 3.5 4.5 5.3 6.2 3.5 10.8 16.9 20.9 26.2 30.3 34.7 15.5 2.8 4.4 5.4 6.8 7.9 9
15.75 1.6 2.7 3.4 4.4 5.2 6.2 3.75 10.1 15.9 19.6 24.6 28.4 32.5 15.75 2.7 4.3 5.3 6.7 7.7 8.8
16 1.6 2.6 3.4 4.3 5.1 6.1 4 9.5 14.9 18.5 23.1 26.7 30.6 16 2.7 4.2 5.3 6.6 7.6 8.7
16.25 1.6 2.6 3.3 4.3 5.1 6 4.25 9 14.1 17.5 21.9 25.3 29 16.25 2.7 4.2 5.2 6.5 7.5 8.6
16.5 1.6 2.6 3.3 4.2 5 5.9 4.5 8.5 13.4 16.6 20.8 24 27.5 16.5 2.6 4.1 5.1 6.4 7.4 8.5
16.75 1.5 2.5 3.2 4.1 4.9 5.8 4.75 8.1 12.8 15.8 19.8 22.9 26.2 16.75 2.6 4.1 5 6.3 7.3 8.3
17 1.5 2.5 3.2 4.1 4.8 5.7 5 7.8 12.2 15.1 18.9 21.8 25 17 2.6 4 5 6.2 7.2 8.2
17.25 1.5 2.4 3.1 4 4.8 5.6 5.25 7.4 11.6 14.4 18 20.9 23.9 17.25 2.5 4 4.9 6.1 7.1 8.1
17.5 1.5 2.4 3.1 4 4.7 5.6 5.5 7.1 11.2 13.8 17.3 20 22.9 17.5 2.5 3.9 4.8 6 7 8
17.75 1.5 2.4 3 3.9 4.6 5.5 5.75 6.8 10.7 13.3 16.6 19.2 22 17.75 2.4 3.8 4.8 6 6.9 7.9
18 1.4 2.3 3 3.9 4.6 5.4 6 6.6 10.3 12.8 16 18.5 21.2 18 2.4 3.8 4.7 5.9 6.8 7.8
18.25 1.4 2.3 3 3.8 4.5 5.3 6.25 6.3 10 12.3 15.4 17.8 20.4 18.25 2.4 3.7 4.6 5.8 6.7 7.7
18.5 1.4 2.3 2.9 3.8 4.5 5.3 6.5 6.1 9.6 11.9 14.9 17.2 19.7 18.5 2.3 3.7 4.6 5.7 6.6 7.6
18.75 1.4 2.3 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.2 6.75 5.9 9.3 11.5 14.4 16.6 19 18.75 2.3 3.6 4.5 5.6 6.5 7.5
19 1.4 2.2 2.8 3.7 4.3 5.1 7 5.7 9 11.1 13.9 16.1 18.4 19 2.3 3.6 4.5 5.6 6.4 7.4
19.25 1.3 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.3 5.1 7.25 5.5 8.7 10.8 13.5 15.6 17.9 19.25 2.3 3.6 4.4 5.5 6.4 7.3
19.5 1.3 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.2 5 7.5 5.4 8.5 10.5 13.1 15.1 17.3 19.5 2.2 3.5 4.3 5.4 6.3 7.2
19.75 1.3 2.1 2.7 3.5 4.2 4.9 7.75 5.2 8.2 10.2 12.7 14.7 16.8 19.75 2.2 3.5 4.3 5.4 6.2 7.1
20 1.3 2.1 2.7 3.5 4.1 4.9 8 5.1 8 9.9 12.4 14.3 16.4 20 2.2 3.4 4.2 5.3 6.1 7
20.25 1.3 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.8 8.25 4.9 7.8 9.6 12 13.9 15.9 20.25 2.2 3.4 4.2 5.2 6.1 6.9
20.5 1.3 2.1 2.6 3.4 4 4.8 8.5 4.8 7.6 9.4 11.7 13.6 15.5 20.5 2.1 3.3 4.1 5.2 6 6.9
20.75 1.3 2 2.6 3.4 4 4.7 8.75 4.7 7.4 9.1 11.4 13.2 15.1 20.75 2.1 3.3 4.1 5.1 5.9 6.8
21 1.2 2 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.7 9 4.6 7.2 8.9 11.1 12.9 14.8 21 2.1 3.3 4 5.1 5.8 6.7
21.25 1.2 2 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.6 9.25 4.5 7 8.7 10.9 12.6 14.4 21.25 2.1 3.2 4 5 5.8 6.6
21.5 1.2 2 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.6 9.5 4.4 6.9 8.5 10.6 12.3 14.1 21.5 2 3.2 4 4.9 5.7 6.5
21.75 1.2 2 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.5 9.75 4.3 6.7 8.3 10.4 12 13.8 21.75 2 3.2 3.9 4.9 5.7 6.5
22 1.2 1.9 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.5 10 4.2 6.6 8.1 10.2 11.8 13.5 22 2 3.1 3.9 4.8 5.6 6.4
22.25 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.4 10.25 4.1 6.4 8 10 11.5 13.2 22.25 2 3.1 3.8 4.8 5.5 6.3
22.5 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.4 10.5 4 6.3 7.8 9.8 11.3 12.9 22.5 1.9 3.1 3.8 4.7 5.5 6.3
22.75 1.1 1.9 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.3 10.75 3.9 6.2 7.7 9.6 11.1 12.7 22.75 1.9 3 3.7 4.7 5.4 6.2
23 1.1 1.9 2.4 3 3.6 4.3 11 3.9 6.1 7.5 9.4 10.8 12.4 23 1.9 3 3.7 4.6 5.4 6.1
23.25 1.1 1.8 2.3 3 3.6 4.2 11.25 3.8 5.9 7.4 9.2 10.6 12.2 23.25 1.9 3 3.7 4.6 5.3 6.1
23.5 1.1 1.8 2.3 3 3.5 4.2 11.5 3.7 5.8 7.2 9 10.4 12 23.5 1.9 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.2 6
23.75 1.1 1.8 2.3 3 3.5 4.1 11.75 3.6 5.7 7.1 8.9 10.3 11.7 23.75 1.8 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.2 5.9
24 1.1 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.1 12 3.6 5.6 7 8.7 10.1 11.5 24 1.8 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.2 5.9
12-5
Table 12.2.1.1 b Values of the generated IDF for zone IDFC 2 (Low Intensity Zones) Table 12.2.1.1 c Values of the generated IDF for zone IDFC 3 (Musandam Zones)
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

12.2.1.5 The general form of the IDFs equation is I = aTb cyclone Gonu data, based on the nearest available station. Unlike what is previously stated, the analyses of
rainfall events in Dhofar, suggested that including the cyclones in the analyses significantly change the results
Where:
for most of the stations.
I: is rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
a, b: are constants shown in Table 12.2.1.2 12.2.1.7 If a culvert or a bridge is to be designed in a region out of Dhofar Governorate, it is based on discharge
T: (Time) is the storm duration which is equal to the time of concentration based on the rational formula estimate. If the catchment upstream of this culvert has a time of concentration of less than 2 hours, then there
assumptions, (hrs) is no need to include any information related to cyclone events. If its catchment has a time of concentration of
more than 2 hours, the data of the nearest available rainfall station must be analysed as a regional IDF could not
a) IDFC 1
be used since the location of the catchment might have been affected by cyclones.
100 Yrs 50 Yrs 25 Yrs
Time (hrs) a b a b a b 12.2.1.8 If a pond is to be designed in a region out of Dhofar Governorate, it is to be based on volume. The IDF
<0.75 110.55 -0.326 84.405 -0.326 64.066 -0.326 is not to be used and the data of the nearest available rainfall station must be analysed.
0.75<= T <6 94.926 -0.808 72.478 -0.808 55.013 -0.808
>=6 116.23 -0.928 88.742 -0.928 67.358 -0.928 12.2.2 The Rational Method
10 Yrs 5 Yrs 2 Yrs
12.2.2.1 The Rational method is used around the world for peak flow estimation of small rural drainage basins
Time (hrs) a b a b a b
and is the most widely used method for urban drainage design. The Rational formula estimates the peak rate
<0.75 43.418 -0.326 30.995 -0.326 16.695 -0.326
of runoff at any location in a watershed as a function of the drainage area, runoff coefficient, and mean rainfall
0.75<= T <6 37.283 -0.808 26.615 -0.808 14.336 -0.808
intensity for duration equal to the time of concentration. The Rational Formula is given as:
>=6 45.649 -0.928 32.588 -0.928 17.553 -0.928
Q = Fk C i A
b) IDFC 2
Where:
100 Yrs 50 Yrs 25 Yrs
Q: Peak flow (m3/s).
Time (hrs) a b a b a b
F: Factor related to the return period of the studied event
<0.75 75.224 -0.326 63.79 -0.326 53.753 -0.326
k: Conversion factor equal to 0.278 (metric).
0.75<= T <6 64.595 -0.808 54.776 -0.808 46.157 -0.808
>=6 79.09 -0.928 67.068 -0.928 56.515 -0.928
C: Dimensionless runoff coefficient.

10 Yrs 5 Yrs 2 Yrs i : Rainfall intensity for a specific time of concentration and storm return period (mm/h), from IDF curves.
Time (hrs) a b a b a b A: Catchment area contributing to the flow (km2).
<0.75 41.652 -0.326 32.675 -0.326 19.994 -0.326
12.2.2.2 The factor F related to the return period of the studied event is equal to 1.0 for return periods less or
0.75<= T <6 35.767 -0.808 28.058 -0.808 17.169 -0.808
equal to 10-year, to 1.1 for 25-year, 1.2 for 50-year and to 1.25 for the 100-year event.
>=6 43.793 -0.928 34.354 -0.928 21.022 -0.928
The runoff coefficient, C, is determined according to Table 12.2.2.1 for urban areas but for rural areas it should be
c) IDFC 3 determined according to the following criteria:
100 Yrs 50 Yrs 25 Yrs n Select CA, CB, CC and CD from Table 12.2.2.2 based on the watershed characteristics.
Time (hrs) a b a b a b n Add CA, CB, CC and CD to obtain the runoff coefficient C.
<0.75 108.16 -0.326 94.511 -0.326 81.713 -0.326
0.75<= T <6 92.881 -0.808 81.156 -0.808 70.166 -0.808 12.2.2.3 Where different surfaces occur within the same catchment area an equivalent runoff coefficient, “C”
>=6 113.72 -0.928 99.367 -0.928 85.912 -0.928 value can be determined by the following equation:
10 Yrs 5 Yrs 2 Yrs Equivalent C = (C1 x A1) + (C2 x A2) +..........(Cn x An)
Time (hrs) a b a b a b (A1 + A2 +..........An)
<0.75 65.365 -0.326 52.756 -0.326 33.589 -0.326
Where C1 is the run-off coefficient for area A1, etc.
0.75<= T <6 56.129 -0.808 45.301 -0.808 28.842 -0.808
>=6 68.724 -0.928 55.467 -0.928 35.315 -0.928 12.2.2.4 Rainfall intensity i is obtained from the IDF curves or formulas presented in Section 12.2.1. The time of
Table 12.2.1.2 Constant Values for IDF equations for the Three Hydrological Zones concentration (i.e. duration) and the return period of the storm can be derived as described in sub-sections 12.2.3
and 12.2.4, respectively.
12.2.1.6 Analyse of rainfall events in all Oman except Dhofar Governorate suggested that including the cyclones
did not significantly change the IDF results, especially when it comes to catchments with time of concentration of 12.2.2.5 Several highway design manuals (e.g., the highway design manual of California, USA) suggested that
less than 2 hours. Hence, the Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curve for all Oman except Dhofar was developed the rational method can be used up to a drainage area of 1.3 km2. This is the value to be adopted in this Highway
for the case of excluding the cyclone effects. However, if runoff volumes are needed, it is important to include Design Standard.
12-6
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
12.2.3 Time of Concentration.

12.2.3.1 The time of concentration (Tc) of the watershed is defined as the time needed for a drop of water to travel
from the hydraulically most distant point of the watershed to the design point downstream. Physically, the value Type of Drainage Area Runoff Coefficient, C*

of time of concentration is used for the design storm duration and it affects the shape of the flood hydrograph. Lawns:
Sandy soil, flat, <2% 0.05 - 0.10
12.2.3.2 Tc can be estimated using the Kirpich formula given by: Sandy soil, average, 2 - 7% 0.10 - 0.15
Sandy soil, steep, >7% 0.15 - 0.20
Heavy soil, flat, <2% 0.13 - 0.17
Heavy soil, average, 2 - 7% 0.18 - 0.22
Where: Heavy soil, steep, >7% 0.25 - 0.35
Tc = Time of concentration, min;
L = Horizontally projected length of drainage basin along the main water course, m; Streets:
H = Difference in elevation between the farthest point on the drainage area and the point of collection, m; Asphaltic 0.70 - 0.95
Concrete 0.80 - 0.95
12.2.3.3 The equation is directly applicable to natural basins with well-defined channels, overland flow on bare
Brick 0.70 - 0.85
earth, and mowed grass roadside channels. For other flow conditions, the result of the equation must be multiplied
Drives and walks 0.75 - 0.85
by a correction factor as listed in Table 12.2.3.1. The flow path should be separated into different reaches if there
Roofs 0.75 - 0.95
are breaks in the slope and changes in the topography. The times of travel in each reach are added together to
*Higher values are usually appropriate for steeply sloped areas and longer return periods
obtain the time of concentration. As with any empirical method, the best results are obtained when the procedure
because infiltration and other losses have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff in these
is used by experienced personnel familiar with the area. cases.
Table 12.2.2.1 (contd.) Runoff Coefficients Associated with the Rational Formula (ASCE, 1960)
12.2.3.4 The Kirpich equation is the only equation stipulated in many codes of practice in the Gulf Region (such as
the Saudi Ministry of Transportation Highway Design Manual, the Abu Dhabi Roadway Design Manual – Drainage
Section).The Dubai Municipality Design Criteria for Sewerage and Drainage and the Qatar Highway Design Manual,
Drainage Section do not dictate a specific empirical formula for the calculation of time of concentration. It should
be noted that the use of Kirpich equation – compared to other empirical equations –is on the safer side, as it was Watershed Characteristics
found to give low (conservative) values for time of concentration as noted by the Handbook of Hydrology, 1992. CA CB CC CD
Slope Soil Infiltration Vegetal Cover Surface Storage
Type of Drainage Area Runoff Coefficient, C*
0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2
Business:
No effective soil cover; Negligible: surface depression
Downtown areas 0.70 - 0.95 Steep rugged terrain: No effective plant cover;
either rock or thin mantle few and shallow; drainage
Average slopes greater than bare or very sparse soil
Neighborhood areas 0.50 - 0.70 negligible infiltration ways steep and small, no
30% cover
capacity ponds or marshes 30%
0.3 0.15 0.15 0.15
Residential:
Slow to take up water; Poor to fair; clean cultivated
Single-family areas 0.30 - 0.50 Low; well defined system
Hilly with average slopes of clay; or other soil of low crops or poor natural cover;
of small drainage ways, no
Multi-units, detached 0.40 - 0.60 10 to 30% infiltration capacity such as less than 10% of area under
ponds of marshes.
heavy gumbo good cover
Multi-units, attached 0.60 - 0.75
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Suburban 0.25 - 0.40
Normal; considerable surface
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 - 0.70 Fair to good, about 50%
depression storage; typical
Rolling with average slopes of area in good grass land
Normal, deep loam of prairie lands, lakes, ponds,
of 5 to 10% woodland or equivalent
Industrial: and marshes less than 20%
cover
of area
Light areas 0.50 - 0.80
0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05
Heavy areas 0.60 - 0.90
High, surface depression
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 - 0.25 Good to excellent; about storage high; drainage
High, deep sand or other soil
Playgrounds 0.20 - 0.40 Relatively flat land average 50% of area in good system not sharply defined,
that takes up water readily
slopes 0 to 5% grass land; woodland or large flood plain storage;
Railroad yard areas 0.20 - 0.40 and rapidly
equivalent large number of ponds and
Unimproved areas 0.10 - 0.30 marshes
Table 12.2.2.1 Runoff Coefficients Associated with the Rational Formula (ASCE, 1960) Table 12.2.2.2 Runoff Coefficients for Rural Areas (ASCE, 1960)

12-7
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

Flow Conditions Correction Factor Depressed Road

Roadway Floodways & Channels & Storm Sewer
Overland flow on grassed surfaces 2.0 Bridges Culverts Section
Classification Vented Floodways Ditches Systems
(Sag point)
Overland flow on concrete or asphalt surface 0.4
National and 1 in 100 years 1 in 50 years Vented Floodways 1 in 10 years 1 in 10 years 1 in 50 years
Flow in concrete channels 0.2 Arterial Road (1%) (4%) only to be used (10%) 1 (10%) (2%)
Table 12.2.3.1 Kirpich Formula Correction Factor for Specific Flow Conditions 1 in 100 years 1 in 50 years Vented Floodways 1 in 10 years 1 in 10 years 1 in 10 years
Secondary Road
(1%) (2%) only to be used (10%) (10%) (10%)

12.2.4 Flood Return Period 1 in 100 years 1 in 25 years 1 in 25 years 1 in 10 years 1 in 5 years 1 in 10 years
Distributor Road
(1%) (4%) (4%) 2 (10%) (20%) (10%)
12.2.4.1 In the past, availability of funds and the lack of hydrologic data played a major role in adopting the Access Road
1 in 100 years 1 in 25 years 1 in 25 years 1 in 5 years 1 in 2 years 1 in 5 years
(1%) (4%) (4%) 3 (20%) 50% (20%)
concept of associating only the highway classification with a specified design return period. However, with better
Table 12.2.4.1 Minimum Design Flood Return Period
hydrologic data, improved methods of analysis, and an increasing public awareness of the potential hazards
associated with highways encroaching upon floodplains, the hydraulics engineer now should consider both risk 1
Checking for the 25-yr without freeboard should also be performed
and economics involved in selecting the design return period for each highway hydraulic facility. Classification of 2
Vented floodways may be overtopped with a maximum overtopping of 40 cm once in 50 years
highways should be considered as one of the important factors, but certainly not the sole factor, in determining 3
Vented floodways may be overtopped with a maximum overtopping of 40 cm once in 25 years
the design flood return period for a drainage site. Other factors include present and future traffic volumes,
anticipated development in the area (land-use), potential for property damage, future planned improvements
to the highway, etc.. Table 12.2.4.1 provides one possible means of establishing minimum design return period 12.2.5 The SCS Unit Hydrograph Method
based on Roadway Classification. The listed minimum frequencies are selected based on the most common
practice in the U.S.A. and Gulf countries. 12.2.5.1 The United States National Resources Conservation Service (SCS) unit hydrograph is generally used
to estimate flood flows from medium to larger size catchment areas. This method takes into consideration the
12.2.4.2 Because pavement drainage shares the roadway area with the traffic, the selection of a design return catchment characteristics which include antecedent moisture conditions, type of soils, initial abstraction of
period takes on a special mantle of importance in order that traffic safety can be maintained within reasonable rainfall, slope and length of the longest channel and the surface treatment and land cover. These characteristics
project costs. The drainage of a depressed roadway section is a specific example where substantial pounding are reflected by a Curve Number (CN) value.
could pose a hazard to high-speed traffic and adjacent property. This type of situation may warrant a higher
design return period than would be applied to an at-grade roadway. 12.2.5.2 In the SCS - CN method of runoff prediction, a curve number is chosen to represent the land use/land
cover and soil type complexes. This number typically ranges from 25 (for low runoff depressions) to 98 (for paved
12.2.4.3 When selecting design flood frequencies, it is important to consider the potential damage that would impervious areas). An initial abstraction factor (Ia) is generally specified. The SCS-CN method typically uses an
result from a flood that exceeds the design event especially in urban areas and areas that may be hit by cyclones. initial abstraction of 0.2S, however the user may specify other values. The value of S is a maximum soil storage
To do this, the designer should consider the following: depth (in mm) and is calculated from the equation:
n Potential for loss of life;
n Effect of potential flooding of important installations (e.g., electrical power plants or substations,
chemical plants, refineries, water or sewage treatment plants) on the community;
n Agency liability for potential flood damage; Where:
n Potential for isolation of hospitals or other life support institutions; and CN = Curve Number;
n Emergency vehicle access and movement. S = Maximum storage depth (mm).

12.2.4.4 The final design storm return period should balance the risk of sociological and environmental 12.2.5.3 Values for Curve Number are tabulated in Tables 12.2.5.3 to 12.2.5.6 extracted from the Technical Release
impacts against economic limitations and physical constraints. It should be noted that vented floodways may be 55 (TR 55 document) issued by the US department of Agriculture (USDA, 1986).
overtopped with a maximum overtopping of 40 cm once in 50 years for distributor roads and once in 25 years for
access roads.

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

12.2.5.4 The SCS-CN method calculates the depth of runoff given the input rainfall depth and the CN value. The
Drainage Design
12
Runoff Curve Numbers for Urban Areas1
relation is given by:
Curve numbers for hydrologic soil
Cover Description
group
Average percent
Cover type and hydrologic condition A B C D
impervious area2
Where: Fully developed urban areas (vegetation established)
Runoff = The accumulated depth of runoff (mm); Open space (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemetries, etc)3

P = The accumulated depth of storm rainfall usually for a duration of 24 hours (mm); and Poor condition (grass cover < 50%) 68 79 86 89
Fair condition (grass cover < 50% to 75% 49 69 79 84
S = The value of S is a function of the CN value as given earlier.
Good condition (grass cover > 75%) 39 61 74 80
Ia = The initial abstractions in mm, assumed typically equal to 0.2 S
Impervious areas:
12.2.5.5 The shape of the SCS flood hydrograph is standard and depends on the watershed area and the lag Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways, etc. (excluding right-
98 98 98 98
time of the basin. The lag time is about 0.6 times the time of concentration. An approximate estimate of the peak of-way)
discharge is given by: Streets and roads:
Paved; curbs and storm sewers (excluding right-of-way) 98 98 98 98
Paved; open ditches (including right-of-way) 83 89 92 93
Where:
Gravel (including right-of-way 76 85 89 91
Qp = peak discharge in m3/s
Dirt (including right-of-way 72 82 87 89
A = Catchment area in km2
Western desert urban areas:
Fp = Dimensionless pond adjusting factor obtained from Table 12.2.5.1.
Natural desert landscaping (pervious areas only) 63 77 85 88
qu = unit peak discharge obtained from the following equation assuming aType 2 SCS rainfall distribution common
Artificial desert landscaping (impervious weed barrier,
in convective storm types. qu is given by the following equation desert shrub with 25 to 500mm sand or gravel mulch and 96 96 96 96
basin borders)
Urban districts:
Tc is the Time of Concentration in hours and coefficients C0, C1, and C2 are given by Table 12.2.5.2. Commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93
An exact estimate of the peak discharge as well as the whole hydrograph can be obtained using any of the
available software that applies the unit hydrograph procedure in its full extent. Residential districts by average lot size:
500m2 or less (town houses) 65 77 85 90 92
Percentage of pond and swamp areas Pp Rainfall Distribution Type Ia / P C0 C1 C2 1000m 2
38 61 75 83 87
0 1 0.1 2.553 -0.615 -0.164 1350m2 30 57 72 81 86
0.2 0.97 0.3 2.465 -0.623 -0.117 2000m 2
25 54 70 80 85
1 0.87 0.35 2.419 -0.616 -0.088 4000m2 20 51 68 79 84
II
3 0.75 0.4 2.364 -0.599 -0.056 8000m 2
12 46 65 77 82
5 0.72 0.45 2.292 -0.570 -0.023 Developing urban areas:
Table 12.2.5.1 Dimensionless Pond Adjusting 0.5 2.203 -0.516 -0.013 Newly graded areas
77 86 91 94
Factor (USDA, 1986) Table 12.2.5.2 Coefficients for Unit Peak Discharge Equation (pervious areas only, no vegetation)
(USDA, 1986) Idle lands (CN;s are determined using cover types similar
to those in Figure 12.2.5.5)
12.2.5.6 Judgment on the type of land use has to be exercised and a conservative estimate (higher CN values) 1 Average runoff condition, and Ia=0.2S
is prudent when doubt exists. For more details about the SCS-CN method refer to the U.S. National Resources 2 The average percent impervious area shown was used to develop the composite CN’s. Other Assumptions are as
Conservation Service, Technical Releases Nos. 20 and 55. CN estimates taken from Technical Release No. 55 are follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system, impervious areas have a CN of 98, and
pervious areas are considered equivalent to open space in good hydrologic condition.
shown in Figures 12.2.5.1 to 12.2.5.4. For a detailed definition for the Hydrologic Soil Groups required for the CN
3 CN’s shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CN’s may be computed for other combinations of open
choice, refer to Technical Release No. 55 presented also in Figure 12.2.5.5.
space cover type.
4 Composite CN’s for natural desert landscaping should be computed using figures 2-3 or 2-4 (Refer to Reference
USDA, 1986) based on the impervious area percentage (CN=98) and the pervious area CN. The pervious area CN’s
are assumed equivalent to desert shrub in poor hydrologic condition.
5 Composite CN’s to use for the design of temporary measures during grading and construction should be
computed using figures 2-3 or 2-4 (Refer to Reference USDA, 1986) based on the degree of development (impervious
area percentage) and the CN’s for the newly graded pervious areas.
Table 12.2.5.3 Runoff Curve Number for Urban Areas (USDA, 1986)

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 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

Runoff Curve Numbers for Cultivated Agricultural Lands1 Runoff Curve Numbers for Other Agricultural Lands1

Cover Description Curve numbers for hydrologic soil group Cover Description Curve numbers for hydrologic soil group

Hydrologic Hydrologic
Cover type Treatment2 A B C D Cover type A B C D
condition3 condition
_ 77 86 91 94 Poor 68 79 86 89
Bare soil Pasture, grassland, or range-continuous
Fallow Poor 4
76 85 90 93 Fair 49 69 79 84
Crop residue cover (CR) forage for grazing2
Good 5
74 83 88 90 Good 39 61 74 80
Straight row (SR) Poor 72 81 88 91 Meadow-continuous grass, protected from graz-
- 304 58 71 78
ing and generally mowed for hay
Good 67 78 85 89
Poor 48 67 77 83
SR + CR Poor 71 80 87 90
Brush-brush -weed-grass mixture with brush
Fair 35 56 70 77
Good 64 75 82 85 the major element3
Good 30 48 65 73
Contoured ( C ) Poor 70 79 84 88
Poor 57 73 82 86
Good 65 75 82 86
Woods-grass combination
Row crops Fair 43 65 76 82
C + CR Poor 69 78 83 87 (orchard or tree farm)5
Good 31 58 72 79
Good 64 74 81 85
Poor 45 66 77 83
Contoured & terraced
Poor 66 74 80 82
(C&T) Woods6 Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 62 71 78 81 Good 30⁴ 55 70 77
C&T + CR Poor 65 73 79 81 Farmstead-buildings, lanes, driveways, and sur-
- 59 74 82 86
rounding lots.
Good 61 70 77 80
1 Average runoff condition, and Ia=0.2S
SR Poor 65 76 84 88
2 Poor: <50% ground cover or heavily grazed with no mulch.
Good 63 75 83 87
Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover and not heavily grazed
SR + CR Poor 64 75 83 86 Good: >75% ground cover and not heavily grazed.
Good 60 72 80 84 3 Poor: <50% ground cover
Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover
C Poor 63 74 82 85
Good: >75% ground cover
Good 61 73 81 84 4 Actual curve number is less than 30; use CN=30 for runoff computation
Small grain
C + CR Poor 62 73 81 84 5 CN’s shown were computed for areas with 50% woods and 50% grass (pasture) cover. Other combinations
Good 60 72 80 83 of conditions may be computed from the CN’s for woods and pasture
C&T Poor 61 72 79 82 6 Poor: Forest litter, small trees, and brush are destroyed by heavy grazing or regular burning
Fair: Woods are grazed but not burned and some forest litter covers the soil.
Good 59 70 78 81 Good: Woods are protected from grazing, and litter and brush adequately cover the soil.
C&T + CR Poor 60 71 78 81 Table 12.2.5.5 Runoff Curve Number for Uncultivated Agricultural Land (USDA, 1986)
Good 58 69 77 80
SR Poor 66 77 85 89
Good 58 72 81 85
Close-seeded or
broadcast leg- C Poor 64 75 83 85
umes or rotation Good 55 69 78 83
meadow
C&T Poor 63 73 80 83
Good 51 67 76 80

1 Average runoff condition, and Ia=0.2S

2 Crop residure cover applies only if residue is on at least 5% of the surface throughout the year
3 Hydraulic condition is based on combination factors that affect infiltration and runoff, including (a) density and
canopy of vegelative areas, (b) amount of year-round cover, (c) amount of grass or close-seeded legumes, (d) per-
cent of residue cover on the hand surface (good ≥ 20%) and (e) degree of surface roughness.
4 Poor: Factors impair and tend to increase runoff
5 Good: Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to decrease runoff.

Table 12.2.5.4 Runoff Curve Number for Cultivated Agricultural lands (USDA, 1986)

12-10
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
Runoff Curve Numbers for Arid and Semi-Arid Rangelands1 12.2.6 Regression Equations
Cover Description Curve numbers for hydrologic soil group
12.2.6.1 Stepwise regression, which is a technique for choosing the variables to include in a multiple regression
Cover type Hydrologic condition
2
A 3
B C D
model, was used to derive a set of flow equations using multi non-linear regression analysis. Applying the
Poor 80 87 93
Herbaceous-mixture of grass, weeds, and stepwise regression for all of Oman except Dhofar Governorate, the following equations are recommended
low-growing brush, with brush the minor Fair 71 81 89
element
for adoption: These equations should be used in conjunction with the rainfall-runoff transformation techniques
Good 62 74 85
such as the rational formula or the SCS method, described in previous sections. In case of doubts, it might be
Poor 66 74 79
Oak-aspen-mountain brush mixture of oak advisable to use both methods and choose the one yielding the highest results.
brush, aspen, mountain mahogany, bitter Fair 48 57 63
brush, maple, and other brush
Good 30 41 48
Poor 75 85 89
Pinyon-juniper-pinyon, juniper, or both;
Fair 58 73 80
grass understory
Good 41 61 71
Poor 67 80 85
Sagebrush with grass understory Fair 51 63 70
Good 35 47 55
Poor 63 77 85 88
Desert shrub-major plants include salt-
bush, greasewood, creosotebush, bursage, Fair 55 72 81 86
palo verde, mesquite, and cactus
Good 49 68 79 84
1 Average runoff condition, and Ia=0.2S
2 Poor: < 30% ground cover (litter, grass, and brush overstory)
Fair: 30 to 70% ground cover
Good: > 70% ground cover
Where:
3 Curve numbers for group A have been developed only for desert shrub.
Table 12.2.5.6 Runoff Curve Number for Arid and Semiarid Rangelands (USDA, 1986) The peak discharge corresponding to n years return period in m3/s
Catchment area in (Km2)
Hydrologic Soil Groups The slope of the maximum stream length within the basin (m/m). The details for calculating the MSS are
Soils are classified into hydrologic soil groups (HSG’s) to indicate the minimum rate of infiltration obtained for bare soil described below.
after prolonged wetting.The HSG’s,which are A,B,C,and D are one element used in determining runoff curve numbers.
Estimated rainfall depth at return period n in (mm). To facilitate the use of the new equations, maps of
The infiltration rate is the rate at which water enters the soil at the soil surface.It is controlled by surface conditions.
HSG also indicates the transmission rate-the rate at which the water moves within the soil.This rate is controllled by the the spatial distribution of the return period of the estimated rainfall depth within the Sultanate of Oman is
soil profile. Approximate numerical ranges for transmission rates shown in the HSG definitions were first published by shown in Figure 12.2.6.1 for different return periods. Alternatively, may be obtained from the developed
Musgrave(USDA 1955). The four groups are defined by SCS soil scientists as follows:
IDFs (Table 12.2.1.1 a to f) or from the results of frequency analysis of nearby rainfall stations
Group A Soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted.They consist chiefly of
Runoff parameter (mm/mm) which is calculated based on the U.S. Soil Conservation Service SCS empirical
deep,well to excessively drained sand or gravel and have a high rate of water transmission (greater than 7.6mm/hr)
model. The details of calculating the runoff parameter is presented in paragraph 12.2.6.4.
Group B Soils have moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of moderately deep to
deep,moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.These soils have a moderate
rate of water transmission (3.8 to 7.6mm/hr) 12.2.6.2 Applying the stepwise regression for Dhofar Governorate coastal area, the following equations are
Group C Soils have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of soils with a layer that impedes recommended for adoption:These equations should be used in conjunction with the rainfall-runoff transformation
downward movement of water and soils with moderately fine to fine texture.These soils have a low rate of water transmis- techniques such as the rational formula or the SCS method, described in subsequent sections.
sion (1-3.8mm/hr)
Group D Soils have high runoff potential.Thay have very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consisit chiefly
of clay soils with a high swelling potential,soils with a permanent high water table,soils with a claypan or clay layer at or
near the surface,and shallow soils over nearly impervious material.These soils have a very low rate of water transmission
(1.3mm/hr)
Disturbed soil profiles
As a result of urbanization,the soil profile may be considerably altered and the listed group classification may no longer
apply.In these circumstances,use the following to determine HSG according to the texture of the new surface soil,provided
that significant compaction has not occured (Brakensiek and Rawls 1983)
HSG: Soil Textures
A: Sand,loamy sand,or sandy loam
B: Silt loam or loam
C: Sandy clay loam
D: Clay loam,silty clay loam,sandy clay,silty clay,or clay
Table 12.2.5.7 Hydrologic Soil Groups Definition (USDA, 1986)
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 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000

32 60 56
2,800,000

2,800,000

2,800,000

2,800,000
28
52

± ±

52
28
28 24 48
48

44
52

36
482

40
24

24
2,600,000

2,600,000

2,600,000

2,600,000
28 3
28
32 5

44
20 6
20
24 48 36
3 40
4
44 0

44

44
16 28 2
24
12 36 20 56
8 28 32 52
24 16 44
48 40
20
16

32
2,400,000

2,400,000

2,400,000

2,400,000
36
4 12

36
20

32
24

28
12
8

16
2,200,000

2,200,000

2,200,000

2,200,000
LEGEND LEGEND

ESCWA Roads ESCWA Roads

2,000,000

2,000,000

2,000,000

2,000,000
Roads with Existing Route Nos. Roads with Existing Route Nos.

12 24 28 32

16
16

40
8

20

36
0 50 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 200 300 400 500
Kilometers Kilometers
N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North

200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000

Figure 12.2.6.1a Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (2 year) Figure 12.2.6.1b Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (5 year)
12-12
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Drainage Design
12
200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000

130 0

2,800,000

2,800,000
80
2,800,000

2,800,000
90 12
70

± ±
110
70

100

80
80

90
709

60
0
70
50

12
2,600,000

2,600,000
2,600,000

2,600,000
11100
40

50
50 70 7

0
67
60 0 0

80
50 00

90 10090
6
40

50

70
70
60
50
60

30 70
40
60 80

50

70
30

2,400,000

2,400,000
2,400,000

2,400,000
10

90
20
0

40
10
60 0

90
50

60
30

70
80
50
40

120
2,200,000

2,200,000
2,200,000

2,200,000

LEGEND LEGEND

ESCWA Roads ESCWA Roads

2,000,000

2,000,000
2,000,000

2,000,000

Roads with Existing Route Nos. Roads with Existing Route Nos.

110
10
50

40
50
60
70

90
80
30

60
4
0

0
0 50 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 200 300 400 500
Kilometers Kilometers
N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North

200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000

Figure 12.2.6.1c Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (10 year) Figure 12.2.6.1d Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (25 year)
12-13
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Drainage Design

200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000
2,800,000

2,800,000

2,800,000

2,800,000
160

± ±
2 00
12
0 140
100 12 0
0
80

16

180
2,600,000

2,600,000

2,600,000

2,600,000
160
100 16 2
24
60
40 120 00

80
80

1124 120
80
80

00
100
80
80
60
0 0

12
10 12

0
40
2,400,000

2,400,000

2,400,000

2,400,000
0 0
12 80 16
140

20
60

12
1 20

16
10
80

160

0
240
0

0
2,200,000

2,200,000

2,200,000

2,200,000
180

LEGEND LEGEND

ESCWA Roads ESCWA Roads

2,000,000

2,000,000

2,000,000

2,000,000
Roads with Existing Route Nos. Roads with Existing Route Nos.
100

160

160

2 00
120

240
14
12
60
80

80
0

0 50 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 200 300 400 500
Kilometers Kilometers
N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North N.B. Coordinates are in UTM Zone 40 North

200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000

Figure 12.2.6.1e Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (50 year) Figure 12.2.6.1f Spatial Distribution of the Rainfall Depth (mm) within Oman (100 year)
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Drainage Design
12
12.2.6.3 Calculation of MSS 12.2.7 Empirical Equation for Flood Estimation
In the above equation set, the slope of the maximum stream length is simply obtained after identifying the 12.2.7.1 The following empirical equation was developed by MRMWS (Ministry of Regional Municipalities,
stream of the maximum length within the basin. The maximum stream length is computed by determining the Environment and Water Resources) in 2002, and is currently applied for calculating the design flood for natural
maximum distance travelled when “flowing” down from the top of streams in a basin and where the streams catchments greater than 10 km2.
exit the basin. As an example of obtaining the MSS, Figure 12.2.6.2 depicts the calculations of the MSS for two
Qmaf = 1.91 A0.76 Nm-0.15 SL0.2
catchments. It should be mentioned here that the highest elevation reported is the highest elevation within the
catchment and not necessarily to be on the maximum stream length. Where
Qmaf = Mean Annual Flow (m3/s)
A = Catchment Area (km2)
Nm = Proportion of the noun-mountain (flat and alluvial) catchment to the total catchment (ratio)
SL = Slope of the catchment along its longest tributary, from 15% of its length measured down from the
catchment boundary to its outlet (m/km) = (Z – H)/0.85L
L = Catchment main stream length (km)
Z = Main wadi (level) at 15% of L measured from catchment boundary (m)
H = Catchment outlet level (m)

12.2.7.2 This 2002 empirical equation give the mean annual flood. Consequently, its value should be multiplied
by a growth factor to get the flood value at each return period. Table 12.2.7.1 shows the growth factor values.

Return Period Previous

(Years) (1998)
MAF 1
5 1.9
10 2.8
20 3.8
Table 12.2.7.1 Growth
50 5
Factor Values for each
100 5.9
Return Period

12.2.7.3 To assess the applicability of the 2002 equation, it was used to estimate the flows at all available
flow gages. Then a comparison was made between the results of the recorded flow values, the new developed
regression equations and the 2002 empirical equation of the different catchments for the 50 and 100-year return
periods as these are the design values for culverts and bridges where these equations are to be mostly applied.
The results are shown in Table 12.2.7.1 and 12.2.7.2.

12.2.7.4 It is shown for example that that for floods less than 2000 m3/s (for a 100-year return period), the Oman
2002 formula tends to produce much higher than the actual floods. The variability of the Oman 2002 formula is
higher than the variability of the new developed equation. Furthermore, it tends to yield nearly twice the actual
recorded flows. However, for resulting 100-year floods of more than 2000 m3/s, both equations yield similar
Figure 12.2.6.2 Example Calculations of the MSS
results. However, the Oman 2002 formula has no rainfall input and the new developed equation has a rainfall
12.2.6.4 Calculation of Runoff Parameter input, which gives room to higher produced flows if the correct rainfall event related to the high flood was
recorded and introduced in the equation.
In the above equation set, the adapted runoff parameter Roff is based on the calculations of the SCS method
described in paragraph 12.2.3.4. The runoff parameter is computed as the ratio between the runoff calculated by 12.2.7.5 As such, it is generally recommended to use the new developed equations. However, for flows greater
the SCS equation previously mentioned to the actual rainfall. than 1500 m3/s and 2000 m3/s, for 50- and 100-year return periods, respectively, both equations are equivalent.

It should be mentioned that the used runoff parameter is assumed to be a direct function of the rainfall depth The previously mentioned flows are produced by a catchment of 400 km2 approximately.

which is varying with return period. Relating the runoff parameters to the rainfall depth is a widely accepted
assumption.

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6000 12.3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ANALYSIS

NewDevelopedRegressionEquation

2002OmaniFormula 12.3.1 General

5000
RecordedFlowatgaugestations
12.3.1.1 An open channel may be a man-made or natural channel (wadi) in which water flows with a free surface.
Open channels are the primary method of coping with surface run-off. Their hydraulics is of particular importance
4000 to highway design because of the interrelationship of channels to all highway drainage structures.

12.3.1.2 The major objectives in open-channel hydraulic analysis are:

ModeledFlood(m3/s)

3000 n Hydraulic evaluation of the existing conditions,

n Assessment of the effect of the different design alternatives on the existing conditions, and
n The design of a proposed facility.
2000
The water surface profiles, velocity, and flow distributions are of primary concern in achieving these objectives.

12.3.1.3 The depth of flow in the channel is an important guideline in choosing the type of drainage structure
1000
to be adopted and the optimum elevation of the highway. In the case of bridges, a minimum vertical clearance
(freeboard) between top water level and underside of bridge deck must be allowed which will determine the
lowest elevation of the bridge. Similarly, at culverts, the height of the opening should be compatible with the
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 expected nominal flow depth and the selected elevation of the road. However, the elevation of the road may
ActualFlood(m3/s) be chosen to allow overtopping (some of the flow goes over the road) or to prevent overtopping (all the flow
Figure 12.2.7.1 C
 omparison between the Oman 2002 empirical equation and new regression equations for goes under the road) in the design flood depending on the importance of the route and the vulnerability of the
50 years return period for floods less than or equal 2000 m3/s structure to damage.

12.3.1.4 The velocity of the channel flow is used to determine the type and extent of protection works necessary
7000
to prevent scour from undermining the drainage facility or structure. The magnitude of the velocity can also
NewDevelopedRegressionEquation
be used to check the overall integrity of the drainage structure. For example, velocities greater than 2.5m/s
6000 2002OmaniFormula
could erode an asphalt road surface at a floodway. In this case a more durable concrete road surface would be
Recordedfloodatgaugestations
necessary.
5000
12.3.1.5 Hydraulic considerations should be included in the factors considered during the evaluation of
ModeledFlood(m3/s)

alternatives of highway locations during the planning phase. Preliminary studies of drainage requirements are
4000 necessary to minimize and mitigate drainage problems on the selected location.

12.3.1.6 Detailed information and survey data are seldom available for an in-depth hydraulic study during the
3000 planning phase; however, it is possible to ascertain basic requirements and consequences of a particular location
or alignment and the relative merits of alternatives. Topographic maps, satellite images, stream gage data,
floodplain delineation maps, and a general knowledge of the area will often provide the basis for preliminary
2000
evaluations of alternatives.

1000 12.3.1.7 For final design, detailed and accurate survey information is necessary to document and evaluate
existing conditions and to design a facility that will best serve the requirements of a location. Survey data,
must be tailored to satisfy the requirements of the specific location, project, and terrain for which the channel
0
study is required. Coordination in the planning phase will assure the acquisition of sufficient, but not excessive
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
information.
ActualFlood(m3/s)
Figure 12.2.7.2 C
 omparison between the Oman 2002 formula and new equations set for 100 years return
 12.3.1.8 The survey data should include the following as applicable:
period for floods less than or equal 2000 m3/s
n Location and level of significant physical features and culture in the vicinity of the stream such as
 residences, commercial buildings, croplands, roadways, and utilities,


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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

n The stream profile, water surface, horizontal alignment and cross sections necessary to provide an
Drainage Design
12
12.3.2.6 The Manning equation is used for open channel analysis where uniform flow exists or can be reasonably
accurate representation of the stream and floodplain area (The stream and floodplain cross section assumed. This can be expressed as follows:
should be extended laterally to include historical and anticipated highwater),
Q = A/n x (A/P)2/3 x S1/2
n Information on the stability of the stream and stream alignment especially if the streambed is subject
to aggradation or degradation, widening or narrowing, and if there is lateral stream movement, and Where,

n Date and elevation of past flood events. Q is the discharge in m3/s

A is the cross section of flow area in m2
12.3.2 Open Channel Hydraulics P is the wetted perimeter in m
S is the slope of channel bed (m/m) dimensionless
12.3.2.1 Open-channel flow is usually classified as uniform or nonuniform, steady or unsteady and subcritical,
n is Manning’s roughness coefficient given in Table 12.3.2.1.
critical, or supercritical. Of these, nonuniform, unsteady, subcritical flow is the most common type of flow in
open channels. Due to the complexity and difficulty involved in the analysis of nonuniform, unsteady flow, most 12.3.2.7 There is no exact method for selecting “n” values in Manning’s equation as this coefficient expresses
hydraulic computations are made with certain simplifying assumptions that allow the application of steady, the resistance of flow which consists of many variables including the factors listed below:
uniform, or gradually varied flow principles and one-dimensional methods of analysis.
n Flow depth and discharge
12.3.2.2 Use of steady flow methods assumes that the discharge at a point does not change with time, and the n Surface roughness
use of uniform flow methods assumes that there is no change in velocity, magnitude, or direction with distance n Vegetation
along a stream line. Steady uniform flow is thus characterised by constant velocity and flow rate at each section n Channel Irregularity
along the channel. n Channel alignment

12.3.2.3 Steady uniform flow is an idealised concept of open channel flow which seldom occurs in natural channels. n Scour and sedimentation
However, for most practical highway applications the flow is considered steady, and changes in width, depth, or n Obstructions
direction are sufficiently small that flow can be considered uniform. The changes in channel characteristics occur n Size and shape of channel
over a long distance such that flow is gradually varied. For these reasons, use of uniform flow theory is usually
Table 12.3.2.1 Provides a tabulation of Manning’s n values for various channel lining materials and flow depths.
within acceptable degrees of accuracy. Furthermore since highway drainage design addresses the maximum
Manning’s roughness coefficient for vegetative and other linings varies significantly depending on the amount
required capacity of cross drainage structures and since these capacities need to be provided irrespective of the
of submergence.
flow type and condition, the use of steady uniform flow in calculating these capacities is generally adopted.
12.3.2.8 Nonuniform or varied flow requires the use of methods other than or in addition to Manning’s equation.
12.3.2.4 The distinction between subcritical and supercritical flow is important in the analysis of open-channel
The energy equation is used to analyze flow where changes in flow resistance, size, shape, or slope of channel
flow. Supercritical flow is often characterized as rapid or shooting with flow depths less than critical depth,
occur (gradually varied flow).The energy balance concept of the energy equation is especially useful for computing
whereas subcritical flow is tranquil and slow with depths greater than critical. A dimensionless number called the
water surface profiles. The energy equation can be expressed as follows:
Froude Number (Fr) uniquely describes these flow regimes with the Froude number of critical flow being equal
to one. Values greater than one indicate supercritical flow, and values less than one indicate subcritical flow. Fr is d1 + z1 +Į1(V12/2g) = d2 + z2 +Į2(V22/2g) + hL
defined by the following equation:
Where,
Fr = V / (gD)1/2
d = is the depth of flow at a point in m
Where,
z = is the elevation or height above some datum in m
V = is the mean velocity, m/s,
α = is the energy coefficient to correct for the overall effect of nonuniform velocity distribution
g = is the acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m/s2,
V= is the mean velocity in m/s
D = is the hydraulic depth or the cross-sectional area divided by the top width, m.
g = is the gravitational acceleration in m/s2
12.3.2.5 A hydraulic jump occurs at an abrupt transition from supercritical to subcritical flow. There are hL = is the energy head loss in m
significant changes in depth and velocity in the jump and energy is dissipated. the potential for a hydraulic
The energy coefficient is assumed to have a value of 1.0 for turbulent flow in prismatic channels; however, it
jump to occur should be considered in all cases where the Froude number is close to one (1.0) and/or where
might be higher than 1.0 in natural streams and could reach up to 1.2. Recent studies have also shown that the
the slope of the channel bottom changes abruptly from steep to mild. Since the change in flow regime from
energy coefficient is generally higher than 1.0 and its value generally increases as the discharge decreases.
subcritical to supercritical and rice versa involves significant changes in velocity energy dissipation which may
affect the stability of the drainage structure, a deep understanding of these phenomena by the drainage engineer
is required.

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n - Value for Given Depth Ranges 12.3.2.13 When estimating a stage-discharge relation by the single-section method, it is desirable to have at least
Lining
Lining Category one reference point of known stage-discharge data. With this information, the known point can be compared
Type 0-0.15 m 0.15-0.60 m >0.60 m
Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013 with the computed rating curve and, if necessary, adjustments made to roughness or slope values to obtain
Grouted Riprap 0.04 0.03 0.028 satisfactory correlation.
Rigid Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.03
12.3.2.14 The use of a water surface profile is a more accurate method of establishing the stage-discharge
Soil Element 0.025 0.022 0.02
relationship for open channels. This method should be used in critical areas and for final studies where uniform
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
steady flow cannot be assumed to be reasonably representative of actual flow conditions. The energy equation
Bare Soil 0.023 0.02 0.02
Unlined listed above should be used to compute water surface profiles.
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015 12.3.2.15 Water surface profile computations take into account the many variables and controls that influence the
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019 stage-discharge relationship. The computation procedures permit taking into account changes in cross section,
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.021 0.019 roughness or slope along the stream. Therefore, at each location along the stream where significant change in
Temporary(ii)
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025 the above factors occurs, a cross sections and channel roughness descriptions are required. Rapidly varied flow
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028 conditions (e.g., hydraulic jumps, drawdowns, abrupt transitions) must be computed individually and integrated
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021 into the profile analysis.
25 mm (1 in) D50 0.044 0.033 0.03
Gravel Riprap 12.3.2.16 Flow in most open channels is subcritical.Therefore, the hydraulic control is downstream and the analysis
50 mm (2 in) D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
must begin a sufficient distance downstream of the channel reach in question and proceed upstream. However,
150 mm (6 in) D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
Rock Riprap in case the flow is supercritical, the control section is located upstream, and the profile computations must
300 mm (12 in) D50 -- 0.078 0.04
begin at the control and proceed downstream. The control is critical depth where flow passes from subcritical to
Table 12.3.2.1 Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Channels
supercritical.
Notes:
1) V
 alues listed are representative values for the respective depth ranges. Manning’s roughness 12.3.2.17 When the water surface profile computation involves a channel of uniform cross section and roughness,
coefficients, n, vary with the flow depth. but with reaches of different slopes, a Direct Step Method is normally employed.
2) Some “temporary” linings become permanent when buried.
3) Table reproduced from HEC-15 12.3.2.18 Stage-discharge relationships for sandbed or alluvial channels may change continuously with time
due to scour and fill, sediment transport, and changes in bed forms or channel roughness. Stage-discharge
12.3.2.9 For flow in natural channels the cross section at the point of interest should be determined, together relationships for unstable channels are therefore complex to develop and may be indeterminate because the
with the general slope of the channel bed. From site observations, where deep channels are concerned, an
relationships vary with time and from flood to flood. Therefore, the appropriate procedure for the development
assessment should be made of the probable highest historical flood level. In flatter terrain, top of bank level
of the stage-discharge curve for unstable channels should be determined on a case by case basis by the designer
should be considered initially as the limiting flow height.
subject to the approval of the concerned authorities. The designer might refer to publications related to this topic
12.3.2.10 The stage-discharge relationship is one of the more important factors considered in analysis and design. such as Brownlie, 1983; Gessler et al., 1998; etc.
The total discharge for the stream, normal-flow channel, and floodplain may be computed for various depths. The
12.3.2.19 Computer programs are available for one-dimensional and two-dimensional water surface profile
data, plotted in graphic form (termed a “rating curve”), gives the designer a visual display of the relationship.
analysis. The programs most often used for one-dimensional analysis are WSPRO (Computer Model for Water
12.3.2.11 The stage-discharge relation may be estimated by several techniques. A single-section analysis may be Surface Profile Computation) developed by USGS in cooperation with FHWA and HEC-RAS (River Analysis
used with limited data for preliminary analysis or for situations where the basic assumptions in a single-section System) developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center of the USACE. For two-dimensional analysis, the
analysis are reasonably applicable. A more accurate, but more complex method of estimating stage-discharge programs most often used are RMA2 Hydrodynamic model and FESWMS-2DH.
relations involves the use of water surface profile computations. The method to be used will depend upon the
12.3.2.20 Having plotted the stage-discharge characteristics of the channel the depth of flow can be read from the
accuracy required, the risk involved, the cost of the study, and the validity of the basic assumptions of a single-
graph for any discharge. The “catchment” discharge can now be determined as described in sub-section 12.2 for
section analysis.
a range of storm return periods which are then related to channel flow depth. The average velocity of flow at each
12.3.2.12 The basic assumptions applicable to the single-section method are uniform discharge, cross section, depth is determined by dividing the discharge by the area of flow.
slope and “n” values. These values must be reasonably representative of the average channel characteristics
12.3.2.21 Using the output from the channel discharge characteristics the sensitivity of a variety of storm
within a uniform cross section. Computations involve designating subsections of the cross section according to
conditions at the site can be assessed and the optimum design storm can be selected. The velocity and discharge
geometric and roughness characteristics and computing the conveyance of each subsection for various depths
values can be used for estimating scour potential within the stream channel and on the floodplain and for design
of flow using Manning’s equation. The total conveyance of the section at any given stage is equal to the sum of
of slope protection and channel geometry.
all subsection conveyances.

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Drainage Design
12
12.3.3 Effects of Channel Alterations perhaps foremost is experience with existing facilities in similar locations. Factors such as slope, grain size of bed
load, bed and bank material, mean flood, and low water discharges must be taken into account. Relative costs and
12.3.3.1 It may be necessary to modify a stream to make it more compatible with the highway facility and the durability of available materials, and the difficulty of construction and anticipated maintenance requirements, are
physical constraints imposed by local terrain or land use. The modifications may involve changes in alignment or additional considerations in the selection process.
conveyance. Changes may be necessary to accommodate the highway requirements, but they must be evaluated
to assess short-term and long-term effects on the stream system. 12.3.4.3 Revetments are continuous-type structures generally placed longitudinally along the stream banks or
highway embankment to protect against destruction or damage by stream currents and flood flows. Revetments
12.3.3.2 Channel realignment may disrupt the natural system regime balance. The effect of these changes may are generally, though not exclusively, located on the outside bank of bends where bank recession or erosion is
be either negligible or significant. The time-effect relationship depends on the magnitude, duration, and return most active as a result of impinging flow. They may be required elsewhere to protect an embankment from wave
period of floods, fluvial geomorphology, and the nature or extent of the modification. wash or flood attack. It is common practice to move from no revetment (if possible) to riprap or gabions and
finally to rigid lining such as concrete. Allowable velocities for different types of lining materials are reported in
12.3.3.3 When dealing with channel modifications, the preferred procedure is:
Table 12.5.5.1.
n Establish the nature of the present regime (slope, section, meander pattern, and stage-discharge
relationship); 12.3.4.4 Extreme care should be taken when channels running in supercritical condition are subject to sudden
n Determine thresholds for changes in the various regime parameters; and change in gradient or horizontal curves.
n Duplicate the existing regime, where possible, but keep within the established tolerances for change,
where duplication is not practical or possible. 12.3.5 Roadside And Median Ditches / Channels

12.3.3.4 Stream realignment may occasionally result in decreased channel slope but, more often, the modification 12.3.5.1 The primary purposes of roadside drainage channels (ditches) are to collect overland flow from areas
will increase the channel gradient. A localized increase in channel slope may introduce channel responses that adjacent to the roadway and rain falling within the highway right-of-way and to convey the collected rainwater to
are reflected for considerable distances upstream and downstream of the project. Grade control structures in a suitable turnout, watercourse or culvert. Median channels are used mostly on highways with wide median to
the form of a series of weirs or chutes may be utilized to minimize increases in gradient provided there is some collect rain water from the nearby roadway lanes and discharge it into the nearest culvert..
assurance that the normal meandering tendency of the channel will not bypass these structures in time.
12.3.5.2 Roadside ditches are normally located along the outer edge of the shoulder in cuts, and beside shallow
12.3.3.5 Channel cross section characteristics are a major consideration where stream realignment is necessary. raised carriageways on fill. It is preferable that the ditch invert level be set below the bottom of the subgrade
It is desirable to duplicate features (e.g., shape, side slopes, bed material, roughness characteristics) and to so as to allow subsurface water in the roadway pavement layers to drain freely to the roadside ditch. If this
maintain roughly the same proportional flow in the channel and floodplains. recommendation is not followed, perforated pipes might be used for subsurface drainage. It is also highly
recommended that an additional channel (cut off ditch) is located at the top of cut slopes to intercept overland flow
12.3.3.6 Highway locations or modifications in certain terrain conditions may result in an encroachment on the of water and prevent drilling, erosion or scouring of the face of the cut where the cut material is susceptible.
flood plain or channel. This encroachment may require providing a channel of sufficient section to convey both
normal and flood flow within the banks formed by the roadway and the flood plain/channel. 12.3.5.3 For median road ditch, the designer should give careful consideration to the selection of outlet points of
the median ditch. Often, the continuous flow of median ditch is interrupted by the presence of median crossover
12.3.3.7 Longitudinal encroachments on the floodplain and stream realignment will usually affect the conveyance or other features. Where such interruption occurs, the designer should decide whether to provide an outlet from
of the channel reach. The channel capacity may be decreased or increased as a result of these changes. There the median to the side of the roadway or to convey flows through or around the obstruction.
may also be changes in the roughness characteristics of the bed, banks, and floodplain caused by clearing and
grubbing, enlarged channel section, and channel lining. These changes will affect the stage-discharge relationship 12.3.5.4 Where terrain permits, roadside and median drainage channels built in earth should have flattened side
and may affect the flow regime and influence the balance of the stream ecosystem. A water surface profile analysis slopes and a rounded bottom to be safe for vehicles accidentally leaving the travelled way. In areas where traffic
is necessary to establish the stage-discharge relationship. The analysis should extend downstream to a control safety may be of concern, channel side slopes should be 1V:4H or flatter.
section or reach downstream of the site that, for a given discharge, will determine the stage at the encroachment
12.3.5.5 Side slopes of unlined channels should be designed based on channel depth and soil condition. Where
location. Channel sections that are constricted or enlarged contrary to the geomorphic characteristics of the
local conditions dictate the use of some type of lining, the use of steeper side slopes may be more economical.
existing channel will often respond adversely to the change.
In any case the side slopes should not exceed the angle of repose of the soil and/or lining material. The stability
of the channel should be checked by using both velocity and tractive force (shear stress) methods.
12.3.4 Channel Stabilization and Bank Protection Requirement
12.3.5.6 Channel lining may be desirable or necessary to:
12.3.4.1 If a highway location adjacent to a stream cannot be avoided, alternative protective measures should be
evaluated to determine the measure best suited to resist erosion during flood events. Alternatives may include channel n Minimize maintenance,

alignment modification, roadway embankment protection, stream bank stabilization, and stream-training works. n Resist the erosive forces of flowing water,
n Increase the velocity and/or conveyance to improve hydraulic efficiency, and
12.3.4.2 The selection of a type of appropriate protective measure for use at a site depends on many factors, but
n Limit the channel size for right-of-way or safety considerations.

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12.3.5.7 Rigid linings have the following disadvantages when compared with flexible linings: if channel stability conditions warrant, it may be feasible to adjust the channel gradient slightly to achieve a
more stable condition. The following general guidelines are provided to assist road designers’ understanding of
n Higher cost,
desirable slopes:
n Inhibit natural infiltration,
n Usually cause higher flow velocities – due to its low roughness – with potential scour occurring at n The channel slope is generally determined by the topography.
the outlet unless controlled with riprap or other energy dissipating devices, n In case of laden flow or high suspended load, the channel slope should be properly selected to avoid
n Highly susceptible to failure from structural instability due to such occurrences as swelling, hydrostatic ponding and siltation. This desirable slope should be calculated based on a corresponding minimum
uplift, and erosion along the interface between the lining and the natural channel surface., and velocity of not less than 0.3m/s. Flatter slopes will require more strict periodic maintenance.

n Undesirable in areas where water quality considerations are of major concern because rigid lining n To avoid erosion the slope should not exceed 0.6%, depending on the soil type.
facilitates the transport of contaminants to the receiving waters. n Channels steeper than 1% may need scour protection (lining) because on bare soil the velocity might
exceed the allowable velocity as listed in Table 12.5.5.1. For guidance concerning the identification
12.3.5.8 The most suitable lining materials for channels are concrete, riprap and grouted riprap. Wire enclosed of the potential for channel bank erosion and the subsequent need for channel stabilization refer to
riprap (Gabion mattresses) can be used for large channels. HEC11 (Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 11).

12.3.5.9 For concrete lined channels, a rectangular shape is the most economical shape from a material cost n As a general rule, the designer should attempt to avoid placing ditches on slopes greater than
standpoint. The use of this shape, however, is normally limited to areas with limited right-of-way where the 10%. Where the topography may require the use of steep ditches or when the water velocity in the
hazard to traffic can be minimized through the use of guardrail or parapets. ditch exceeds 6 m/s. the designer should consider the implementation of channel grade control
structures.
12.3.5.10 Channels that do not require a rigid lining at the time of construction are usually of a trapezoidal shape.
This shape, depending on the dimensions of side slopes and the bottom width, is easily constructed by machinery. 12.3.5.14 Chutes are frequently used in referring to steep, open channels used to convey water down slopes. Lining
V-shaped channels are susceptible to erosion and are usually incompatible with roadside safety requirements. or stepped chutes are generally required for the high-flow velocity conditions, and some provision for energy
dissipation or scour protection might be necessary at the outlet. Open chutes should be lined with concrete or
12.3.5.11 The freeboard is the vertical distance from the water surface to the top of the channel. It should be riprap, depending upon the volume and velocity of the flow. On long slopes, closed (pipe) flumes are generally
sufficient to prevent waves, superelevation changes or fluctuation in water surfaces from overflowing the sides. preferable to open sections because the high-velocity flow may overtop an open channel, erode the slope and
The freeboard for roadside and median channels is generally considered (for the case of subcritical flow) about destroy the entire structure. For design of rock chutes, the designer is referred to (Lorenz, et al..2000).
15% of flow depth.
12.3.5.15 Chutes should be provided for embankment protection in fill section when the fill height exceeds 3 m.
In supercritical flow channels, the high flow velocity tends to trap or entrain air in the moving water. This air
Higher road embankment without chutes could be accepted upon receiving the related calculations that prove
entrainment causes greater depths for supercritical flow. Accordingly, in case of supercritical flow, the freeboard
the embankment safety and stability. Chute spacing should be properly designed so as to avoid water spread that
should consider the air entrainment effect. The following equation could be used to obtain the increase in the
exceeds the allowable extents tabulated in Table 12.6.3.1.
water depth (Δy) due to air entrainment up to Froude No. (Fr) equals 8.0:
12.3.5.16 Flow depths in chutes may be greater than those predicted using Manning’s equation and the continuity
ǻyae = yǜ(0.906 e0.061Fr - 1) USACE, 1994 equation because of entrained air. This can be compensated for by using a larger “n” value and by providing
generous freeboard.
Where:
y = the water depth without considering the air entrainment effect, m; 12.3.5.17 The inlet of all chutes, open and closed, must be designed to prevent the approaching flow from
Δyae = the increase in the water depth due to air entrainment, m; bypassing the chutes or overtopping the structure before sufficient drawdown in depth has occurred on the steep
e = Natural exponent = 2.718282; slope. Anchor lugs projecting from the chute into natural ground and cut-off walls at the upper and lower ends
Fr= Froude No. for the given water depth y; are recommended for chutes on steep slopes. For anchor lugs and cut-off walls details refer to Figure 12.3.5.1.

Based on the above rationale, the required freeboard equals;

Freeboard = max (0.15 + Δyae, y) for the case of supercritical flow (Fr>1) (HEC 15)

12.3.5.12 The design water level in unlined channel should desirably be set below the subgrade level of the road
pavement, particularly in flat country or in high groundwater conditions to limit pavement saturation and scour.

12.3.5.13 Unlined channels minimum design slope should be such that ponding and siltation is avoided and
the maximum slope should be selected to avoid soil erosion. However, this balance is often difficult to achieve
in practice as most channel bottom slopes are dictated by the road profile or other constraints. Nevertheless,

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12
profile at some control section downstream of the confluence. The profile is computed by proceeding upstream
to the confluence to establish the “downstream water surface elevation” at the junction. By balancing the energy
of each incoming flow with the energy at the confluence, the beginning elevation in each branch is established
and computations may continue upstream on each of the branches. Supercritical flow junctions are complicated
because of the possibility of hydraulic jumps, wave generation, and wall pile-up.

12.3.5.20 Bends and curves in roadside channel alignment are sometimes necessary to fit the natural terrain and
roadway geometry. The water surface profile, superelevation, and freeboard are the controlling criteria for the
design of channels of this type. Model studies are recommended for verification of the analysis where risks and
costs are significant; otherwise, generous freeboard may be the most practical and economical solution. The
following equations could be used to roughly estimate the super-elevation in case of subcritical flow bends:
2T V 2
ǻy = F 
rc 2g

Where: 
= the super-elevation in the water surface due to the bend effect, m;
T = Bend average top width, m
rc = Radius of curvature of bend, m
F = A dimensionless factor between 0.5 and 3 (it is considered to be 0.5 in HEC-22 third edition, dated Sep. 2009).

12.3.5.21 Protection requirements and extent in the case of bends:

If rc /T ≥ 8.0, no riprap protection is needed for the bank on the outside of the bend.

If rc/T < 8.0, protect the bank on the outside of the bend with riprap sized based on the following adjusted
velocity:
Va = (-0.147 rc / T +2.176)V

Where:
Va: Adjusted channel velocity

Riprap should be applied to the outside ¼ of the channel bottom and to the channel side slope for the entire length
of the bend plus a distance of 2T downstream of the bend. As an alternative to lining the channel bottom, riprap
could be extended at the channel side slope to 1.5 m below the channel’s bottom (refer to Figure 12.3.5.2).

Figure 12.3.5.1 Anchor Lugs and Cut-Off Walls Details

12.3.5.18 Channels of different geometry and cross section require a transition section from one geometry to
the other. The transition section is usually an expansion or contraction of the section and may include a change
in flow regime through the transition section. Energy losses, wave disturbances, and velocity changes must be
considered in the design of transition sections.

12.3.5.19 Channel junctions or confluences in roadside drainage channels can involve any combination of
subcritical and supercritical flow in the branches, and flow downstream of the confluence can be either subcritical
or supercritical. The engineering analysis and design of a confluence for subcritical flow involve computation
of water surface profiles through the junction. The water surface profile is usually established by beginning the Figure 12.3.5.2 Exterior Side Bend Protection
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12.3.5.22 Large channels requiring rigid lining are usually designed with structural reinforcement, but smaller n To reduce the afflux or rise in water level upstream due to the obstruction (embankment),
concrete channels, ditches, and chutes are not. The design of structural reinforcement for most rigid linings n To raise the tailwater level so that less batter protection is required on the downstream side, and
depends upon consideration of foundation conditions, groundwater conditions, shape and slope of the channel, n To act as anti-pounding structures.
provisions for maintenance access, cost to repair or replace, and flow conditions (hydrostatic and momentum
forces). 12.4.2 Design Considerations
12.3.5.23 Reinforcement for small drainage channels usually consists of some combination of welded wire mesh, 12.4.2.1 Particular care must be taken in the design of Floodways to minimize hazards for vehicles as described
reinforcing steel, and load transfer dowels at joints. These types of reinforcement are normally sufficient to below:
protect rigid linings against total destruction from cracking due to temperature changes, scour, and undercutting
1) Because of the dip in the longitudinal profile of the road as it enters and leaves the wadi, the forward visibility is
along the channel sides and will maintain the channel structure integrity until proper maintenance repairs can be
restricted and vehicles can be hidden from view. At existing crossings this has been partly resolved by imposing
accomplished.
speed restrictions and no-overtaking zones within the confines of the Floodway. However, the accident rate at
12.3.5.24 Channels are sometimes connected to other types of conduits such as pipes and culverts. Details should Floodways is still greater than on the normal highway. This is not acceptable on new highways. Design speeds
be provided for each type of connection. Typical details of ditch inlet and ditch outlet at the connection point with and everything related to that design speed (forward visibility, superelevation, K values, horizontal curves,
either culverts or pipes are provided in General Drawings GD 12-01 and GD 12-02. etc) must not be lower than the remainder of the route in the same area. For forward visibility at Floodways
the designer must adjust the vertical alignment so that passing sight distance is available in situations where
it is economical and practical to do so. In difficult situations the vertical alignment must at least provide for
12.4 FLOODWAYS AND VENTED FLOODWAYS
stopping sight distance.
2) The wadi bed itself has traditionally been used as a convenient transportation route for gaining access to
12.4.1 Introduction
villages and settlements along the wadi. Consequently, local traffic regularly uses the Floodway as a means of
12.4.1.1 Floodways and vented floodways are low level sections of road that have been designed to allow the gaining access to the local established network of tracks within the wadi bed. This creates a dangerous conflict
passage of floodwater across them without damage to the road. They are likely to be submerged by floodwater between through traffic and local traffic at a location where visibility is generally at a minimum. To provide
during storms with relatively low return period. safer access for minor traffic the designer should consider the effects of the local traffic regime and provide
controlled points of access to the main road in locations where good visibility standards can be achieved.
12.4.1.2 Floodways can provide an economical and practical alternative to culverts or bridges in appropriate
3) When the road floods, drivers can lose control of their vehicle if they hit the water at high speed (aquaplaning).
circumstances. They can best be utilized on track roads and possibly on a single carriageway rural road in the
A greater danger can arise after the water has stopped flowing if standing water remains on the carriageway,
following situations subject to Clients approval:
as drivers are even less likely to anticipate a problem.
n Where the drainage path is a wide shallow wadi. 4) As a general principle, Floodways should also be designed so that the depth of water over the road is as
Where the magnitude of discharge along the drainage path is difficult to predict with any accuracy
n uniform as possible over the flooded section. Building a floodway on a level grade avoids the possibility of a
because no rainfall records exist in the area (e.g. interior desert region). driver unexpectedly encountering deeper water and possibly stalling or being swept downstream.
n The horizontal alignment of the road is straight. 5) The length of Floodways should not exceed 300 m, so that drivers do not become disoriented when confronted
The daily traffic is infrequent and of short duration and occasional closure of the road due to flooding
n with wide open stretches of water. Where wide flood sections have to be crossed, the road profile should be
would not be of strategic importance. raised above the maximum flood level at intervals less than 300 m to break the Floodway into shorter lengths.
6) Floodways should not be placed on horizontal curves because:
12.4.1.3 The main disadvantages with Floodways are that road safety is compromised in the pursuit of providing
a) There are problems in defining the edge of the pavement for motorists
an economical drainage solution, and maintenance is usually necessary after every flood event.
b) The water depth will be deeper on one side of the road than on the other due to superelevation, and there
12.4.1.4 A refinement of the Floodway principle is the placement of culverts beneath the crossing to discharge is a possibility of the high side being trafficable but not the other, thus creating a safety problem.
the average annual flood. This solution assists in reducing the need to clean debris from the crossing after flood
12.4.2.2 Floodways should be designed so that they are not covered by water, from pounding or backwater, for
events and can best be adopted where:
any significant period after a flood event.
The natural wadi shape is not flat but has localised channels where the initial flood flow is concentrated.
n

n The road is required to be kept open to traffic except during periods of moderate to heavy rainfall. 12.4.2.3 Regular maintenance at Floodways is necessary during periods of flooding to remove vegetation,
boulders and silt from the road surface. It is preferable to design the Floodway slightly above the existing wadi
12.4.1.5 A Vented Floodway carries the principle described in paragraph 12.4.1.4 a step further.The highway is elevated bed level in most situations so as to increase marginally the velocity of flow across the road. Deposition of
above the wadi bed level, and culverts are placed beneath to discharge most flood flows. Overtopping of the road waterborne material at the crossing point is then minimised. In this respect it is important for the designer to
embankment is permitted in the design flood event, but only to a restricted depth so that vehicles may still negotiate establish whether the wadi channel is subject to aggradation or degradation. Aggredation is when the wadi bed
the crossing. Vented Floodways are more suited to locations where the wadi channel is more defined and where it is not rises over time due to the deposition of waterborne material. This condition is prevalent in the plains. Degradation
economically justified to discharge the peak flow by culverts alone or by bridging and to locations where it is advisable is the lowering of the natural bed level and tends to occur in the upper reaches of the catchment. If a water course is
to pass a lesser flood than the total waterway design flood for one or more of the following functions: subject to active degradation, the effects could undermine structures and protection works over a period of time.
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12.4.2.4 Whereas the normal Floodway allows the free conveyance of water, the vented floodway configuration
Drainage Design
12
12.4.3.3 Where the Floodway is constructed above the ground level, it may or may not act as control, depending
acts as a restriction to the uninterrupted flow, and consequently creates a backwater upstream of the crossing upon the headwater and tailwater conditions. In the initial stages of overtopping of the road a low tailwater
under medium to full flow conditions. The effect of increased upstream flood levels should be considered. condition usually exists and a free outfall condition occurs. Figure 12.4.3.1 illustrates the conditions that result
from rising tailwater (e.g. submerged hydraulic jump).
12.4.2.5 For Vented floodway general details refer to drawing GD 12.03. Vented floodway design must satisfy the
following conditions: 12.4.3.4 Free flow may be either:
a) When the flood is at the point of overtopping the road n Plunging flow over the shoulder and down the downstream face of the embankment. The flow then
i. the tailwater level is not below the level specified for the type of protection to be adopted, and penetrates a tailwater surface producing a hydraulic jump on the downstream slope. Velocities are
ii. the velocities through the culverts are acceptable (scouring velocities may be acceptable, if likely to be high and erosive (Figure 12.4.3.1A).
suitable outlet protection is provided). n Surface flow which separates from the surface of the road embankment and rides over the surface
b) At the peak of the flood above the floodway, of the tailwater. This flow will have less erosion potential downstream (Figure 12.4.3.1B).
i. the velocities through the waterway structures are acceptable, and
12.4.3.5 ‘Submerged’ flow occurs when the discharge is controlled by the tailwater level as well as the headwater
ii. the afflux caused by the floodway is acceptable.
levels. This occurs when the depth of flow along the full length of the Floodway is greater than the critical depth
12.4.2.6 Floodways may require costly batter protection and the culvert may be prone to blockage by debris. (Figure 12.4.3.C).
These cost related performance factors should be considered, as well as trafficability and other requirements,
in the selection of the road level. Because of the cost of batter protection, an elevated road embankment (for
example, with culvert at capacity or above the 50 year flood level and unprotected) may cost less than a lower
grade line with batter protection designed for a flood with a lower return period.

12.4.2.7 Trafficability will depend upon the combination of water depth and velocity of flow (i.e. total head) over
a floodway when the frictional resistance between a vehicle’s tires and the floodway surface is overcome and the
vehicle loses stability. Total head of up to 300 mm can be considered to be trafficable to passenger cars but in most
circumstances it is desirable to close the road at lower depths and in exceptional cases the road could be closed if
there is any water over the road e.g. long floodways and high risk crossings. For the purpose of the current standards
it is considered that disruption to traffic will occur when the water depth at the road lowest point exceeds 200 mm.

12.4.3 Hydraulic Design

12.4.3.1 The flood discharge used in Floodways design is usually estimated on the basis of a preselected return
period, and the Floodway is designed to operate in a manner that is within acceptable limits of risk at that flow
rate. Refer to Sub-Section 12.2, “Catchment Discharge” for a discussion of the selection of the design flood return
period and the estimation of flood magnitudes. All designs should be reviewed using a larger review flood for the
extent of probable damage should the design flood be exceeded.

12.4.3.2 Where a Floodway is constructed at ground level and does not control the flow, the depth of flow and
velocity can be calculated using the Slope-Area Method. The Slope Area Method use the energy equation for a
reach of nonuniform channel between cross section 1 and cross section 2 and the Manning equation, described
in paragraph 12.3.2.6. The discharge in a natural channel is computed by use of the equation:

Q = (K1K2S)1/2

Where:
Q is the discharge in m3/s,
K1 is (1/n)AR 2/3 at cross-section 1,
K2 is (1/n)AR 2/3 at cross-section 2 at a distance L downstream of cross-section 1,
S = hf /L where hf is the energy loss due to boundary friction in the reach between x- sections 1 and 2.

For details about the Slope Area Method refer to Measurement of Peak Discharge by the Slope-Area Method (Ref.
# 28). Figure 12.4.3.1 Indicative Velocities of Flow Over a Typical Vented Floodway
Source: Cameron and McNamara 1966
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12.4.3.6 Under free outfall conditions critical flow occur somewhere across the embankment and the discharge
is determined solely by the upstream head. Under critical flow condition the tailwater level has no influence upon
the discharge or water levels upstream. At higher tailwater levels, when the depth of flow over the floodway is
greater than the critical depth, the discharge is controlled by the capacity of the downstream channel as well as
the upstream head.

12.4.3.7 The following broad crested weir formula is used for calculating the discharge over Floodways:

Where:
Q = Discharge over the Floodway (m3/s)
Cf = Coefficient of discharge ‘free’ flow
Cs = Coefficient of discharge flow with submergence
L = Length of Floodway usually taken as the length between intersections points of the sag vertical curves on the
approaches to the Crossing, (m)
H = Total head (specific head), (m).

12.4.3.8 Figure 12.4.3.2 show graphs to estimate the above discharge coefficients for flow over Floodways. The
following are the definitions of the parameters shown in Figure 12.4.3.2 other than the above:

h = Level difference between the Floodway crown and the upstream water surface (normally 0.2 m)
v = Average velocity of flow approaching the crossing
I = Top width of road formation (cross-section)
D = Tailwater depth (water depth above the low edge of pavement). D = Q/L

12.4.3.9 For details concerning calculating the discharge over Floodways refer to Austroads Guide to Road
Design, Part 5: Drainage Design, Section 6.1.

12.4.4 Design Procedure

1) Select protection level for road (i.e. minimum design flood return period: 1/10, 1/25 etc.).
2) Verify that flow is naturally characterized by small depth and large width.
3) Calculate the 5, 10 and 25 year flow at location.
4) Determine the flow characteristics thru the water course - top width, velocity and depth produce a rating curve
for different depths
5) From road layout determine possible length of flood way (L)
6) Determine height of water over the length (L) assuming section is flat
7) Select road layout and profile to ensure uniform spread of flow as per (6) above. (Road alignment perpendicular
to flow direction and road profile flat)
8) Using the selected road section determine flow characteristics over the road as given in sub-section 12.4.3.
Figure 12.4.3.2 Discharge Coefficients for Flow Over Floodways
Verify that flow characteristics over the road are within safety criteria for crossing (Sub-section 12.4.2). Source: After Bradley 1978
9) If safety criteria for crossings as determined in (8) above are not satisfied, select longer flood way length at the
same crest elevation and or raise the road profile and repeat calculations to verify satisfactory velocity and depth
10) If parameters in (8) above are satisfied adopt the road design and study u/s and d/s protection, and provide
marker posts
11) Vented floodways will require additional calculations as described in the following items because of the many
combinations of headwater and tailwater possible. It is necessary to fix at least one of these parameters as follows.

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12) Fix the level of the road as a first trial. The level of the road may be based on traffickability, for example, to
Drainage Design
12
12.4.5.5 At the end of the protection proposed above local scour is still possible. Where in doubt, the designer
satisfy the required traffickability in a 10 year flood, the initial road level may be the wadi level + the depth of should estimate possible scour depths and provide riprap protection on the basis of his experience with similar
the shallowest standard culvert (Refer to paragraph 12.5.3.3) + the minimum required cover. situations in the wadi being studied. International standards and procedures provided in references such as
13) Fix the headwater level at the crown of the road (or the highest edge if superelevated). HEC11 (Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 11) for protection using riprap should be implemented. To ensure that
14) Size the culvert (i.e. no. of cells) to convey the 10 year flood (Refer to paragraph 12.5.6.1). the riprap adequately protects the underlying bed material, the thickness should be sufficient, and the resulting
15) The tailwater level should be less than 600 mm below the downstream edge of the road formation when velocity of water in the voids of the riprap layer should not exceed the threshold value given in Table 12.5.5.1.
overtopping first occurs (actual range 300 - 700 mm). It is important to note that this afflux/head may not be
12.4.5.6 Flows and velocities should be checked to determine the flow type in the area of the proposed crossing.
acceptable in some areas and non-standard additional outlet protection at culverts may also be necessary.
If the flow is supercritical specialist advice should be sought. The potential effects of deposition upstream of the
16) Then, to consider the peak of the overtopping flood (i.e. 25 years flow), allowance for flow over the road must crossing and increased general scour downstream of the embankment should also be considered.
be made and afflux calculated for the design flood.
17) Select a headwater level slightly above the road highest level, say 0.1 m above, and calculate the flow over the 12.4.5.7 Provide marker posts 1.2 m high and a water depth gauge at lowest point on each side of the floodway.
road and through each culvert with this headwater - tailwater combination. Add these flows together to obtain Typical details of marker posts, water depth gauge and warning signs are shown in General Drawing GD 12-05.
a total flow, say Q1.
18) Compare this flow with the 25 year flood discharge. If Q1 is smaller, adopt a higher headwater and the same
tailwater level and reiterate the procedure (in 17) above until the calculated flow is larger than the 25 year
flood discharge.
19) If the afflux is acceptable, calculations are complete. If the afflux is too high, additional culverts are required.
The culverts as sized in (15) above are not to be reduced.
20) Calculate the afflux for the check flood (usually of 50 years).

12.4.5 Protection

12.4.5.1 Selection of the form of protection of Floodway against scour is governed by:
n Whether flow across the Floodway is free or submerged
n Under free flow conditions, whether plunging or surface flow occurs downstream from the Floodway.

12.4.5.2 The tailwater level when the flood is at the point of overtopping the road usually controls the degree of
protection required for a particular Floodway. The differential between upstream and downstream water levels
needs to be limited, if batter protection is to be kept to a minimum. This can be achieved by one of the following:
n Keeping the Floodway level less than 150 mm above natural wadi bed level or touch grade.
n Providing adequate culvert (in the vented floodway) to raise the tailwater to a high enough level
before the road is overtopped.

12.4.5.3 In the first case (i.e. touch grade), the velocities shall remain low and minimum batters protection is
sufficient as shown in General Drawing GD 12-03.

12.4.5.4 In the second case, the vented floodway should have the following general features:
n Culverts to raise the tailwater to less than 600 mm below the downstream edge of the road formation
when overtopping occurs.
n Concrete pavement as provided in Section 10 of the Highway Design Standards.
n Protection of the downstream batter as shown on Figure 12.4.5.1.
n Protection of upstream batter along the full length of vented floodway where overtopping will occur, to offset
possible scour due to turbulence from the mixing of longitudinal and direct flows at the culvert inlets.
n Weepholes are required in the downstream protection to relieve hydrostatic pressure.The weepholes
should be placed about 300 mm above the apron level or just above the longstanding water level if
higher. The more porous types of protection such as rock on filter cloths or layers and some cement
stabilised gravels, depending on the grading, do not require weepholes.
Figure 12.4.5.1 Typical Floodway Batter Protection
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12.5 CULVERTS 12.5.2.2 Where location in the natural channel would require an inordinately long culvert, some stream
modification may be used (see Figure 12.5.2.2). Such modifications to reduce skew and shorten culverts should
12.5.1 Data Collection be carefully designed to avoid erosion and siltation problems.

12.5.1.1 The function of a culvert is to convey surface water across or from the highway right-of-way. Site 12.5.2.3 Establishing the culvert’s vertical orientation is usually a matter of placing the upstream flow line and
investigation / reconnaissance must be carried out at each proposed culvert site. The extent and complexity of downstream flow line elevations of the culvert at the same elevations as the existing streambed. In some instances,
the investigation will depend on the size, importance and cost of the proposed culvert, site conditions, the height there is a need to lower or raise the upstream flowline. Lowering the upstream flowline can provide an improved
of the embankment, and the loading that will be imposed on the foundation material and on the culvert itself as hydraulic operation but may create maintenance problems due to a higher potential for both sedimentation and
described below. scour. Avoid placing the downstream flowline of the culvert at a level higher than the roadway embankment toe
of slope. Such a configuration results in a waterfall that increases the potential for erosion. Sometimes, extending
12.5.1.2 Survey information should include sufficient data for locating the culvert and for aiding in determining a culvert to accommodate a widened roadway requires changing the flowline slope at one or both ends. Such a
the hydraulic design controls including relevant physical features and culture in the vicinity of the culvert site configuration is called a broken back culvert. In some cases, the culvert can be designed as a broken back
that could be affected by the installation or operation of the culvert. In flat areas features such as residences, configuration to reduce the outlet velocity by introducing a hydraulic jump inside the culvert.
commercial buildings, croplands, roadways, and utilities can influence a culvert design; therefore, their elevation
and location should be obtained. 12.5.2.4 Modified culvert slopes other than that of the natural stream, might be used to arrest stream
degradation, minimize sedimentation, improve the hydraulic performance of the culvert, shorten the culvert or
12.5.1.3 The physical characteristics of the existing stream channel including sufficient cross-sections and a reduce structural requirements. Modified slopes can also cause stream erosion and deposition; therefore, slope
streambed profile and horizontal alignment are needed in urban or developing areas and for all major culverts. alterations should be given special attention to ensure that detrimental effects do not result from the change. The
use of shear keys should be considered for normal soil conditions where culverts are placed at slopes greater
12.5.1.4 Reliable, documented highwater data and the hydraulic performance of structures some distance either
than 15%. For poor soil conditions shear keys should be designed for site-specific conditions.
upstream or downstream from the culvert site, when available, can be helpful in the design and all information
available should be gathered in the survey of all major culverts.

12.5.1.5 In scour prone areas, soil characteristics should be assessed to enable stream protection strategies to
be formulated and detailed foundations investigations should be carried out for all large culverts (i.e. multi-cells
culverts of a span larger than 3 meters each).

12.5.2 Location

12.5.2.1 In most cases, culvert locations are predetermined by the intersection of a watercourse and the proposed
roadway. In general, culverts should be located to fit natural channels in line and grade, following moderate
curvature and natural changes in grade as far as is practical as shown in Figure 12.5.2.1. A culvert placed on a
different skew to that of the natural channel could cause progressive bank erosion and protection of the bank
at risk could be costly. However, for standardization purposes the skew angle between the culvert and the road
centerline should be 45, 60, 75 or 90 degrees wherever possible.

Figure 12.5.2.1 Culvert Located in Natural Watercourse Figure 12.5.2.2 Culvert Located in a Realigned Natural Watercourse
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12.5.3 Shape, Size and Material 12.5.4 Design Considerations

12.5.3.1 The shape of a culvert is not the most important consideration at most sites, so far as hydraulic 12.5.4.1 Any culvert that constricts the natural stream flow will cause a rise in the upstream water surface to
performance is concerned. Rectangular, arch, or circular shapes of equal hydraulic capacity are generally some extent. The total flow depth in the stream measured from the culvert inlet invert is termed headwater (HW).
satisfactory. It is often necessary, however, for the culvert to have a low profile because of the terrain or because Design headwater elevations and selection of design floods should be based on these risk considerations:
of limited fill height. Construction cost, the potential for clogging by debris, limitations on headwater elevation, n Damage to adjacent property,
fill height, and the hydraulic performance of the design alternatives enter into the selection of the culvert shape.
n Damage to the culvert and the roadway,
12.5.3.2 While the majority of culverts consist of concrete pipe or box culverts, pipe-arch or arches may be n Traffic interruption,
appropriate and economic in some special situations. For typical details of pipe and box culverts refer respectively n Hazard to human life, and
to Standard Drawings SD 12-06 and SD 12-07. A box culvert can be designed to pass large flows and to fit most n Damage to stream and floodplain environment.
site conditions. A box culvert lends itself more readily than any other shape to low allowable headwater situations
since the height may be decreased and the total span increased to satisfy the particular location. Arch culverts 12.5.4.2 It is recommended to keep HW/D less than 1.2. However, culvert installations under high fills may
have application in locations where less obstruction to a waterway is a desirable feature and there is limited present the designer an opportunity to use high headwater or ponding to attenuate flood peaks. If the design

cover or overfill and where foundations are adequate for structural support. flood HW is greater than 1.5 times the culvert clear height, the stability of the embankment must be analysed
because a breach in the highway fill could be quite similar to a dam failure.
12.5.3.3 The culvert should be sized to provide suitable hydraulic performance. The recommended minimum
clear height (D) should be 1.5 meters. This will facilitate access for inspection and maintenance and minimize 12.5.4.3 The bottom of road pavement layers should be higher than the design headwater elevation.
clogging. However, subject to Client approval, in urban areas or where the culvert length is relatively small (i.e. 12.5.4.4 Tailwater is the flow depth in the downstream channel measured from the invert at the culvert outlet.
less than 16 m), a minimum culvert clear height of 1.0 meter is acceptable if there are physical constraints or if it It can be an important factor in culvert hydraulic design because a high tailwater may cause the culvert to flow
will reduce cost significantly. Box culverts vary in span from 1.0 meter to 4.0 meter with a maximum clear height under pressure or full rather than partially full, so increasing the headwater necessary to pass the flow. A low
of 4.0 meter. Pipe culverts diameter ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 meter. Smaller culverts may be used if necessary due tailwater relative to the depth of flow in the culvert can result in erosion of the downstream channel. Accordingly,
to site particular conditions subject to the approval of concerned authorities. For standardization purposes, it is it is generally recommended to carryout field inspection of the downstream channel (especially for large/major
recommended to use a specific combination of box culvert widths and heights as marked in Table 12.5.3.1. The culverts) should be carried out so as to determine whether there are obstructions that will influence the flow
pipe culverts standard nominal diameters are 1.0, 1.2 and 1.5 meter. Pipes of diameters 0.45, 0.6 or 0.9 meter depth.
can be used for purposes other than cross-drainage of natural storm water channels, if approved by the Client,
subject to the following conditions: 12.5.4.5 Where urbanization upstream from an existing culvert caused an increase in the magnitude of runoff
and necessitates increasing the culvert capacity and before deciding that the culvert has to be replaced by a larger
n The pipe length should be short enough to allow for cleaning it through water jets.
structure (assuming relief flow is not feasible), the possibility of improving the inlet of the existing culvert should
n The rainwater to be conveyed should not carry large rocks that may clog the culvert.
be investigated (Refer to “Hydraulic Design of Improved Inlets for Culverts”, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
Box Culvert Box Culvert Height (mm) 13, (US Federal Highway Administration, 1972).
Width (mm) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
12.5.4.6 In flat terrain, drainage channels are often ill-defined or non-existent and the flood may be large but
1500 √ √
of shallow depth. Culverts should be located and designed for least disruption of the existing flow conditions.
2000 √ √ √
A number of separate culverts spread over the width of the flooded area may be more appropriate for these
2500 √ √ √ √
conditions. In these locations multiple culverts can be considered to have a common headwater elevation,
3000 √ √ √ √
although this will not be precisely so.
3500 √ √ √ √
4000 √ √ √ √ √ 12.5.4.7 The likelihood of blockage should be considered for all culverts. Blockage can occur through siltation
Table 12.5.3.1 Box Culvert Clear Width and Height Combination or vegetation, though blockage by siltation is more likely to be temporary in nature. This is because during flood
events, silt deposits can be removed by high velocity flows. To prevent siltation the desirable minimum velocity in
12.5.3.4 The selection of the material for a culvert is dependent upon several variables (e.g., durability, structural the culvert should be above 0.90 m/s for the 1 in 2 years storm. A check of velocities should be undertaken as part
strength, roughness, bedding conditions, abrasion and corrosion resistance, water tightness, cost, availability in of design. Where debris blockage is considered likely, larger culvert sizes may be required, in accordance with
the local market, constructability, etc.). Generally, concrete (with or without reinforcement) is the most suitable the extent of adverse impacts that could occur to the roadway or to surrounding properties. Blockage by debris
material because it satisfies the above mentioned variables more than other material. Corrugated Steel circular is more likely to occur where the catchment contains significant woody riparian vegetation
pipe and pipe arches might be favourable under special circumstances.
12.5.4.8 Records of culvert designs should be retained for at least the lives of the culverts. The amount and detail
12.5.3.5 Pipe culverts are generally less costly and faster to construct than box culverts. Therefore, pipe culverts of documentation should be related to the importance of the structure.
are preferable where the required discharge capacity and other site constraints permit.

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12.5.5 Hydraulics 12.5.5.10 Performance curves are plots of discharge versus culvert headwater depth or elevation that aid in the
selection of the culvert type, including size, shape, material and inlet geometry, which fulfils site requirements at
12.5.5.1 The culvert size and type can be selected after the determination of the design discharge, culvert location, the least annual cost. The curves also may reveal opportunities for increasing the factor of safety and improving
tailwater, and controlling design headwater. the hydraulic capacity at little or no increase in cost.

12.5.5.2 The flood discharge used in culvert design is usually estimated on the basis of a preselected return 12.5.5.11 Where possible, culverts should be designed to provide acceptable velocities without the need for
period, and the culvert is designed to operate in a manner that is within acceptable limits of risk at that flow rate. additional stream bed protection. Allowable streambed velocities to avoid scour vary according to soil type and
Refer to sub-section 12.2.4, “Flood Return Period” for a discussion of the selection of the design flood return topography. Suggested maximum allowable velocities for various stream bed materials are given in Table 12.5.5.1.
period and the estimation of flood magnitudes.
Concrete Allowable Velocity (m/s)
12.5.5.3 All designs should be reviewed / checked using a larger design return period for the extent of probable Asphalt 2.0
damage should the design flood be exceeded. Measures should be recommended to eliminate the following Fine sand (d50 ranges 0.06 – 0.20 mm) 0.6
risks during the larger design storm: Firm loam 0.9

n Loss to human life, Gabion 4.5

Gravel 100 mm or grass cover 2.0 - 2.5
Flooding of important installations (e.g., electrical power plants or substations, chemical plants,
n
Grouted riprap 4.5
refineries, water or sewage treatment plants), and
Rock-Loose riprap 4.5
n Isolation of hospitals or other life support institutions (e.g., civil defence, ambulance, fire stations or
sandy loam 0.65
police).
Sandy or silty clay 1.0 - 1.2
Recommended mitigation measures are to be studied in close coordination with the concerned ministries and Stiff clay 1.2 – 1.5
authorities. Stones 150 mm diameter or larger 3.0
Table 12.5.5.1 Maximum Allowable Velocities for Various Stream Bed Materials
12.5.5.4 The two major conditions of culvert flow are inlet control and outlet control. For each type of control,
a different combination of factors is used to determine the hydraulic capacity of a culvert. Prediction of the 12.5.5.12 There are various methods of preventing scour and erosion at outlets and protecting the structure from
condition of culvert flow is difficult; therefore, most designers assume that the culvert will flow with the most undermining. If outlet velocity exceeds 5 m/s, it is unlikely that placement of large stones at culvert outlet will be
adverse condition. For economy and hydraulic efficiency, culverts should be designed to operate with the inlet economic or feasible. In such cases, using energy disspators is recommended. For a complete description of scour
submerged during the design flood flow, if conditions permit. at the outlet of culverts and the design of energy dissipators, refer to the FHWA’s HEC-14. It has charts, nomographs,
and tables necessary for estimating scour holes and the design of energy dissipators. In addition, the HY-8 culvert
12.5.5.5 A culvert operates with inlet control when the flow capacity is controlled at the entrance by the depth of evaluation software, also freely available from the FHWA, uses the techniques discussed in HEC-14 to perform scour hole
headwater and the entrance geometry, including the barrel shape, cross sectional area and the inlet edge. calculations and energy dissipator designs. HEC-14 and HY-8 are highly recommended for energy dissipator design.

12.5.5.6 For a culvert operating with inlet control, the roughness and length of the culvert barrel and outlet 12.5.5.13 The length of the riprap protection downstream from the outlet depends on the degree of protection
conditions (including tailwater) are not factors in determining culvert hydraulic performance. The entrance edge desired. If it is necessary to prevent all erosion, the riprap must be continued until the velocity has been reduced
and the overall entrance geometry have much to do with culvert performance in this type of flow; therefore, to an acceptable value. In no case should the length of protection downstream of the culvert apron be less than
special entrance designs can improve hydraulic performance and result in a more efficient and economical 3H (3 times the height of the box culvert) or 3D (3 times the diameter of the pipe culvert), nor does the length of
culvert protection need to be greater than 10H or 10D whenever, Q/WH1.5 is less than 4.42 for box culverts or Q/D2.5 is
less than 3.31 for pipe culvert, respectively. An average acceptable value for the length of the riprap protection is
12.5.5.7 In outlet control, the culvert hydraulic performance is determined by the factors governing inlet control
5 times the height of the box culvert or 5 times the diameter of the pipe culvert.
plus the controlling water surface elevation at the outlet and the slope, length, and roughness of the culvert
barrel. Culverts operating in outlet control may flow full or partly full, depending on various combinations of the 12.5.5.14 The riprap size requirements are based on the below non-dimensional parametric equations:
above factors.
Circular culvert:
12.5.5.8 In outlet control, factors that may affect performance appreciably for a given culvert size and headwater
are barrel length, roughness and tailwater depth. Although entrance geometry is a factor, only minor improvement
in performance can be achieved by modifications to the culvert inlet. Accordingly, an entrance coefficient ke = 0.5 Rectangular culvert:
can be used for the standard culvert configuration.

12.5.5.9 Depending on the state of the headwater or outlet condition, the same culvert Installation could change
from operating with inlet or outlet control as the level of floodwater varies. It is therefore necessary to determine
the discharge of the culvert under both inlet and outlet flow conditions and to adopt the lesser of the two discharge Where Q is the culvert design flow (in m3/s), d50 is the median diameter of the riprap (in m) at culvert outlet and
values as the design flow. Tw is the tail water depth in meters.

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The rock size requirements were determined assuming that the flow in the culvert barrel is not supercritical. It is
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12
intermediate vertical line the culvert discharge can be read off directly. The results of each trial culvert size are
possible to use the same equations when the flow in the culvert is supercritical (and less than full) if the value of D entered onto a headwater computation form (Figure 12.5.6.3) so that an overall assessment can be made of the
(culvert pipe diameter) or H (box culvert height) are substituted as Da for D and Ha for H, in which Da is defined as: optimum culvert configuration and to document the results. The process may have to be, repeated with different
culvert sizes to obtain the required HWi for the design flow.
Da = (Diameter + Normal Depth for the supercritical flow)
2 12.5.6.8 Once the culvert size has been determined to satisfy inlet control conditions the same culvert dimensions
in which the maximum value of Da shall not exceed D, and are used to determine the headwater depth (HWo) for outlet control. HWo can be indirectly determined from
the nomographs shown on Figures 12.5.6.4 and 12.5.6.5, for concrete box and pipe culverts, respectively. The
Ha = (Culvert Height + Normal Depth for the supercritical flow) nomographs determine the head loss (H) from which HWo can be calculated using the following formula:
2
HWo = H + ho - LS
in which the maximum value of Ha shall not exceed H.
Where:
H = Head loss as determined from the appropriate nomograph (m).
12.5.6 Design Procedure
S = Slope of culvert barrel (m/m)
12.5.6.1 The procedure described below for standard culverts will be acceptable for all but a very small percentage L = Culvert length (m)
of culverts including culverts with bends (broken back culverts), minimum energy loss culverts, high velocity ho = Tailwater depth (TW) = (Dc + D)/2 for free outfall conditions
culverts, sag culverts and culverts with baffles. The procedure does not address the unsteady flow hydraulic
effect of changing storage / ponding upstream caused by the culvert, which can modify the discharge through the where D = height of culvert opening (m) and Dc = critical depth (m) determined from the graphs shown on Figure

culvert when it is changing significantly. 12.5.6.6 (note that Dc cannot exceed D)

If HWo is less than 0.75D and the culvert is under outlet control, then the culvert may be flowing only part-full and
12.5.6.2 Assemble the following data in relation to the culvert site as applicable:
using (Dc+D)/2 to calculate ho may not be applicable. If required, more accurate results can be obtained by flow
n Site survey and locality map profile calculations.
n Embankment cross-section
12.5.6.9 Compare the two headwater depth values (i.e. HWi and HWo). The higher headwater governs and
n Roadway profile
indicates whether the culvert is flowing with either inlet or outlet control.
n Photographs, aerial photographs
n Details from field visit (sediment, debris and scour at existing structure) 12.5.6.10 Compute outlet velocity and determine need for channel protection. The average outlet velocity will be
n Design data for nearby structures the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area of flow at the culvert outlet. The cross-sectional area of flow
n Studies by other authorities near the site, including small dams, canals, weirs, flood plains, storm depends, in turn, on the flow depth at the outlet:
drains n If inlet control governs the headwater, the flow depth can be approximated by the normal depth of
n Recorded and observed flood data. open-channel flow in the barrel, computed by Manning’s equation for the discharge flow, barrel size,
roughness and slope of culvert selected.
12.5.6.3 Determine the design flood discharge (Q) (Refer to paragraph 12.5.5.2).
n If outlet control governs the headwater, the flow depth will be one of the following but for simplification
12.5.6.4 Choose culvert material, shape, length and entrance type, allowing for minimum and maximum it can be considered as the critical depth:
allowable cover heights over the culvert. a) Critical depth if the tailwater is below critical depth.
b) Tailwater depth if the tailwater is between critical depth and the top of the barrel.
12.5.6.5 The hydraulic analysis of culvert could be carried out by using the design aids (nomographs) or by
c) The height of the barrel if the tailwater is above the top of the barrel.
adopting one of the commonly used software packages such as HY8, HEC-RAS or any widely used commercial
software following the FHWA procedures. Furthermore, equations developed out of the nomographs can be 12.5.6.11 Computer Software can be used for culvert design subject to the following conditions:
found in reference HDS5 (2005) if a spreadsheet or programming implementation of the procedure is required. n Apply the theoretical basis for the nomographs mentioned above.

12.5.6.6 Determine an initial trial culvert area, either by arbitrary selection or by choosing an outlet velocity (V) n Can compute tailwater, improved inlets, road overtopping, hydrographs, routing and multiple
from Table 12.5.5.1 and calculating a culvert area (A) from A = Q/V. The selected area should be equal or larger independent barrels.
than the minimum allowed area (Refer to paragraph 12.5.3.3). n Develops and plots tailwater rating curves.
n Develops and plots performance curves which are important for the analysis of pond/reservoir flood
12.5.6.7 Determine the inlet control headwater depth HWi by using the nomographs shown on Figures 12.5.6.1
routing in case of having culvert outlet structures.
and 12.5.6.2 for concrete box and pipe culverts respectively. Scale (1) should be used for the standard design of
culverts. Firstly use the trial culvert size and the allowable headwater elevation to calculate the ratio of headwater
depth (HW) to culvert depth (D). Where the straight line constructed between these two values intersects the

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Figure 12.5.6.1 Headwater Depth for Concrete Box Culverts with Inlet Control Figure 12.5.6.2 Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Inlet Control
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Figure 12.5.6.3 Headwater Computation Form Figure 12.5.6.4 Headwater Depth for Concrete Box Culverts with Outlet Control Figure 12.5.6.5 Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Outlet Control

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Figure 12.5.6.6 Critical Depth for Culverts

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12.5.7 Culvert End Treatment (Aprons, Headwalls And Wingwalls) 12.5.8.4 Further increase in culvert capacity by reducing the flow contraction at the entrance is possible by use
of an enlarged face area and a transition from the enlarged face to the culvert barrel. This is called a side-tapered
12.5.7.1 Culvert end structures, prebuilt or constructed-in-place, are attached to the ends of a culvert barrel to inlet because the inlet face is the same height as the culvert barrel and the transition from face size to barrel size
reduce erosion, inhibit seepage, retain the fill, improve the aesthetics and hydraulic characteristics, and make the is accomplished by tapering the sidewalls. Side-tapered inlets for pipe culverts may have a face in the shape of
ends structurally stable. Several common types of culvert ends are described in the following paragraphs: an oval, a circle, or a rectangle. Flared or warped wingwalls or a simple headwall may be used with this type of
1) Projecting: A culverts is considered to have a projecting inlet or outlet when the culvert barrel extends beyond inlet. Side-tapered inlets are shown in Figure 12.5.8.2.
the face of the roadway embankment. This common type of culvert end has no end treatment and is vulnerable
12.5.8.5 In general, culvert outlet end treatment does not affect culvert capacity. Outlet structures are used for
to various types of failures.
the following purposes:
2) Mitered: A mitered culvert end is formed when the culvert barrel is cut to conform with the plane of the
embankment slope. It is structurally inadequate to withstand hydraulic, earth, and impact loads unless it is n To retain the embankment;
well anchored and protected. The hydraulic performance of this type of inlet is approximately the same as a n To provide structural support for the end of the culvert; and
thin-edged projecting inlet. n To inhibit scour damage to the roadway embankment, downstream channel, and adjacent property.
3) Pipe end sections: Sometimes called flared or terminal end sections, are prefabricated metal or precast concrete
Therefore, it is not necessary to use similar end treatments at the inlet and outlet of a culvert. At many locations,
sections placed onto the ends of culverts. These sections are used to retain the embankment and improve the
use of a simple outlet (e.g., headwalls, cut-off walls, aprons of concrete or riprap) will provide adequate protection
aesthetics, but usually do not improve the structural stability of the culvert end. Commonly used pipe end sections
against scour.
do not improve the hydraulic performance of culverts appreciably over the performance of a headwall.
4) Headwalls and wingwalls: They are generally cast-in-place concrete structures commonly constructed on the
ends of culvert barrels for the following reasons:

n To retain the fill material and reduce erosion of embankment slopes;

n To improve hydraulic efficiency;
n To provide structural stability to the culvert ends and serve as a counter weight to offset buoyant or uplift
forces; and
n To inhibit piping

12.5.7.2 Headwalls in plan should run parallel to the road regardless of the direction of water flow. A parapet
Figure 12.5.8.1 Typical Culvert Inlet and Outlet Figure 12.5.8.2 Side-Tapered Inlet for Concrete Pipe Culvert
extending at least 0.3 meter above the headwall should be provided to prevent slope erosion/sliding.

12.5.7.3 Wingwalls aid in maintaining the approach velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel the flow into the 12.5.9 Protection Works For Culverts and Approaches
culvert entrance. Wingwalls should be flush with box culvert barrels to avoid snagging drift. Wingwalls might be
12.5.9.1 The forces acting on a culvert inlet during high flows are variable and highly indeterminate. Vortices and
straight or flared with an angle normally between 25 and 30 degrees but other angles may be used if necessary.
formed eddies might cause scour which could undermine the culvert inlet, erode the embankment slope, and
Wingwalls shall follow the slope of the road embankment and their maximum height shall be that of the headwall
make the inlet vulnerable to failure.
parapet and their minimum height at the other edge of the apron 0.5 m.
12.5.9.2 Anchorage at the culvert entrance helps to protect against the above failures by increasing the dead
12.5.8 Entrance and Outlet Configuration load on the end of the culvert, thus protecting the fill slope from the scouring action of the flow. End anchorage
can be in the form of slope paving, concrete headwalls or grouted stone, but the culvert end must be anchored
12.5.8.1 Entrance configuration is defined as the cross sectional area and shape of the culvert face and the type of inlet to the end treatment to be effective.
edge. When a culvert operates in inlet control, headwater depth and the entrance configuration determine the culvert
capacity, and the culvert barrel usually flows only partially full. Entrance geometry refinements can be used to reduce 12.5.9.3 Abrasion loss is the erosion of culvert materials by the bed load carried by streams especially when the velocity
the flow contraction at the inlet and increase the capacity of the culvert without increasing the headwater depth. in the culvert is very high.The principal factors to be considered are the return period and duration of runoff events, which
transport significant amounts of abrasive materials, the character and volume of the bed load and the resistance of the
12.5.8.2 Culverts operating in outlet control usually flow full at the design flow rate.Therefore, inlet improvements culvert material to abrasion. Debris control/retention upstream of culvert can reduce abrasion risk. Provision for abrasive
on these culverts only reduce the entrance loss coefficient, Ke, which results in only a small decrease in the wear can be made by the use of sacrificial thickness of grouted riprap in culvert bottom. Provision for abrasion in concrete
required headwater elevation. culverts generally consists of requiring additional cover over reinforcing steel and more durable concrete mixes.

12.5.8.3 Commonly used inlets consist of projecting culvert barrels, cast-in-place concrete headwalls, precast or 12.5.9.4 Scour at culvert outlets is caused by high-velocity flow, flow confined to a lesser width and greater
prefabricated end sections, and culvert ends mitered to conform to the fill slope or step-mitered to approximate depth than in the natural channel, and eddies resulting from flow expansion. Scour prediction is somewhat
the fill slope. For a given headwater elevation, the conventional bell or groove end of a concrete pipe has a subjective because the velocity at which erosion will occur is dependent upon the characteristics of the channel
greater capacity than a square-edged inlet, whether projecting or in a headwall, and a square-edged inlet has bed and bank material, velocity, and depth of flow in the channel and at the culvert outlet, velocity distribution,
greater capacity than a thin-edged, mitered or projecting inlet. Conventional inlets are shown in Figure 12.5.8.1. and the amount of sediment and other debris in the flow.
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12.5.9.5 Scour developed at the outlet of similar existing culverts in the vicinity is always a good guide in The following factors should be considered in the design of the structure :
estimating potential scour at the outlet of proposed culverts. At many locations, use of a simple outlet treatment n type of debris;
(e.g., headwalls, cut-off walls, aprons of concrete or riprap) will provide adequate protection against scour. n quantity of debris;
n expected changes in type and quantity of debris due to future land use;
12.5.9.6 When the outlet velocity is expected to exceed the maximum allowable velocities (Table 12.5.5.1) for
the natural stream bed materials in the downstream channel, consideration should be given to protection of the n streamflow velocity in vicinity of culvert entrance;
stream bed material or provision of energy dissipation structures (e.g., stilling basins, baffled outlets). n assessment of damage due to debris clogging, if protection is not provided;
n availability of storage area;
12.5.9.7 Stream bed protection can be achieved with a concrete apron (slab), grouted riprap, rock riprap or gabion
n maintenance access requirements; and
mattresses. Mattresses should be anchored to the cut-off wall or apron at the culvert outlet to stop them moving downstream.
n standard of planned maintenance for debris removal.
For a suggested arrangement of the culvert slope protection at inlet and outlet, refer to Figures 12.5.9.1 and 12.5.9.2.
12.5.10.5 Experience has shown that the following combination of stream characteristics tends to produce the
12.5.9.8 Energy dissipation structures should be considered where the outlet flow velocity is greater than 5.5
most serious debris problems:
m/s. Selection and design of an energy dissipation device to meet needs at a site requires a thorough study of
n susceptibility of stream to flash floods, i.e. relatively impervious watersheds with moderate or steep
expected outlet flow conditions and the performance of various devices.
gradients;
12.5.9.9 Where supercritical flow conditions prevail in a curved approach to a culvert, training walls are needed n actively eroding banks bordered by trees or large shrubs;
to align flow with the culvert inlet and to equalize flow rates in the barrels of multiple barrel culverts. In locations n relatively straight unobstructed stream channels with no sharp bends; and
where overtopping of the channel or culvert or inefficient operation could result in catastrophic failure, laboratory
n cleared land upstream with fallen trees on the ground.
verification of the training wall design might be advisable. Training walls may also be required at culvert outlets
to align flow with the downstream channel if this alignment cannot be accomplished in the culvert barrel. 12.5.10.6 Provisions for maintenance access are necessary for debris control structures. For high embankments,
this may be difficult. Many debris barriers require cleaning after every storm. The standard or frequency of
12.5.9.10 Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage along a culvert barrel, which removes fill material, forming a
maintenance should be considered in selecting the debris control structure. If a low standard of maintenance is
hollow similar to a pipe. Fine soil particles are washed out freely along the hollow, and the erosion inside the fill may
anticipated, the designer should choose to pass the debris through the structure.
ultimately cause failure of the culvert or the embankment. Piping should be anticipated along the entire length of the
culvert when pounding above the culvert is planned. Piping risk can be reduced by applying the following measures: 12.5.10.7 There are various types of debris control structures available for culverts. These measures can have
many shapes and can be constructed using various materials. The following are some examples:
n The culvert joints should be as water tight as possible;
n Debris Deflectors are structures placed at the culvert inlet to deflect the major portion of the debris
n Construct anti-seep or cut-off collars, which usually consist of bulkhead type plates or blocks around
away from the culvert entrance. They are normally “V”-shaped in plan with the apex upstream as
the entire perimeter of the culvert
shown in Figure 12.5.10.1.

12.5.10 Debris Control n Debris Racks are structures placed across the stream channel to collect the debris before it reaches
the culvert entrance as shown in Figure 12.5.10.2. Debris racks are usually vertical and at right angles
12.5.10.1 Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet can result in the culvert not performing as designed. The to the streamflow, but they may be skewed with the flow or inclined with the vertical.
consequences may be damages from inundation of the road and upstream property. n Debris Dams and Basins are structures placed across well-defined channels to form basins which
impede the stream flow and provide storage space for deposits of detritus and floating debris.
12.5.10.2 The designer has two options for coping with the debris problem: retain the debris upstream of the
culvert or attempt to pass debris through the culvert.

n If the debris is to be retained by an upstream structure or at the culvert inlet, frequent maintenance
may be required.
n If debris is to be passed through the structure such as in wide wadis, the minimum culvert width
shall be 4.0m or if the debris is to be retained at the inlet, a relief opening should be considered, such
as a relief culvert placed higher in the embankment.

12.5.10.3 It is often more economical to construct debris control structures after problems develop because debris
problems do not occur at all suspected locations and the type and volume of debris that should be considered for
the design of the control structures can’t be accurately determined except after debris accumulation.

12.5.10.4 The design of a debris control structure must be preceded by a thorough study of the debris problem. Refer

to HEC9 (Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9) for details concerning the design of debris control structures. 
Figure 12.5.10.1 S
 teel rail debris deflector (looking Figure 12.5.8.2 Steel Debris Rack in Urban Area
downstream 

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12.5.11 Multiple Use Culverts

12.5.11.1 Culverts often serve purposes in addition to drainage. There are cost advantages of multiple-use, but
one purpose or the other is often inadequately served. The cost advantages of multiple-use should be weighed
against the possible advantages of separate facilities for each use.

12.5.11.2 Box culverts can serve both for drainage and for stock and wildlife passes including camels. However,
camels may be reluctant to cross in long dark tunnels if unguided. Therefore, the culverts should be sufficiently large
and lighted. Consequently, they can be used also for land access from one side of the road to the other, particularly
on highways with controlled access. If vehicular access is to be allowed, the culvert size will generally be determined
by the physical dimensions of the vehicles that will make use of the facility. Scour protection and mild slope approach
at the entrances not considered necessary for hydraulic reasons may be required to facilitate access to the culvert for
stock and wildlife and vehicles. Rigid lining could be used for scour protection and the approach slope at the entrances
should be less than 7%. Criteria for the accommodation of stock and wildlife are not included in these guidelines.

12.6 STORM NETWORKS

12.6.1 Storm Networks Considerations

12.6.1.1 Storm Networks are primarily concerned with the collection of rain falling within the highway right-of-
way and from overland flow. This sub-section covers the following elements of the storm network:

n Inlets,
n Storm drains,
n Storage facilities,
n Siphons,
n Pumping stations,
n Outfalls, and
n Water quality facilities.

The road edge will normally be demarcated by upstand curbs with adjacent sidewalks sloping towards the curb
line especially in urban and semi-urban areas. Consequently, most rainfall falling within the right-of-way will end
up at the road edge adjacent to the curb line. In addition, surface water reaching the road from external sources
such as roof drainage from adjacent properties can be intercepted by the installation of drainage inlets at regular
intervals which are linked to a pipe network discharging to a convenient natural water course or open channel
drainage system.

12.6.1.2 Projects will generally be subject to the requirements of local, wilayat and/or national environmental
legislation, and may also be affected by heritage or native title claims. It is important that contact with relevant
agencies is made at the early stages of project development so that these requirements are understood and
incorporated.

Figure 12.5.9.1 Protection Arrangement at Inlet of Culvert

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12.6.1.3 The hydraulic designer should obtain data that is commensurate with the risks, costs and complexity of the
proposed storm network. Although not all-inclusive, the following identifies the common sources of drainage data:

n Field surveys;
n Aerial photography (controlled and non-controlled);
n Planning agencies;
n Local master drainage plans;
n Utility companies;
n Residents that can provide information on flood history; and
n Previous or ongoing drainage studies by other agencies/consultants.

12.6.1.4 The system design is dependent on an estimate of magnitude, volume, and distribution of storm runoff.
The momentary peak flow rate estimates are most often used in the design of storm networks. Drainage systems
employing pumping stations, detention, retention or recharge basins and large, complex storm systems require the
use of hydrographs. The technique used should be commensurate with the cost, risk and importance of the system.

12.6.2 Major/Minor Drainage Concept

12.6.2.1 A major/minor system approach should be considered for the planning and design of urban storm
water systems.

1) A minor system is intended to collect and convey run-off from frequent storm events such that nuisance
flooding is minimised. It is normally designed to carry runoff of 2 to 10 year return period storm events.
The minor system consists of the components that have been historically considered as part of the “storm
drainage system”. These components include curbs, gutters, ditches, inlets, access holes, pipes and other
conduits, open channels, pumps, detention basins, water quality control facilities, etc.
2) The major system is intended to safely convey run-off that is in excess of the capacity of the minor drainage
system and thereby manage the risk of inundation to adjacent land or buildings. This usually occurs during
more infrequent storm events, such as the 25, 50, and 100 year storms.The major system typically consists of a
network of overland flow paths including roads, natural channels and streams, engineered waterways, culverts,
community retention/detention basins, and other facilities that are provided - knowingly or unknowingly - for
the runoff to flow to natural or manmade receiving channels. The designer should determine (at least in a
general sense) the flow pathways and related depths and velocities of the major system under less frequent
or check storm conditions (typically a 100-year event is used as the check storm).

12.6.2.2 The development of a conceptual storm drainage plan should consist of the following preliminary activities:
n Locate and space inlets
n Locate main outfall
n Locate storm mains and other conveyance elements
n Define detention strategy and storage locations
n Define water quality control strategy and facility locations
n Define elements of major drainage system

12.6.2.3 The implementation of a major system is likely to pose a more difficult question than the minor systems
within a catchment area. This is in part due to the non-conventional flow pathways and the greater flows involved
than are likely to be encountered in the design of its ‘nested’ minor system. For these reasons a major-then-minor
design sequence is recommended.

Figure 12.5.9.2 Protection Arrangement at Outlet of Culvert

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

12.6.2.4 The major/minor drainage system designed for a specific portion of an urban landscape forms part of the Where (see Figure 12.6.31):
Drainage Design
12
master drainage plan for the entire drainage basin within which the particular urban unit is located. During storm q = Rate of discharge, m3/s
events, run-off is collected and conveyed along the identified drainage networks of each unit. Interaction between n = Manning’s coefficient of channel roughness
slope-aligned units or catchments may take place in this process. floodwaters can discharge from an upstream S = Longitudinal slope, m/m
drainage unit directly to a downstream unit in case the downstream flood escape path can accommodate the
Sx = Cross slope, m/m
peak of the combined flows, but this must be verified by computation taking into consideration the complex
T = Top width of water surface, m
discharge/time relationship.
d = Depth of flow at deepest point, m

12.6.3 Pavement Drainage The quantity of water to be discharged from the

highway is determined using the Rational Formula
12.6.3.1 Pavement drainage occurs in two different modes. One mode involves sheet flow across the pavement
described in sub-section 12.2.2:
surface, which is predominantly affected by pavement type, condition, cross slope and texture. The other mode
occurs where curbs contain and channelize runoff within the roadway gutter and a portion of the pavement until 12.6.3.5 Inlets are important features of curb-and-
the stormwater can be removed from the surface, usually through inlets. gutter-type pavement drainage that enable stormwater
to be removed from the roadway area. Inlets must be
12.6.3.2 Conventional gutters begin at the intersection of the pavement surface and the inside base of the curb
properly located and sized in order for the curb and
and usually extend from the curb toward the roadway centerline at a width of 0.3 m to 1.8 m. They are usually
gutter drainage to be efficient. In this sub-section,
constructed with Portland cement concrete or asphaltic concrete but are not necessarily the same material as
inlets apply primarily to the roadway or bridge deck
the pavement. If the gutter cross slope varies from the pavement cross slope, it is called a composite gutter. The
surface and not to culvert inlets.
gutter may also have the same cross slope as the pavement. Figure 12.6.3.1 Gutter Parameters

12.6.3.6 The time of concentration of the watershed is defined as the time needed for a drop of water to travel
12.6.3.3 The curb and gutter form a triangular channel that can be an efficient hydraulic conveyance facility,
from the hydraulically most distant point of the watershed to the design point downstream. It can be estimated
often conveying low rainfall intensity events without interruption to traffic. However, when the design storm flow
using formulas but for inlets the minimum time of concentration can be considered as 10 minutes.
occurs, the width of runoff may spread to include not only the gutter width but also any parking lanes or shoulders
and certain portions of the travelled surface. This spread or pounded width is what the hydraulics designer is 12.6.3.7 The minimum longitudinal fall at the bottom of the drainage curb face should be 0.5%. Designers should
most concerned about in curb and gutter flow. Suggested minimum design return periods and allowable water check the profile of the inner face of drainage curbs in areas of super-elevation application where combinations
spread are presented in Table 12.6.3.1. of profile grade slopes and super-elevation application can result in flat or nearly flat profiles. If flat areas are
unavoidable, they should be minimized to the extent possible. In very constrained circumstances, consideration
Minimum Design Return
Roadway Classification Allowable water Spread could be given to the absolute minimum longitudinal fall at the bottom of drainage curbs at 0.35%. Adoption of
Period
this flatter gradient however would be subject to the approval of the Client.
Hi-volume or divided or bi-directional
< 70 km/hr 1 in 10 years (10%) Shoulder + 1m
> 70 km/hr
1 in 10 years (10%) Shoulder
12.6.4 Inlet Location and Sizing

Collector 12.6.4.1 The following information is necessary for the process of locating inlets:
< 70 km/hr 1 in 10 years (10%) 1/2 driving lane
> 70 km/hr n Plan and profile of the roadway,
1 in 10 years (10%) Shoulder
n Topographic maps of the adjacent area,
Local streets
Low ADT 1 in 5 years (20%) 1/2 driving lane
n Allowable water spread,
High ADT n Typical roadway cross section, and
1 in 10 years (10%) 1/2 driving lane
Table 12.6.3.1 Minimum Design Return Period and Allowable Water Spread n Superelevation information.

12.6.4.2 There are a number of locations where inlets may be necessary with little regard to contributing drainage
12.6.3.4 A modified Manning’s equation can be used to compute the spread width of flow in the gutter if the area. These locations should be marked on the plans prior to any computations regarding discharge, water
rate of discharge, pavement cross slopes, profile grade and Manning’s roughness coefficient are known. This spread, inlet capacity, or flow bypass. Examples of such locations follow:
modification is required because the hydraulic radius does not adequately describe the flow cross section in such
n Sag point in the gutter grade;
a shallow, wide channel, particularly when the top width of the water surface can be more than 40 times the depth
at the curb. The resulting equation is: n Immediately upstream of median breaks and entrance/exit ramp gores;
n Immediately upgrade of bridges;
q = (0.376/n)Sx1.67S0.5T2.67
n Immediately upgrade of cross slope reversals;
n Immediately upgrade from pedestrian crosswalks;

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Drainage Design

n At the end of channels in cut sections; n Slotted drain inlets, and

n Behind curbs, shoulders or sidewalks to drain low areas. n Combination inlets.

12.6.4.3 In locations where significant roadway pounding may occur (e.g., underpasses, sag vertical curves), a 12.6.5.2 Factors influencing inlet type selection should include:
recommended practice is to place flanking inlets on each side of the inlet at the low point in the sag. The flanking n Hydraulic efficiency,
inlets will limit water spread on low gradient approaches to the sag and act in relief of the sag inlet if it should
n Pedestrian and bicycle safety,
become clogged or if the design spread is exceeded. Flanking inlets can be located so they will function when
n Debris handling characteristics,
water spread exceeds the design depth on the curb. In addition, inlets located on sag vertical curves will warrant a
n Structural strength, and
higher design return period than would be applied to an at-grade inlet. Table 12.2.1.1 provides one possible mean
of establishing minimum design return period for inlets at sag points based on Roadway Classification. n Installation costs.

12.6.4.4 Inlet location and sizing are interrelated and depend on the amount of stormwater to be removed and the 12.6.5.3 Grate inlets consist of an opening in the gutter or ditch covered by a grate. They are commonly used
criterion of allowable water spread on the roadway. For example, use of lower inlet capacities requires more inlets inlet structures that are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. They can be placed in the gutter on a

and use of higher inlet capacities may allow fewer inlets. Also, as the allowable spread is decreased, the required size continuous grade or at sag locations. Grate inlets, as a class, perform satisfactorily over a wide range of gutter

of inlets is increased and/or the spacing between inlets decreased so that the allowable spread is not surpassed. grades but they generally lose capacity with increase in grade, but to a lesser degree than curb opening inlets.
For typical details of grate inlets refer to General Drawing GD 12-08.
12.6.4.5 The limits of allowable water spread should be set after considering the following:
12.6.5.4 In a sag location, the capacity of a grate inlet is dependent mainly on the open area of the grate and
n Volume and speed of the traffic;
the depth of allowable pounded water above the grate. At pounding depths that completely submerge the grate,
n Number of traffic lanes; the concept of orifice flow is usually applied to the design of sag location grates. Because grates at sag locations
n Absence or presence of gutters, shoulders and/or parking lanes; are particularly prone to clogging, it is common practice to apply a safety factor (typically 2) to the required inlet
n Extent of the roadway area that can be sacrificed to the design stormwater; and area. Generally, if used in curb and gutter, it is recommended that they be supplemented with a curb opening to
n Safety and travel convenience. provide a combination sag inlet.

Generally a water spread of 1.8 meter (≈ half a driving lane) is acceptable. Where a paved shoulder exists and the 12.6.5.5 Important factors influencing the interception capacity of an on-grade grate inlet are:
traffic allowable speed is less than 70 km/hour, the spread can equal the shoulder width + 1m.
n Length and width of grate,
12.6.4.6 The inlet capacity (interception rate) for a given flow is a function of the inlet type, the geometry of the n Shape and size of bars in grate,
opening and the roadway longitudinal slope and cross slope. Changes in any of these variables can have significant n Gutter geometry,
influence on the amount of water intercepted at any inlet. Inlet interception capacity has been investigated by n Depth and velocity of approaching flow, and
several agencies. The FHWA’s Drainage of Highway Pavements discusses inlet design procedures and compares n Orientation of bars (vertical and horizontal).
various types of inlets.
12.6.5.6 Grates-on-grade with longitudinal bars parallel to the direction of traffic (Figure 12.6.5.1) are generally
12.6.4.7 The maximum spacing between inlets should not exceed 100 m. The procedure for spacing inlets can more efficient than those with transverse bars. However, in areas where bicycle traffic is anticipated, parallel bars
be summarized as follows: require special provisions such as narrowing the space between bars or adding transverse bars to ensure the
n Calculate flow and spread in the gutter starting from the upstream side of the catchment. Tributary safety of bicyclists (Figure 12.6.5.2). These provisions tend to reduce hydraulic efficiency. Grates with transverse
area is from high point to location of first inlet, which should be placed where spread approaches bars are bicycle safe; however, when used on steep slopes, they can be very inefficient because of the tendency
the spread limit. for the water to splash over the grate without entering the system. Transverse bar grates and parallel grates with
n Calculate the amount of water intercepted by the inlet, check the inlet efficiency. The efficiency should transverse bars are more susceptible to clogging with debris than grates with longitudinal bars only.
be a minimum of 75%.
12.6.5.7 Inlets with the primary opening in the face of the curb are referred to as curb-opening inlets. They offer
n The water that bypasses the first inlet should be included in the flow and spread calculation for the
little interference to traffic and are relatively free from clogging by debris. Curb openings can be placed on a
next inlet.
continuous grade or at sag locations. They are most effective on flatter slopes, in sags, and with flows which
n Place the next inlet where spread approaches the spread limit. typically carry significant amounts of floating debris. The interception capacity of curb-opening inlets decreases
n Repeat this procedure to the end of system. as the gutter grade steepens. Consequently, the use of curb-opening inlets is recommended in sags and on
grades less than 3%. Of course, they are bicycle safe as well. For typical details of curb inlets refer to General
12.6.5 Inlet Types Drawing GD 12-09.

12.6.5.1 Several types of inlets are available for intercepting the water flowing along the curb and gutter, such as: 12.6.5.8 The most hydraulically efficient type of curb-opening inlet has a cantilevered top slab and a depression
n Grate inlets, of the gutter flowline at the inlet of at least 50 mm. See Figure 12.6.5.3. Curb inlets without this depression are
n Curb-opening inlets, significantly less hydraulically efficient. For safety precautions, the vertical rise of the opening should be limited

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to prevent children from entering the inlet. The required length of a curb-opening is a function of the amount
Drainage Design
12
12.6.5.13 Bridge decks have similar drainage characteristics to those of roadway pavement; however, there are
of water to be intercepted, the depth of flow, the depression height and, for an on-grade curb, the allowable some specific problems on bridge decks that warrant additional consideration in design. These include:
carryover. Curb-opening inlets are usually more adaptable for use at sag points than grate inlets because of their
n Deck drainage systems are highly susceptible to clogging,
larger, more hydraulically efficient opening and their reduced tendency to clog. The interception capacity of curb
n Expansion joints are susceptible to sedimentation,
inlets on continuous grades and particularly on steeper slopes can be increased by increasing gutter cross slope,
n Inlet spacing is often predetermined by bent spacing or the location of traffic lanes under the
increasing the gutter depression and/or by lengthening the inlet.
structure, and
12.6.5.9 Slotted drain inlets have been used n Inlet sizes are often constrained by structural features.
successfully for many years to solve various drainage
12.6.5.14 Bridge deck inlets vary in size and shape. In some instances, it is satisfactory to drain the pavement
problems. They have been used to intercept sheet
directly through openings in the bridge railing and allow the runoff to freefall below the bridge. Elsewhere, the
flow, gutter flow with or without curbs, modify existing
presence of a sidewalk or a solid rail may force the use of specific inlets, such as small grate inlets.
drainage systems to accommodate roadway widening
or increased runoff and reduce pounding at flush grate
inlets. Slotted drain inlets are susceptible to clogging
12.6.6 Storm Drains
from sediments and debris, and are not recommended 12.6.6.1 Generally, a storm drain is considered to be that portion of the highway drainage system that receives
Figure 12.6.5.1 Parallel Grate Inlet (Not Bicycle Safe)
for use in environments where significant sediment surface water through inlets and conveys the water through conduits to an outfall. The storm drain utilizes pipe,
or debris loads may be present. Slotted inlets on a box, or other enclosed conduits to convey the surface water and includes inlet structures (excluding the actual
longitudinal grade do have the same hydraulic capacity inlet opening), manholes, laterals (or branches), main lines (or trunks), and miscellaneous structures.
as curb openings when debris is not a factor
12.6.6.2 The hydraulic capacity of a storm drain is controlled by its size, shape, slope, and friction resistance.
12.6.5.10 The application of slotted drain inlets are Several flow friction formulas have been advanced which define the relationship between flow capacity and
limited only by practicality and the imagination of the these parameters. The most widely used formula for gravity flow in storm drains is Manning’s Equation. The
designer. However, access for cleanout of the carrier Manning’s Equation was introduced in paragraph 12.3.2.6 for computing flow in open channels. The Manning’s
pipe and/or the provision of sufficient grade on the roughness coefficients related to pipes are given in Table 12.6.6.1. Another widely used equation for gravity and
pipe to maintain a self-cleaning velocity are necessary pressure flow in storm drains is the Colebrook - White equation. The latter is used mainly in computer programs
considerations. In some instances, the addition of a because of the complexity of the equation which render manual calculations difficult.
Figure 12.6.5.2 Bicycle-Safe Grate grate inlet at the lower end of the slot can provide
access to facilitate cleaning and add hydraulic capacity. 12.6.6.3 The design parameters that qualify an acceptable storm drain design are as follows:
Slotted drain inlets have definite economic advantages n Design flood return period as described in Sub-section 12.2.4.
on roadway-widening projects where right-of-way n Desirable minimum flow velocity 1.0 m/s or absolute minimum 0.8 m/s for partial flow condition,
is limited and existing drainage systems must be
n Desirable maximum flow velocity 4.7 m/s or absolute maximum 7.0 m/s for partial flow condition,
supplemented. The elimination of curbs and drainage
n Minimum pipe diameter 300mm for the collection network (mainlines and laterals) and 150mm for
channels and installation of slotted drain inlets can
Inlets pipes and house connections,
simplify maintenance operations significantly.
n Minimum pipe cover under road pavements 1000mm (concrete encasement is required for shallower
12.6.5.11 Although slotted drain inlets have several cover),
hydraulic advantages, the pavement design and the n At changes in pipe diameter the pipes are to be designed soffit to soffit, and
Figure 12.6.5.3 Curb Opening Inlet
placement of the slotted drain can be more exacting n Distance between manholes should not exceed 70 m.
than for other inlets.Therefore, close coordination with
the pavement designer is essential whenever slotted drain inlets are contemplated. Any additional pavement Pipe Material Manning’s n*
costs should be included in the economic comparison of slotted drain with more conventional inlet types. Concrete and Asbestos Cement 0.012 - 0.014
Plastic (uPVC, PE and GRP) 0.010 - 0.012
12.6.5.12 It is advantageous for the highway agency to establish standard inlet lengths and sizes.This serves to standardize Vitrified Clay 0.011 – 0.013
and facilitate design and help control construction costs. The following inlet dimensions are generally acceptable: Iron (Cement-lined and seal coated) 0.012 - 0.014
n 0.6 m x 0.6 m for grate inlet clear opening (WxL), Corrugated-Metal Without Lining (with
0.022 – 0.026
13 mm by 64 mm corrugations)
n 1 m for a curb inlet opening (L), and
Corrugated-Metal Fully Paved 0.012 – 0.014
n 3 m as a standard minimum length for slotted inlets.
Table 12.6.6.1 Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Pipes
* Lower values are usually for well-constructed and maintained (smoother) pipes

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12.6.6.4 Two approaches may be used to size a enclosed conduit when steady uniform flow is assumed. One to which the water will rise. If any allowable highwater elevation is exceeded, then adjustments to the trial design
is termed “open-channel” flow and the other is “pressure” flow. Open-channel flow requires the conduit to be must be made to reduce the highwater elevation to an acceptable level.
sized so that the surface of the design flow in the conduit is open to atmospheric pressure. Pressure flow design
12.6.6.9 If the outfall is an existing storm drain system, the hydraulic gradeline computation should begin at the
requires that the flow in the conduit be at a pressure greater than atmospheric; i.e., there is no flow surface within
outfall end of the existing system and proceed through the existing system to the upstream end of the proposed
the conduit exposed to atmospheric pressure
storm drain system. Otherwise, the process should begin with the soffit elevation at the point of discharge or the
12.6.6.5 Open-channel flow design is recommended because it provides a reserve capacity, which can be design tailwater in the outfall, whichever is higher.
considered a safety factor. A safety factor is needed because the methods of runoff estimation are not exact
12.6.6.10 The purpose of manholes is to provide access to a storm drain for inspection and maintenance. They
and, once placed, storm drains are difficult and expensive to replace. Pressure flow can be used subject to the
are usually placed at changes in direction, grade and storm drain size and at conduit intersections and intervals
approval of concerned authorities especially under the following conditions:
along long stretches of conduit. Conduits passing through manholes should have good hydraulic properties to
n Considerable savings can be realized over the cost of a system designed by open-channel flow, and
minimize head loss. The surface topography should also be given consideration when locating a manhole.
n To utilize an existing system that must be placed under pressure flow to accommodate the proposed
design flow rates. 12.6.6.11 Manholes are usually constructed out of cast-in-place concrete or precast concrete. Their chamber rings
are usually circular with a minimum diameter of 1200 mm and their chamber base is usually square. They should
12.6.6.6 Using open-channel flow, design efficiency can be realized by sizing the conduit to operate as near to
be designed to withstand both the live and dead load forces that may be imposed on them. The diameter is often
“full flow” as possible. For circular pipe, maximum capacity is actually achieved at a flow depth equal to around
a function of depth with deeper manholes having larger diameters. Access to manholes should be allowed via
94% of the diameter of the pipe. However, it is advisable to design pipes at a flow depth not exceeding 75% of the
removable ladders of corrosion resistant material. For manholes deeper than 3.5 meter the designer should
pipe diameter and keep the remaining spare capacity as a freeboard to accommodate the following:
provide additional facilities such as a safety cage to ensure safe access to the manhole. For typical details of
n Future increase in runoff volume due to increase in impervious areas because of urban expansion manholes refer to Standard Drawings SD 12-10 to SD 12-13.
and/or other developments, and
n possible reduction in pipe capacity due to sedimentation and/or aging. 12.6.6.12 The manhole frame and cover are normally made of cast iron. They must be designed to have adequate
strength to support the expected loading. A good fit between cover and frame is essential, and it is preferable to
12.6.6.7 The general procedure for the design of a typical storm drain is given in brief below: locate the manhole away from traffic. The cover should be removable or hinged to open. The principal defence
n Define catchments and sub-areas and show the natural drainage flow directions. against a cover being lifted by children is a cover weight in excess of 45 kg. Covers that can be bolted down are
n Locate suitable outlets to the sub-areas. required where vandalism, pressure system and/or other conditions dictate.
n Calculate rainfall run-off from each sub-area.
n Calculate the flow widths along roads and streets (proposed as well as existing). 12.6.7 Storage Facilities
n If flow widths are unacceptable, gully inlets and underground drainage are required to reduce the 12.6.7.1 Temporary storage or detention of excess stormwater runoff to regulate release rates is a fundamental
widths. principle in stormwater management and a necessary element of some highway storm drain systems. The
n Try some gully inlet locations and drainage lines with particular attention to the need of drainage determination of whether or not to provide stormwater storage can be achieved by performing a cost/benefit
sags and road intersections. analysis on storm drain systems with and without storage provisions.
n Calculate preliminary pipe sizes.
12.6.7.2 Surface storage usually comprises open excavation or natural valleys and a controlling structure, such
n Place the pipes in the drainage line, with cover and grading requirements met and junctions and
as a weir, culvert and/or a valve. In areas where surface storage is either not permitted or not feasible due to
access chambers at appropriate locations.
right-of-way restrictions or other limitations, underground storage may be used. Underground storage can be
n Compare alternative lines for cost and efficiency as different layouts provide different advantages.
provided by use of structures such as storm drain conduit, tanks and/or tunnels. Three basic classifications of
n Refine the design so that all design parameters are met and taking into consideration the
storage are discussed in the following paragraphs: detention, retention, and recharge facilities.
following:
a) Conflict with existing utilities is avoided, 12.6.7.3 Stormwater detention is the storage of some stormwater runoff for a short period, usually less than
b) deep trenching is minimized, a day, before release at a lower, controlled rate. The detention concept is most often employed in highway and
c) the design is cost effective, municipal stormwater management plans to limit the peak outflow rate to that which existed from the same
d) the selected outfall level is sufficiently low to allow for gravity flow, and watershed before development for a specific range of flood frequencies. Following are some of the design
e) where pollution control is required, the number of outfalls should be restricted. policies and criteria for detention storage:

12.6.6.8 If the “pressure” flow approach is approved by concerned authorities for cost saving or other constraints, n Design rainfall return period, intensity, and duration must be consistent with highway standards and

the pipes will be sized using the same procedure discussed above. In addition, all head loss coefficients in pipes local requirements.

and junctions should be estimated. Then, a hydraulic gradeline is computed to account for the effect of the outfall n The facility’s outlet structure must limit the maximum outflow to allowable release rates.
tailwater, friction, and junction losses on the system during a particular storm event. The gradeline aids the n An auxiliary outlet must be provided to allow overflow, which may result from excessive inflow or
designer in determining the acceptability of the proposed system by establishing the elevations along the system clogging of the main outlet.

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n The system must be designed to release excess stormwater expeditiously to ensure that the entire
Drainage Design
12
12.6.8.2 The designer should consider at least the following aspects of outfalls that may affect the hydraulic
storage volume is available for subsequent storms and to minimize hazards. design of the storm drain:
n Access must be provided for maintenance. n The flowline elevation of the proposed storm drain outlet should be equal to or higher than the
flowline of the outfall.
12.6.7.4 Retention involves the storage of stormwater runoff for a period of several days or more and often is
n The highwater elevation at the outlet of the outfall must be estimated for the normal operating
characterized by low release rates both during and after the rainfall. In addition to stormwater storage, retention
conditions of the storm drain. In normal design, this elevation is the elevation at which to begin the
may be used for water supply, recreation, pollutant removal and/or aesthetics. The storage is usually provided
hydraulic gradeline determination.
within a surface basin and controlled by a dam. The facility may have a permanent pool or it may be designed to
n In situations where the highwater at the outfall outlet is expected to influence significantly the flow
discharge slowly into a storm drain system, usually long after the storm has passed.
in the outfall, a water surface profile for an open channel outfall or hydraulic gradeline for a closed
12.6.7.5 Retention can be provided where a suitable stormwater outlet is not available. The design criteria for conduit outfall should be computed, beginning with the highwater elevation in the outfall outlet. The
retention facilities are the same as those for detention facilities except that it may not be necessary to remove all computation should continue up to the outlet of the storm drain system. The resulting elevation can
runoff after each storm. then be used as the tailwater for the hydraulic gradeline check in the storm drain system.
n There may be instances in which an excessive tailwater causes flow to back up the storm drain
12.6.7.6 The primary purpose of a recharge facility is to replenish existing underground water supplies. It may
system and out of inlets and access holes, creating unexpected and perhaps hazardous flooding
also provide stormwater storage. Surface recharge facilities appear in much the same form as retention basins,
conditions. The potential for this should be considered.
and the design criteria are similar to those of a retention basin. However, the following additional criteria should
n Energy dissipation may be required to protect the outfall and the storm drain outlet. Also, if the
be applied:
outlet discharge impinges on the opposite bank of the outfall, then protection to that bank should be
n A pervious bottom is necessary to ensure sufficient infiltration capability to drain the basin in time provided. Protection is usually required at the outlet to prevent erosion of the outfall bed and banks.
for the next inflow. Riprap aprons or energy dissipators should be provided if high velocities are expected.
n Because of the potential delay in recharging the groundwater, it may be necessary to increase the n Where practicable, the outlet of the storm drain should be positioned in the outfall channel so that
emergency spillway capacity and/or the impoundment size. it is pointed in a downstream direction. This will reduce turbulence and the potential for excessive
n Provision should be made for protecting against hazardous spills or other pollutants that may erosion.
contaminate the groundwater.

12.6.7.7 Subsurface recharge can be accomplished by use of wells. One example is a “dry-well,” which is a small
12.6.9 Pumping Stations
diameter hole or pit usually filled with pea gravel, coarse sand or other aggregate, or it contains a slotted or 12.6.9.1 Stormwater pumping stations are necessary to remove stormwater from highway sections that cannot
perforated pipe, backfilled with materials that allow water to penetrate and soak into the ground, while preventing drain by gravity. Because of the costs and potential problems associated with pumping stations, their use is
collapse of the walls. Frequently, a layer of filter sand is placed in the top 50 mm of a well and mounded up slightly recommended only where other systems are not feasible. Alternatives include deep tunnels and recharge basins.
over the well to trap silt and other sediment that might clog the well. The sand can be periodically removed and
cleaned or replaced. 12.6.9.2 Economic and design considerations dictate that the pumping station be located relatively near or at
the low point of the highway. Usually, a frontage road or overpass is available for easy access to the station.
12.6.7.8 Inflow structures into storage basins include storm drains, box culverts, weirs, and channels. Storm
drains are usually designed for the 2- to 10-year storm, whereas the detention facility could be designed for the 12.6.9.3 Pumping stations serving National and Arterial Routes are usually designed to accommodate a 50-year
25- to 100-year storm. Therefore, during larger rainstorms, if including the design storm for the detention facility, storm to reduce the potential for flood-related hazards. Also, it is advisable to check the drainage system for the
the storm drains may be flowing under pressure. Their velocities will be higher than normal, and measures 100-year storm to determine the extent of flooding and associated risk. The drainage area tributary to the station
should be taken to minimize the possibility of erosion. should be kept as small as practicable. Hydrologic design should be based on the ultimate development of the
drainage area.
12.6.7.9 In designing detention or retention facilities, consideration should be given to the possibility that
children may be attracted to the site, regardless of whether or not the site is intended for their use. It is important 12.6.9.4 For most highway pumping stations, peak inflow rates will occur over a relatively short time.The provision
to design and construct inflow and outflow structures with safety in mind. Where a rapid rise of water level is of storage will reduce the peak pumping rate requirements and should be considered at all pumping station sites.
expected, or the design depth is greater than 1.2 m, the facility should be closed to the public and surrounded by When storage is used to reduce peak flow rates, a flood routing procedure must be used to design the system.
a high fence, with prominent warning signs around the perimeter. This procedure integrates three independent elements: the inflow hydrograph, stage-storage relationship, and
stage-discharge relationship.
12.6.8 Outfalls
12.6.9.5 Two basic types of stations are wet-pit and dry-pit. In the wet-pit station, a submersible pump and
12.6.8.1 An outfall transfers collected stormwater from a storm drain to an acceptable point of release in either motor unit rests near the bottom of a sump. Dry-pit stations consist of a storage box and a dry-well. Stormwater
a natural or constructed facility without adverse effects to the highway, the community, the environment, or is stored in the storage box that is connected to the dry-well by horizontal piping. The stormwater pumps are
any property owner. An outfall may be either an open channel or a closed conduit but has no prescribed length. usually submersible pump and motor installed in dry conditions and are located on the floor of the dry-well. The
Generally, the outfall lies outside the normal highway right-of-way. main advantage of the dry-pit station is safe, easy access for routine and emergency pump maintenance.

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12.6.9.6 To ensure the station’s capacity during maintenance or repair, some designers provide a standby pump. 12.6.9.13 In case where storage volume is not provided along with the drainage pumping station, then pump on-
Other designers recommend adding another main pump instead of a standby and reducing the individual pump off settings that control the starting and stopping of pump motors corresponding to rising and receding water
capacities accordingly. When a standby pump is used, it should be included in the main pump operation sequence levels in the sump is critical. These settings must be carefully established so that the pumps can handle the
to distribute wear evenly on all pumps. design peak flow and all lesser flow rates and durations and so that the motors will not experience rapid starting
cycles.
12.6.9.7 Pumps shall be designed and selected such that the operating point on the pumps curve corresponds
to the maximum pump efficiency range. Pump heads shall be calculated by the summing of the gravity heads, 12.6.9.14 The first pump on-off setting is extremely important because it establishes the most frequent cycle time.
friction heads, fitting losses, and valves losses. A safety factor of 10 % shall also be added to the calculated pump To prolong the life of the motors, sufficient volume must be provided in this cycle to meet the minimum cycle
head. In selecting the size of discharge piping, consideration should be given to maintaining a velocity in the pipe time required by the pump motors. Other pump settings are then established so that there is sufficient volume of
as shown in the Table 12.6.9.1. This criterion represents a reasonable compromise in balancing cost versus head storage to provide an acceptable cycle time for all remaining pumps.
losses.
12.6.9.15 Pump control switches detect water levels and activate the pumps according to the pump on-off
Design Pipe 50 to 100 mm 150 to 250 mm 300 to 400 mm settings. There are a number of different types of control switches that can be used. These include the float switch,
Velocity Table Min Max Min Max Min Max electronic probes, ultrasonic devices, tilting bulb with mercury switch and bubbler tube/air pressure switch. If
Pump Suction m/s 1 1.5 1.3 2.1 1.3 2.1 the control switches fail to activate the pumps, flooding of the highway and/or station is likely to occur. A backup
Pump Discharge m/s 1.3 2 1.3 2.5 1.3 3.1 control system and a manual controller should be considered for safety. Other options include warning signals.
Table 12.6.9.1 Recommended Velocity in Pipes for Pump Suction and Discharge
12.6.9.16 It will be necessary to remove motors and pumps from the station for periodic maintenance and repair.
Removable roofs or roof hatches located over the equipment are often a cost-effective solution. Mobile cranes
12.6.9.8 The flow friction head shall be computed by the Hazen-Williams formula:
can lift the equipment directly from the station to maintenance trucks. For smaller stations, a strategically placed
V = 0.849CR0.63h0.54 monorail may be an economical solution.
Where:
12.6.9.17 Dry-wells should have dual-fan systems. The intake fan should force fresh air down the ducts to the
V is the flow velocity m/s,
lower areas of the dry-well while the exhaust fan pulls out the stale air from the opposite side of the wet-well.
R is the hydraulic radius in meters,
The ventilation system should be interlocked with the pumps operation, and this is to ensure removal of heat
h is the head loss m/m, and
generated by the pumps motors when pumps are operating.
C is the Hazen-Williams Constant.
12.6.9.18 Operating functions may be telemetered from the station to a central control unit. This allows the central
12.6.9.9 Valves losses shall be computed using the following formula: control unit to monitor the station’s vital functions and to initiate corrective actions if a malfunction occurs. Such
h = K V / 2g
2 functions as pump operations, unauthorized intrusion, fumes and highwater levels could be monitored.
Where:
h is the head loss in meters 12.6.10 Computer Models
K is the valve loss coefficient (dimensionless) 12.6.10.1 Design of pipe networks involves time consuming interactive calculations and computer programs
V is the velocity in meters per second (models) are available to ease the task. These models carry out all hydrological and pit capture calculations, curb
g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2) and channel flow and pipe network analyses. Often they will plot the longitudinal drainage profile, given the
necessary plan and level data.
12.6.9.10 Fitting losses shall be computed by evaluating their equivalent length, and adding the equivalent to the
length of the piping while determining the frictional loss of the piping. 12.6.10.2 The most useful storm drain models are able to evaluate the performance of existing storm drain
systems and identify the geometric requirements of new systems, given the constraints of specified variables
12.6.9.11 The head required by the pumps should be calculated as accurately as possible. All valve and bend
(e.g., runoff rates, storm patterns, controlling profile elevations, inlet locations). Data input should be easy,
losses should be considered in the head computations. In selecting the size of discharge piping, consideration
calculations should be reliable, and the model output should be clear and concise.
should be given to maintaining a velocity as shown in Table 12.6.9.1. This criterion represents a reasonable
compromise in balancing cost versus head losses
12.7 EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
12.6.9.12 Several types of power may be available for a pumping station, such as electric motors and natural
gas, liquid propane and diesel engines. Maintenance personnel should provide input in the selection process. 12.7.1 General
The designer should select the type of power that best meets the needs of the project based on an estimate of
future energy considerations and overall station reliability. A backup power supply source should be provided to 12.7.1.1 Land development and road construction can lead to soil erosion and consequent sedimentation. In
be utilized in the event of the prime source failure. order to minimize the erosion and sedimentation problems during the construction phase the designer should
address erosion and sedimentation control during the planning, location and design phase. The three general

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erosion and sediment control objectives are:

Drainage Design

Recommended methods include but are not limited to seeding and mulching with native grasses and woody
12
n Limiting off-site effects to acceptable levels, plants, application of root cuttings, live staking, and brush layering and sodding. However, these methods should
be avoided adjacent to roads.
n Facilitating project construction and minimizing overall costs, and
n Complying with national and local regulations. 12.7.2.2 Current practice in Oman limits the use of vegetative cover mainly to urban situations because of the
attraction of planted cover as feed to roaming animals in semi-rural and rural areas. This situation results in poor
12.7.1.2 The main sources of erosion are increases in runoff volumes and peak runoff rates, diversion and
establishment of vegetative embankment cover which is quickly denuded and increases the accident potential
concentration of stormwater runoff and soil loosening including stripping of vegetation. Increases in runoff are
involving traffic collisions with animals. Designers should therefore in general, limit the use of vegetative cover
attributable to a higher percentage of impervious cover, removal of vegetation, more efficient conveyances, and
for stabilization to special situations.
a loss of soil permeability caused by compaction during development. The designer should address the following
basic principles to control erosion and sedimentation: 12.7.2.3 Roadway embankment or cut slopes vary with the height of cut or fill and, depending on the erosiveness
n Design slopes consistent with soil properties; of the materials involved, can directly affect erosion control and revegetation measures. While flat slopes (1V:2H

n Limit the area of unprotected soil exposure; or flatter) facilitate the establishment and maintenance of vegetation, they do increase the total surface area that
is subject to erosion. However, experience has shown that the advantages of the slope flattening outweigh the
n Protect soil with erosion-resistant material, vegetative cover or mulch;
disadvantages of the additional exposed area.
n Control concentrations of runoff;
n Retard runoff with planned engineering works; and 12.7.2.4 Designers should note that the accepted practice in Oman for the protection of embankment side slopes
n Trap sediment with temporary or permanent barriers, basins, or other measures as close to the from erosion at grade separated interchanges is to surface them with concrete, grouted riprap or other durable,
source as possible. aesthetically acceptable cover. This is to retain the appearance of the interchange in the long term, avoiding
unsightly drainage damage and minimize maintenance requirements.
12.7.1.3 Areas with unstable or troublesome soils (e.g., landslide areas, loess soils, alluvial fans, some glacial
deposits) are potential problem areas when disturbed by highway construction. Soil reports and investigations 12.7.2.5 Surface channels, natural or constructed, are usually the most economical means of collecting and
by knowledgeable engineers and engineering geologists can be made during the route location stage to identify disposing of runoff in highway construction when concentration of flows cannot be avoided. A well-designed
these areas. stable channel carries stormwater without erosion, does not present a hazard to traffic, and provides the lowest
overall construction and maintenance cost. The following should be considered for proper channel design:
12.7.1.4 The highway alignment may be shifted to eliminate or minimize encroachment into a surface water
n Earth ditches should be as flat and wide as applicable;
environment. A change in grade may be used to avoid intrusion into known erodible soil strata. Alignment and
grade alternatives must be consistent with highway safety criteria and should be blended and fitted to the natural n Variations in channel alignment should be gradual, particularly if the channel carries high-velocity

landscape for minimization of cut-and-fill sections to reduce erosion and costly maintenance. These geometric flows. Sharp bends and sudden changes to steeper gradients should be avoided as these conditions

features should be selected so that both ground and surface water can pass through the highway right-of-way or increase the scour potential of the channel;

be intercepted with minimum disturbance to streams and without causing serious erosion problems. n Provide proper channel lining where the expected velocity, depth of flow, and/or particular geometric
channel features are such that a scour problem would be anticipated;
12.7.1.5 The natural drainage pattern, including subsurface flow, should be examined for the alternative routes n Provide outlet protection where water velocity exceeds the allowable velocities listed in Table 12.5.5.1.
considered. A dense pattern of steep gradient natural channels presents a greater erosive potential than would a
flatter gradient and more dispersed natural system. Subsurface flow can present problems with slope stability in 12.7.2.6 Shoulder drains are permanent installations to convey flow from the roadway surface level down
areas requiring extensive cut sections. to the toe-of-slope. They consist of a barrier (e.g., concrete or asphalt curb, earth berms) along the top of fill
with controlled outlet points that are typically open chutes or closed conduits. Open chute shoulder drains are
12.7.1.6 Severe erosion of earth slopes is usually caused by a concentration of surface water flowing from the commonly constructed of concrete, asphalt, and riprap lined ditches. These open chutes are highly susceptible to
area at the top of cut or fill slopes. Flatter cross-sections as applicable can be used to minimize erosion. Diversion failure from overwash.Therefore, they must be adequately sized and made to protect against overflow, particularly
dikes and ditches, either temporary or permanent, should be included in the cross section to intercept and convey at points of alignment or grade change. In addition, good drainage at toe of embankment should be ensured.
the runoff to a suitable outlet.
12.7.2.7 Culverts should be located where practicable to minimize changes to natural drainage channels.The invert
12.7.1.7 Areas of potential damage from excessive sedimentation should be identified. This identification should grade of the culvert should closely match that of the natural channel. A thorough evaluation of culvert invert grade
include threshold limits for the accelerated introduction of sediment into the system as a result of the proposed alternatives will help identify which alternative will result in the least erosion and scour. The outlet velocity should
project construction. be determined and, where a potential for erosion at the outlet exists, proper protective measures should be taken.

12.7.2 Erosion and Sediment Control Measures 12.7.2.8 Subsurface water is a frequent cause of landslides, unstable shoulders, and other soil disturbances that
contribute to the surface water erosion problem. Underdrain systems can alleviate these unstable conditions by
12.7.2.1 A good vegetative cover is one of the best erosion control measures available. Its ability to absorb preventing sloping soils from becoming excessively wet and subject to sloughing. These drainage systems are
the energy from falling rain and to hold soil together through extensive root systems makes it of primary also utilized to improve the quality of the growth medium in excessively wet areas by lowering the water table.
importance. Several methods of revegetation should be considered and used in combination where appropriate. Subsurface drainage systems are of two general types—relief drains and interceptor drains. Relief drains are
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used either to lower the water table or to assist in the removal of surface water. Interceptor drains are used to n Borings, pits or trenches to find the elevation, depth and extent of the aquifer;
remove water as it seeps down a slope. n Inspection of cut slopes in the immediate vicinity; and
n Measurements of groundwater discharge.
12.8 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
12.8.2 Subsurface Drain Pipes
12.8.1 General 12.8.2.1 Corrugated metal, concrete, plastics, bituminous fibre, clay, and asbestos cement are all available
12.8.1.1 The purpose of subsurface drainage is to control the moisture content of the pavement and the underlying as subsurface drain materials. Polyethylene pipe or tubing and smooth-wall polyvinyl chloride plastic with
material in order to assist in maintaining pavement strength and serviceability throughout the design life. perforations located in the bottom half of the pipe are modern products being extensively used in subsurface
drain installations.
12.8.1.2 The main mechanisms by which moisture can enter a road subgrade and/or pavement include the
following: 12.8.2.2 Subsurface drain pipes may be surrounded by a single stage filter, or by two stage filters. Filter materials
can consist of aggregates (ranging in size from sand to cobble size), geotextiles or combinations of aggregates
n Seepage from ground water,
and geotextiles. The level of filtering will be determined by the prevailing soil types and any environmental
n Movement of a water-table under a road,
requirements on the discharge. In some cases a second stage filtering may be required and this can take the form
n Rainfall infiltration through the road surfacing, of a geotextile wrap either around the pipe or around all the filter material.
n Lateral movement of moisture from the road shoulder or table drain,
n Capillary moisture from the verges, 12.8.2.3 The most common type of subsurface drain pipes consists of a perforated or slotted pipe, usually 150
mm to 400 mm in diameter, placed near the bottom of a narrow trench. The trench excavation should be wide
n Capillary water rise from water-table, and
enough for the perforated pipe, plus additional width for treated or untreated permeable backfill material. Where
n Vapour movements from below the road pavement due to temperature fluctuations and other
the trench is excavated in erodible soils, a granular filter or geotextile filter fabric should be used. It is important
atmospheric conditions.
that the permeability of the filter be greater than the permeability of the soil.
12.8.1.3 All road surface materials are permeable to some degree, and may have defects or joints that allow
12.8.2.4 Longitudinal subsurface drain pipes are often used in regions of high groundwater to intercept
water to pass into the subsurface layers of the road. Although permeability of asphalt may decrease with time
subsurface water before it can reach and enter the structural materials supporting the pavement. In sloping
due to compaction and filling with surface detritus, cracking will become a significant source of water entry as
terrain, when slope stability is not a problem, a trench may be excavated along the uphill side of the roadbed
the pavement ages.
near the toe of the cut slope. In areas where the ground is nearly level, longitudinal subsurface drain pipes may
12.8.1.4 Subsurface drainage systems, designed to rapidly remove or prevent water from reaching the roadbed, be necessary along both sides of the roadbed near the toe of cut slopes. Longitudinal subsurface drain pipes are
offer an economical answer to dealing with the following problems associated with saturated conditions: also placed along the toe of fills to intercept high groundwater.

n Pumping action,represented by the migration of fines from the subgrade and aggregate base/ 12.8.2.5 In hilly or mountainous terrain, a transverse interceptor subsurface drain pipes may be necessary
subbase layers and resulting in local settlements and depressions in the road surface. to prevent groundwater seepage from flowing downgrade out of cut sections and into fills, which can cause
n Differential expansion (swelling) of subgrade soils, subsidence and slipouts. They should be considered:
n Erosion and piping of fine materials, n Approximately 5 m upstream of cut-to-fill lines,
n Stripping of asphalt concrete aggregates, and n Along changes of pavement depth or permeability, and
n Accelerated oxidation of asphalt binder. n At both ends of bridge approach slabs, that is

12.8.1.5 Where moisture ingress is unlikely, truck traffic is light and similar pavement designs in the vicinity a) Immediately behind the bridge abutment to the full depth of the abutment
have already performed satisfactorily without subsurface drains, they may be omitted. It is difficult to describe all b) In the subgrade at the interface of the road pavement and the approach slab
circumstances that warrant the installation of subsurface drains, but where soils are not free draining (i.e. clays,
12.8.2.6 It is desirable that subsurface drain pipes be placed on a grade steeper than 0.5 percent but the absolute
silts, loams) or where there is a likelihood of water pounding near the pavement, subsurface drains should be
minimum acceptable grade is 0.3 percent. Long-term effectiveness of subsurface drain pipes is mainly dependent
considered.
upon the ability of the permeable material surrounding the pipe to transport water. Durability of the pipe is of
12.8.1.6 Subsurface drainage systems will only remove water from soils in which gravity is the primary energy little consequence if subsurface water cannot permeate the trench backfill material.
gradient. In regions of high groundwater, subsurface seepage must be intercepted before it can enter the roadbed
12.8.2.7 Free outlets for the underdrain systems should be provided and maintained. It is desirable that outlets
because Subsurface drains may not remove all of this moisture.
for longitudinal pipe underdrains be placed at intervals of not more than 150 m. Terminal and intermediate
12.8.1.7 For projects in regions of high watertable preliminary field investigation should be as thorough as cleanouts should be provided for periodic high-pressure flushing to prevent clogging. Cleanout risers and outlets
possible especially on new alignment. The investigations may include the following: should be protected from damage by mowers and other maintenance equipment yet provide convenient access
for cleaning. A suitable guard or screen may be needed at outlets to prevent small animals from being trapped
n Soils, geological, and geophysical studies;
inside the pipe or clogging it with their nests.
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12.8.2.8 Pits for subsurface drainage should be spaced not further than 120 m apart for ease of inspection and
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12
cleaning of the pipes. Maximum distance between a flushout riser and an outlet should generally not exceed
120 m to facilitate inspection and flushing. It is most important that there are no more than three intermediate
subsurface drainage pits provided before an outlet is provided from the system. Outlets should be provided with
some form of erosion protection and should be in areas that are easily accessible and, where possible, visible to
personnel standing on the road surface.

12.9 HYDRAULIC DESIGN FOR BRIDGES

12.9.1 General

12.9.1.1 Stream Bridges are usually encountered or proposed on major wadis or perennial streams. They should
be considered where the wadi catchment area is more than 25 km2 or flood flows are greater than 80m3/s. They
may also be considered at other locations where they can be more hydraulically efficient and/or less costly
than culverts. For example, a bridge can be less costly than culverts at narrow minor wadis where there is a
large difference in level between the proposed road level and the wadi natural bed level. This is because of the
requirement for significantly long culvert lengths and the likely ongoing difficulty in access for maintenance.

12.9.1.2 The common practice is to carry out bridges hydraulic analysis using one dimensional hydraulic
modelling software. However, in some cases, 2D modeling is required especially in case of significant lateral
flow variations.
Figure 12.9.2.1 Survey Extent for No Skew Case (ODOT Hydraulic Manual)
12.9.2 Bridge Survey Requirement

12.9.2.1 There is no general fixed rule to identify the survey extent needed to carry out the bridge hydraulic
analysis. The extent of survey depends greatly on the site condition. Therefore, the hydraulics designer should
meet onsite with the survey party chief to go over the required cross section locations and other unique data
requirements on the site. The following are general guidelines to be considered:

1) Roadway
n Obtain the existing or the proposed roadway profile
2) Existing Bridges (if any)
n Obtain a minimum of three deck elevations and obtain gutter elevations on each corner of the structure (if any).
n Obtain top-of-footing and bottom-of-footing elevations if exposed.
n Define limits of existing scour holes with cross section or sketches.
n Obtain cross-section of downstream and upstream bridge waterway opening, the cross-sections should
include the bottom-of-beam elevation at each bend. The cross section should also define the location,
dimensions and surface material type of the abutment.
n Obtain multiple waterway ground points upstream and downstream of the bridge sufficient to accurately
contain the maximum water surface elevations.
3) Cross-Sections at the Toe of Embankment
n Survey the channel stream on the upstream and downstream side of the structure at the toe of the
embankment. The cross section width should cover the full stream including the main channel and its
floodplain. For relatively flat sections, a survey width of about 10 times bridge length is considered
sufficient. Figure 12.9.2.2 Survey Extent for Skew Case (ODOT Hydraulic Manual)
4) Stream Cross-Sections
n Should be taken perpendicular to the direction of flow. Accordingly “dogleg” (kinked) sections could be
encountered in case of having the flow direction in the floodplain differs from that in the main channel.

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getting permission of the entitled authority. In some cases, 2D modelling such as FESWMS, RMA2 or Mike21 is
required to be carried out especially in case of significant lateral flow variations. Examples of such cases:

n Skewed bridges with skew angle greater than 30 degree;

n Meandering stream and bridges in bend streams etc..;
n Straight alignment of wide wadi with significant blockage abutment.

12.9.4.2 In case of highly complex alignment/geometry, 3D modelling might be unavoidable. In such cases a
reduced scale physical model could be also necessary.

12.9.5 Bridge Afflux Criteria

12.9.5.1 Bridge afflux (Refer to Figure 12.9.5.1) or the backwater increase over natural conditions should not
exceed 0.3m during the passage of the 100 Year event.

Figure 12.9.2.3 Survey Extent for Bridge on Bend Case (ODOT Hydraulic Manual)

n Limit of vegetation and its density and type should be identified in the cross-sections notes.
n In case of having a bridge of span width (B), the requested extent of stream survey u/s and d/s of the
structure should cope with Figures 12.9.2.1 to 12.9.2.3 based on the existence of bridge skewness and
or bridge on bends. Figure 12.9.2.1 presents that the minimum survey extents for a typical no skewed Figure 12.9.5.1 Comparison of Water Surface Profile with/without Bridge Crossing
bridge are one bridge width length and 3 bridge width lengths in the upstream and downstream sides
respectively. Identify the marks of the max. Water elevations from previous floods. 12.9.5.2 Designer should apply one of the aforementioned hydrodynamic packages to get the water surface
profile and to estimate the expected afflux.
12.9.3 Design and Check Flood Return Period
12.9.5.3 Flow Distribution: The conveyance of the proposed stream-crossing location shall be calculated to
12.9.3.1 The design flood return period for bridges is the 1 in 100 year event. determine the flow distribution and to establish the location of bridge opening(s). The proposed facility shall
not cause any significant change in the existing flow distribution. Relief openings in the approach roadway
12.9.3.2 The design should be checked for a flood return period of 1 in 500 years. The effects of a checking return
embankment or other appropriate measures should be investigated if there is more than a 10% redistribution of
period discharge passing through the proposed bridge shall be investigated to identify the likelihood of danger
flow.
to persons, extensive property damage, temporary interruption of traffic or other risks. Increases in waterway or
other improvements shall be provided to alleviate the following risks during the larger design storm:
12.9.6 Bridge Underclearance Criteria
n Loss to human life,
n Flooding of important installations (e.g., electrical power plants or substations, chemical plants,
12.9.6.1 In this item, the local freeboard and bridge underclearance will be defined:
refineries, water or sewage treatment plants), and; a) Local freeboard: is defined as the minimum vertical distance from the design high water surface
n Isolation of hospitals or other life support institutions (e.g., civil defence, ambulance, fire stations or elevation (generally located u/s of the bridge) to the lowest road level in the “neighbourhood” of the
police). bridge.
b) Bridge underclearance: is the clearance between the lower chord of the superstructure and the
n Flooding of adjacent banks/housing up to a minimum of 250m upstream and downstream of bridge
design high water surface elevation, refer to Figure 12.9.6.1.

12.9.4 Selection of Hydrodynamic Package: 12.9.6.2 The local freeboard should be at least 0.3m or more if necessary to avoid possible damage to road
pavement structure. When the drainage area produces unusually large debris volumes, additional margin of
12.9.4.1 Hydraulic analysis of bridges should be carried out using generally one-dimensional hydrodynamic
safety should be considered to protect the structure against the risk of blockage.
models such as HEC-RAS, ISIS or MIKE 11 software packages. Other software packages could be used after
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12.9.6.3 The minimum vertical clearance between the highest ground level in the wadi and the deck soffit shall
Drainage Design
12
12.9.7.3 There are various types of debris control measures available for bridge structures such as the following.
be not less than 3.0m regardless of the flood level. Some of the debris control structures described in item 12.5.10.7 for culverts can also be utilized at bridges.
n Debris Fins are walls built in the stream channel upstream of the bridge to align large floating trees
so that their length is parallel to the flow, enabling them to pass under the bridge without incident.
This type of measure is also referred to as a “pier nose extension”.

Figure 12.9.6.1 Definition of Bridge Underclearance and Local Freeboard

12.9.7 Debris Blockage Criteria

12.9.7.1 A debris flow is a slurry-like flood of boulders and woody debris and water that travels at high velocity
down a steep stream with slopes that reach at least 25 to 45 percent. For such sites that are vulnerable to high Figure 12.9.7.2 Timber Debris Fins with Sloping Leading Edge
debris, the designer should carry out a detailed blockage risk assessment for the study area. In this study the
n In-channel Debris Basins are structures placed across well-defined channels to form basins which
designer will discuss the site conditions and will identify the debris types, expected quantities and estimated
impede the streamflow and provide storage space for deposits of detritus and floating debris. These
blockage risk at the bridge site. If the stream slope at the bridge site exceeds 5%, the designer should examine 
structures can be expensive to construct and maintain.
the upstream reach and should look for signs of past debris at the upstream side of the proposed bridge location.
This might include broken branches and/or channel sills at levels to high for the ordinary floods. Consultation n Debris Deflectors are structures placed upstream of the bridge piers to deflect and guide debris

and interview with local people is also important for this regard. It should be mentioned that failure to find debris through the bridge opening. They are normally “V”-shaped in plan with the apex upstream.

deposits during the reconnaissance visit does not disprove the existence of debris torrents (Guide to bridge n Design Features are structural features that can be implemented in the design of a proposed bridge
hydraulics). According to the aforementioned study and based on the expected debris volume, the designer structure. The first feature is freeboard, which is a safety precaution of providing additional space
should adopt the relevant debris control structures/basins or debris sweeper and the corresponding relevant between the maximum water surface elevation and the low chord elevation of the bridge. The
countermeasures. For more details, designer should refer to HEC09 and its newly updated case studies. second feature is related to the type of piers and the location and spacing of the piers. Ideally, the
piers should be a solid wall type pier that is aligned with the approaching flow. They should also be
12.9.7.2 The main hazards to bridges from debris flows are twofold: the first is the partial or complete blockage located and spaced such that the potential for debris accumulation is minimized. The third feature
of the waterway, causing overtopping and perhaps washout of the approach embankments and the second is the involves the use of special superstructure design, such as thin decks, to prevent or reduce the debris
damage to or destruction of structural elements. In case of significantly large flow wadis with significant floating accumulation on the structure when the flood stage rises above the deck. The last feature involves
debris that could cause partial/total blockage of large bridges, HEC-RAS blockage utility could be used to assess providing adequate access to the structure for emergency and annual maintenance.
the blockage effects. A bridge pier debris option can be found in HEC-RAS for modelling floating pier debris. This
pier debris option blocks out a rectangular-
shaped area in front of the given pier. The
blockage size or dimensions to be adopted
is not an agreed upon issue however, the
designer could follow the Australian practice
in this regard which adopt a blockage size
for debris accumulation of 20m wide x 1.2m
deep, refer to Figure 12.9.7.1. Based on the
constructed debris blockage, it is expected
that the flow will be more restricted at the
bridge location causing higher heading up
(afflux). Moreover, the water velocity within
the bridge vent will increase which (in its Figure 12.9.7.1 Typical Methods of Representing Floating Debris at a
turn) will result in deeper scour depths. Bridge Pier (Defra / EA, 2004)
Figure 12.9.7.3 Debris Deflectors 12-47

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Drainage Design

12.9.7.4 If the drainage area produces very little debris, there is no need to add a margin of safety for the 12.9.9.4 Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage decreases either by a natural
underclearance criteria proposed above. contraction or by a bridge. From continuity, a decrease in flow area results in an increase in average velocity
and bed shear stress through the contraction, thus increasing erosive forces and removing more bed material
12.9.8 Bridge Span Criteria from the contracted reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in transport of bed material from the
reach lowers the natural bed elevation. As the bed elevation decreases, the flow area increases, and the velocity
12.9.8.1 The bridge span (Sbr) could be initially guessed by using the following relation that was derived from
and shear stress decrease until relative equilibrium is reached, i.e., until the quantity of bed material that is
the regime theory (Neill, 2004):
transported into the reach is equal to that removed from the reach. Contraction scour could be estimated by using
the modified Laursen’s equation:

Where, Q is the design discharge in m3/s. The lower limit is suggested for streams with relatively scour-resistant
banks whereas the upper limit is for shifting alluvial channels.

The aforementioned equation is sufficient for feasibility and preliminary studies only and it should be reassessed
and verified for higher level studies.

12.9.8.2 For mild slope (subcritical flow) reaches, it is highly recommended not to choke the flow via bridge
Figure 12.9.9.1 Typical
 Parameters for Contraction Scour
sever blockade. Minimum bridge span value could be obtained by applying the following relation that is relevant
(Laursen’s Equation)
to wide sections:

For live-bed scour (i.e. V > threshold critical velocity, Vc):

Where: Fr1 is the Froude No. of the approaching flow

Where:
12.9.9 Scour Design Criteria and Scour Countermeasures
Vc = Critical velocity above which bed material will start moving
12.9.9.1 Bridge scour is the removal of sediment such as sand and rocks from around bridge abutments or piers. ys = Scour depth, m = y2 – y1
Bridge scour is one of the three main causes of bridge failure. It has been estimated that 60% of all bridge failures y1 = Average depth in the approaching section, m
result from scour and other hydraulic related causes. y2 = Average depth in the contracted section, m

12.9.9.2 Scour components: In simple terms, scour consists of long-term aggradation and degradation (general
W1 = Bottom width of the approach main channel, m
scour), contraction scour, and local scour. High local velocities and flow disturbances such as eddies and vortices W2 = Bottom width of the contracted section, m
cause local scour. Generally, experts consider the effects of all three scour components to be additive i.e.: Total K1 = is a coefficient that describes the mode of bed material transport. It ranges from 0.59 for no suspension to
scour = Natural scour + Contraction scour + Local scour 0.69 for mostly suspended bed material.
Q1m and Q2 = are discharges as defined in Figure 12.9.9.1
12.9.9.3 General scour is that scour occurring irrespective of the presence of any human-imposed structure. In
order to estimate the general scour depth, the regime formulation of Lacey or Blench could be applied. Designers For clear water scour (i.e. V<= threshold critical velocity):
should refer to (Bridge scour, 2000). General scour could be estimated using Lacey equation as follows:

Where:
yms: is the flow depth in meter from the water surface to the mean scoured depth;
Q: is the flow discharge (m3/s);
f: is the Lacey silt factor which can be estimated as: f = 1.76dm0.5,
where;
dm is the effective mean diameter of the bed material in millimeters (= 1.25 d50)

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

12.9.9.5 Local scour involves the removal of material around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments. Scour
Drainage Design

Local scours for piers and abutments could be calculated by using the Hydraulic Design Module
n
12
at piers can be calculated using the following equation which is based on the CSU equation for both live-bed and (HDM) of HEC-RAS Package which uses CSU equation or Froehlich equation for local pier scour and
clear-water pier scour and the average values were used to define the scour depth (HEC 18, “Evaluating scour at Froehlich or Hire equations for the local abutment scour.
bridges”). Contraction scour could also be calculated via HEC-RAS HDM module depending on the live/clear
n

sediment load condition.

ysp = 2 a K1 K2 K3 K4 (y1/a)0.35 Fr1 0.43
Natural (General/long term scour) is calculated separately using Regime theory equations such as
n

Where: Lacey or Larsen equation. Designer should refer to HEC 20 for the methodology of evaluating the
ysp = Local pier scour depth, m long term scour analysis.
y1 = Flow depth directly upstream of the pier, m The obvert level of the pile cap foundation for all piers and abutments should be lower than the local
n

K1 = Correction factor for pier nose shape (taken = 1 for circular/round nose section and 1.1 for square nose bed level by: Max (1.0m, general + contraction scour), refer to Figure 12.9.9.2.
piers), Special care should be taken to bridges located in the downstream of a stream bend or a confluence of two
n

K2 = Correction factor for angle of attack of flow (K2 = ((L/a).sin + cos )0.65), L/a being less or equal to 12. merging stream branches. In such cases, designer should consider the calculation of the bend scour and
the confluence scour respectively. Designer should refer to the Bridge Scour textbooks for more details.
K3 = Correction factor for flow condition (K3 = 1 for live bed, K3 = [V1 - (Va - Vc)] / Vc for clear-water condition),
K4 = Correction factor for armouring by bed material size (K4 = 1 for fine material, K4 = 0.57 log(2.24b/d50) for
course bed material),
a = Pier width, m
θ = Angle of attack.
L = Length of pier, m
Fr1 = Froude Number directly upstream of the pier,
V1 = Mean velocity of flow directly upstream of the pier, m/s
Vc = Critical velocity at the threshold movement condition, m/s
Va = For uniform sediment (take Va = Vc), for non-uniform sediment it is the mean velocity of flow at the armour
peak.
g = Acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

12.9.9.6 The scour at abutments can be calculated using HIRE’s Equation. This equation is represented in FHWA
Figure 12.9.9.2 Typical Pile Cap Foundation Level
manual HEC 18, “Evaluating scour at bridges”, and states that,

ysab = 4 y1 Fr10.33K1 (K2 / 0.55)

Where:
ysab = Local scour depth at bridge abutment, m
y1 = Flow depth directly upstream of the pier, m
K1 = Correction factor for the skew angle of the abutment, K1 = (θ/90)0.13
K2 = Abutment shape coefficient that equals 0.55, 1.00 or 0.82, for spill through bridge, vertical abutment bridge
and vertical abutment bridge with wingwalls, respectively. For a discussion of the coefficient, refer to Melville
and Coleman, 2000, section 6.3.4.

Fr1 = Froude Number directly upstream of the pier

12.9.9.7 Scour analysis will be carried out based on the design return period flood which is usually the 1%
event that generates the maximum scour depth. The foundation shall be designed by geotechnical and structural
engineers for the 1 in 100 year event (flood return period) and checked for the 1 in 500 year event (flood return
period) to insure that the appropriate stability criteria are met.
n Abutment type is recommended to be of spill through type to minimize the abutment local scour as
much as possible.
n Total scour is calculated as the summation of the natural (general/long term scour), the contraction
Figure 12.9.9.3 Typical Scour Countermeasures
scour and the local scour. (Launching Apron) to Avoid Abutment Fill Failure
Note: is the natural soil angle of repose
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12.9.9.8 In order to avoid the occurrence of abutment fill failure, a concrete key of at least 1.5m is constructed 12.9.10.4 If the intrusion of either or both roadway headers into the stream floodplains is more than 240 m,
at the toe of the abutment. Moreover, a loose riprap apron (launching apron) is also provided at the abutment’s consider including a relief openings/culverts, refer to Figure 12.9.10.1.
toe. The horizontal extent of this apron is intended to fall onto the sides of a developing scour hole. The launching
12.9.10.5 It is highly recommended to avoid
apron horizontal extent could be estimated as: cot(Φ) times the summation of the general and the contraction
constructing a drainage crossing (i.e. a bridge) at a
scour; where (Φ) is the angle of repose of the natural soil, refer to Figure 12.9.9.3.
meandering location of a stream, as shown in Figure
12.9.9.9 The size (D50) of rock riprap to be used for abutment scour protection should follow the guidelines given 12.9.10.2, as the movable (unstable) meandering
in HEC-23 and NCHRP-568 (NCHRP, 2006). For spill through type abutment, Croad equation is recommended to streams tend to migrate downstream and tend to get
estimate size of the loose riprap of the launching apron. The following equation could be applied for this regard: flatter with the course of time. Morphological analysis
should be considered if there is no choice but having a
crossing at the meandering location. Designer should
consider different design alternatives which include
the use of wider structure to account for the bend
scour or stabilizing the meander or conducting a short
Where:
cutting diversion channel.
Vab = is the local velocity at the abutment end (can be taken as 1.5 times the cross-sectional average velocity);
Ksl = embankment slope factor; 12.9.10.6 Rating curves for large structures are required
α = Slope angle in order to better enable reviewers to determine the
probabilities of danger to persons or property for floods Figure 12.9.10.1 Relief Culvert Adjacent to a Bridge
12.9.9.10 It is not desirable to construct an abutment that encroaches into the main channel. Generally, the spill of various return frequencies. These rating curves shall
through abutment slope should be protected to an elevation at least 0.6m above the expected high water elevation. be extended far enough to determine the effects of a
The horizontal extent of the abutment scour protection (in plan/layout) can be taken as 7.5 m at the downstream recurrence equivalent to the flood of record, if such
bridge side, refer to Figure 12.9.9.4. For the upstream side, the horizontal protection extent is identified by taking flood is greater than the design discharge. They shall
the maximum of (7.5 m or the scour protection extent to cover the corresponding maximum upstream water level in all cases show the effects of 2, 10, 50-year, 100-year
after accounting for a reasonable freeboard of not less than 0.5 m) (NCHRP, 2006). and 500-year flood return period (ConnDOT Drainage

12.9.9.11 For perennial flow wadis and streams more Manual).

sever scour countermeasures should be adopted. 12.9.10.7 As a minimum requirement, the hydraulic
12.9.9.12 Riprap should extend a minimum of 0.6 m design of monumental structures shall conform to

above design flood elevation and should be buried the requirements of large structures. The hydraulic

in the stream bed to the contraction scour depth if characteristics of monumental structures shall be

possible (BRIDGE PROCEDURES AND DESIGN GUIDE, established by carrying out a detailed and special

New Mexico Dept. of Transportation, 2005). studies initiated during the planning or early design
stages.

12.9.10 General Design Criteria 12.9.10.8 Hydraulic jumps near bridges should be
avoided wherever possible as the intense turbulence
12.9.10.1 The abutments and bridge piers should
generated within the jump body could cause excessive Figure 12.9.10.2 Avoid Drainage Structure Crossing at Bend Locations
always be aligned parallel to the flow direction.
scour especially in case of undular jump type (with Fn in the range of 1 to 2). If it is not possible to avoid the
However, if the roadway/railway crosses a wadi at
hydraulic jump, protection work should be considered to ensure stability.
some angle, then the bridge should be basically a skew
bridge. 12.9.10.9 The Design Criteria For coastal Bridges are the same as those for riverine / stream bridges however
Extreme events associated with riverine floods and tidal storm surges should be used to determine the hydraulic
12.9.10.2 Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment
adequacy of a bridge. The designer should follow the procedure demonstrated in HEC-25 manual entitled
should be designed to minimize flow disruption and
”Highways in the Coastal Environment”.
Figure 12.9.9.4 Horizontal Extent of Scour Protection potential scour.

12.9.10.3 In case of sites with significant debris, it is highly recommended to adopt pier-to-pier span not less than 12.9.10.10 For the design criteria, procedures and equations to be used for deck bridge drainage, the designer is
referred to Bridge Deck Drainage, Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 21 and references therein.
20m to avoid clogging problems.

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12
12.9.11 Required Documentation 12.10.1.3 The extent of impacts resulting from highway construction alone will vary depending on the watershed
size, state of present development, additional pavement proposed, topography and drainage patterns.
12.9.11.1 The following items should be generally included in any hydrologic and hydraulic design report:
12.10.1.4 The impacts are most noticeable on frequent storms (return periods of less than 10 years). The resultant
n Design discharge values and discharge rating curves.
increases in peak runoff rates and runoff volumes create additional stress on the stream channels and can increase
n Water surface profiles corresponding to the following three cases:
the potential for channel erosion/degradation.
a) Existing condition (No bridge case subjected to design flood return period);
b) Design flood return period with bridge constructed case; 12.10.1.5 The hydraulics engineer must be aware of the following possible potential impacts to receiving waters,
c) Check flood return period with bridge constructed case; which result directly and indirectly from highway construction:
n Outlet velocities and energy dissipation calculations and designs
n Flooding,
n Cross section(s) used in the design water surface determinations
n Bank erosion,
n Roughness coefficient assignments (“n” values)
n Stream degradation,
n Observed highwater marks with associated dates and discharges
n Sedimentation / aggradation,
n Natural, existing and proposed conditions water surface profiles for intermediate structures or
n Groundwater depletion,
larger.
n Increased pollutant loadings,
n Velocity measurements and locations or velocity estimates for monumental bridges. Include both
n Thermal effects, and
the through-bridge and channel
n Habitat loss.
n Soft-copies of all computer analyses in addition to standard computation sheets.
n Potential flood hazard to adjacent properties. 12.10.1.6 The potential impacts identified above do not necessarily occur for each and every highway project or
n Scour evaluation/analysis for bottomless structures for design 100 yr. flood and 500 yr. at every location on a particular project. The extent of the highway development, the land use, the type of facility,
n Flood economic analysis of design and alternatives risk assessment, if required. type of traffic and volume and many other factors determine whether an adverse impact will or will not occur.

n Bridge scour results including long term scour, contraction and local scour (plan, profile and data 12.10.1.7 In urban catchments, the impervious local road network usually represents a significant proportion of
sheet). the catchment and therefore has a greater impact on the catchment hydrology. For example, car parks especially
large ones near regional shopping centres can be the sources of significant quantities of litter including plastic
12.10 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT containers, packaging, and plastic bags and of oil, grease and other hydrocarbons.

12.10.1.8 The hydraulics engineer must evaluate and determine what management measures are justified and
12.10.1 Potential Impacts of Unmanaged Runoff Resulting from Highway Construction
appropriate for each project according to the potential risk to the watershed and the expected levels of impact.
12.10.1.1 Large-scale, land-disturbing activities such as highway construction can lead to soil erosion and
sedimentation as described in Sub-Section 12.7. In addition, road operation contributes litter, suspended solids, 12.10.2 Implementation of Stormwater Management Controls
toxicants, oil and other hydrocarbons to storm run-off. Tire wear contributes to road grit and traces of the zinc
12.10.2.1 The implementation of stormwater controls to mitigate the effects of highway construction is likewise
used in tire manufacture. Vehicle parts are a source of iron, nickel, copper, cadmium and chromium. Traffic
classified as stormwater quantity and quality management. Quantity management pertains to maintaining the
crashes result in plastic and glass fragments. Fuel combustion and additives produce lead, sulphur and nitrogen
post development water quantity and runoff characteristics, as nearly as practicable, equal or better than the
compounds. Fuel or lubricant spills may result in release of petrol or oils and hence hydrocarbons into storm
pre-development runoff characteristics and Quality management pertains to reducing the amount of constituents
water systems and/or ground water.
generated by the project.
12.10.1.2 Traditionally the emphasis has been on dealing with minimising erosion and control of sediments from
12.10.2.2 Not all watersheds will require quantitative or qualitative management. For example, releases to large
construction sites. However, the impacts extend far beyond that as detailed below:
lakes, streams, or tidal areas will have little effect on flood return period. Predicted effects of runoff pollutant
n The construction of a road will disturb the natural drainage patterns, and generally lead to both loadings discharging into some streams may not warrant special management measures.
increased volumes of run-off and concentration of the water as flows are diverted.
12.10.2.3 Where management is required, the hydraulics engineer should investigate opportunities to participate
n An increase in the quantity and concentration of water will also increase the potential for erosion
in regional facilities with local governments. These options should be reviewed early in the design process and
and transportation of soil, leading to downstream sedimentation. This is exacerbated by disturbance
require coordination with and/or approval of the regulatory agencies.
to the natural vegetation, which generally provides some resistance to erosion.
n Water quality will be affected by construction operations (disturbance of the vegetation and 12.10.2.4 Most stormwater quality management controls are best suited to dispersement throughout the watershed
natural ground, introduction of pollutants from plant and equipment), and ongoing use of the road where treatment of small, manageable volumes can be achieved. Water quality facilities are most often designed
(emissions and pollutants from road transport, potential spillage of hazardous materials). to treat the “first flush” from a storm event, because the initial flush of runoff contains the highest percentage of
pollutants. The first 15 mm (0.6 in.) of storm runoff is generally considered to contain this surcharge of pollutants.

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12.10.2.5 In general, pollutant loadings can be expected to increase in proportion to the highways’ Average Daily n Basins: Open excavation, often used in conjunction with detention ponds (can consist of a specified
Traffic (ADT) but are not normally considered detrimental when the ADT is less than 30,000 vpd. However, the volume provided below the control structure invert);
characteristics of the contributing drainage area (e.g., land use, cover, soil types/chemistry) or principal road use (e.g., n Dry Wells: Similar to trenches often used for collection of roof drains;
livestock, chemical hauling) may be fundamental in determining the overall water quality of the receiving stream. n Porous Pavements: Open-graded bituminous concrete pavement or paver blocks that drain to a
stone-filled reservoir layer underneath.
12.10.2.6 The following are activities, practices, or procedures undertaken to prevent or reduce water pollution. In
the process of designing a project that blends well with the environment, the hydraulics engineer can incorporate Description Particle size um Settling velocity m/s
some of these practices, dependent on site conditions, to provide stormwater quantity and/or quality control. Coarse sand 1,000 0.1
n Buffer strips; Medium sand 500 0.053

n Swales; Fine sand 250 0.026

n Infiltration facilities; Very fine sand 125 0.011

Coarse silt 62 0.002
n Detention ponds;
Table 12.10.3.1 Particle Settling Velocities
n Filtering devices;
Source: Maryland Department of Environment (1987)
n Water quality inlets;
n Erosion/sediment control plan; 12.10.3.3 The infiltration facilities design rainfall return period, intensity, and duration must be consistent with
n Maintenance management programs (e.g., pesticide/herbicide usage); highway standards. The facility depth should be set to allow complete draining of the structure within 24 to 72
n Public participation; and hours according to the risk of damage that will result from their overflow. When assessing their applicability, the
n Professional training. following need to be considered:

n The invert of the facility should be around 1 meter above the water table
12.10.2.7 Stormwater management was traditionally intended to provide peak quantity control only. Some
stormwater management facilities such as detention ponds and infiltration facilities can be enhanced to provide n Soil conditions (i.e. soil minimum permeability should be 50 mm/hour)
some degree of water quality control in addition to quantity control as discussed below. The additional cost of n Pre-treatment (need to prevent siltation and clogging)
these enhancements is usually small and their use should be encouraged where feasible. n Available area (infiltration basins can be large)
n Proximity to other facilities (will the additional soil moisture adversely affect foundations of the
12.10.3 Stormwater Management Control Facilities pavement or other nearby structures?)
n Slope of site (infiltration systems need to be associated with relatively flat grades)
12.10.3.1 Detention Ponds: Detention ponds normally used for quantity control can be enhanced to achieve
n Can the systems be easily maintained?
quality control by increasing residence time to allow for the settlement of suspended solids. The following are
some guidelines for detention ponds enhancements: 12.10.3.4 Buffer Strips: A buffer strip is a densely vegetated area separating the road from the discharge point
n The pond should be sized to delay the centroid of the runoff hydrograph for at least a period up (generally by around 20 m), through which storm water passes as overland flow. The land can achieve removal of
to 24 hours (design rainfall return period, intensity, and duration must be consistent with highway most of the coarse sediment, regardless of the initial sediment load. However, it is not so effective with respect
standards), to fine particles. The removal of total phosphorus decreases significantly with increasing sediment input load and
n The pond depth should range from 0.6 to 2.0 m, higher flow rates. Buffer strips are not suitable if removal of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
n The minimum basin length to width ratio should be 4, and nutrients is required. The length of buffer strip, slope, vegetative characteristics, catchment characteristics and
run-off velocity are all factors that may affect the pollutant removal efficiency of buffer strips. The method is not
n Due to the high cost of trapping very small particles, the pond should allow for the settlement of
so effective when slopes are steep (e.g. > 17%), since steep slopes lead to the development of rills and scour and
sand size or larger particles that have a much higher fall velocity than smaller particles. Typical
subsequent erosion of the slope.
particle settling velocities are shown in Table 12.10.3.1.
12.10.3.5 Vegetated Swales: Vegetated swales can be valuable, low-cost methods of improving water quality
12.10.3.2 Infiltration Facilities: Infiltration facilities collect and hold runoff to allow percolation into the soil. They
when used as one component of a comprehensive management plan. The width of the swale base should be not
are most commonly employed as a source control measure and as such can be constructed on a small scale to
more than 2.5 m. The engineer must ensure that flow depths and velocities are kept low enough to allow filtration
capture run-off from small contributing areas The pollutant removal efficiency of this type of control is moderate
through the grasses. Once the vegetation lays down, removal efficiencies decrease substantially. The maximum
to high, but the service life can be short if not properly maintained. Infiltration facilities include a broad category
permissible velocity will vary depending on the type of vegetation utilized but should generally be <1 m/s. Earth
of stormwater management structures such as the following:
check dams in ditch lines may be utilized (when traffic safety criteria are met) to decrease flow velocities. The
n Trenches:
 Stone-filled reservoirs that can also include perforated pipes (most commonly used in
recommended minimum flow length to achieve 80 percent removal of suspended solids is 60 m. Settlable solids
urban areas because their area requirement is limited to a narrow strip (1.0 to 1.5 m wide) along the
may be completely removed over shorter distances. Proper investigation of subsurface drainage issues is highly
road);
recommended when vegetated swales are to be used.

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

12.10.3.6 Oil and Grit Separators: Oil and Grit Separators consist of a series of chambers designed to trap and
Drainage Design
12
banks and/or bed to protect the channel and structure during times of high runoff. The basic design should be
retain sediments and hold floatables (e.g., oil, debris). Sizing of the storage chambers is generally based on reviewed by the hydraulics engineer.
contributing drainage area and, therefore, cost and size limit their application to relatively small discharges.
12.10.4.7 A temporary slope drain is a device to carry storm runoff from one elevation to another. It is used to
These facilities require high levels of maintenance to remove accumulated pollutants. The flushing effect of storm
convey storm runoff from the work area down unprotected slopes. A major area of application is providing
flows can re-suspend particulates, thus limiting the reliability of this practice. Use of water quality inlets is best
controlled outlets for shoulder berm ditches. Slope drains can be open chute or closed conduit design. Their
limited to controlled runoff applications (e.g., maintenance yards, parking lots, certain industrialized areas) where
inlet is a critical point subject to failure. Special care must be taken to funnel the runoff into the drain to prevent
high concentrations of oils are expected.
bypass, piping, or saturated soil failures.

12.10.4 Erosion and Sedimentation Control During Construction

12.11 REFERENCES
12.10.4.1 Temporary erosion and sediment control measures are needed during construction to control erosion
and sediment until such time that permanent protection can be provided. These temporary measures can be 1) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines,
categorized into three general areas of effort: 44th th edition, 2006.

n Measures that provide direct protection to the soil surface (ground cover, channel liners, riprap); 2) Austoroads, Association of Australian and New Zealand Road Transport and Traffic Authorities, Guide to Road

n Measures that tend to control the runoff pattern to an area of acceptable flow conditions (diversion Design, Part 5: Drainage Design, 2008.

dikes and ditches, shoulder berms, slope drains); 3) Bradely JN,, Hydraulics of bridge waterways; 2nd edition, Hydraulic design series, No 1, Federal Highway

n Measures that serve to remove sediment from waters by filtering or slowing the velocity of the Administration, Washington, DC, USA, 1978.

sediment laden water to such an extent that it can no longer keep the particles in suspension or 4) Brownlie, W.R. Flow depth in sand-bed channels. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 109(7):959-990, 1983.
moving along the channel bed (filter berms, brush barriers, silt fences, check dams, sediment 5) Cameron and McNamara, Model Investigation of Causeway Designs, Australian Road Research Board (ARRB)
basins). Conference, 3rd edition, Sydney, ARRB Proceedings, Vol. 3, No 2, 1966.
6) Connecticut Department of Transportation, ConnDOT Drainage Manual, Connecticut, USA, 2000.
12.10.4.2 For the considerable amounts of erosion that occur during construction, estimates need to be made for
7) Defra / Environment Agency, Flood and Coastal Defence R&D Programme, Afflux at bridges and culverts,
the specific site and the months of the year that exposure occurs. The following paragraphs describe briefly the
Review of current knowledge and practice, 2004.
most common temporary erosion control measures. All measures should be inspected on a frequent basis, at
8) Gessler, D., Gessler, J. and Watson, C.C. Prediction of discontinuity in stage-discharge rating curves. Journal
least after each major rainfall event, and repairs made as necessary.
of Hydraulic Engineering, 124(3):243-252, 1998.
12.10.4.3 An effective ground cover is one of the best erosion control measures available. An effective ground 9) Maryland Department of Environment, Design procedures for storm water management extended detention
cover protects the soil surface from the erosive force of raindrops, promotes infiltration by reducing the sealing structures, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 1987
tendency of the soil surfaces and provides a barrier and limitation to sheet runoff. Temporary ground covers are 10) Melville, B.W. and S.E. Coleman, Bridge scour, Water Resources Publications, Colorado, USA, 2000,
generally vegetation, mulch, or a combination of the two. These covers are used on disturbed areas that are not 11) National Cooperative Highway Research Program, NCHRP, Riprap design criteria, recommended specifications
to final grade and will be exposed for a period of time or in areas where seasonal limitations or a delay in final and quality control, Report 568, 2006.
construction preclude permanent seeding.
12) Neill C.R., Guide to bridge hydraulics, Transportation Association of Canada, 2004.
12.10.4.4 Temporary channel liners are used to facilitate the establishment of a vegetative growth in a drainage 13) New Mexico Department of Transportation, NMDOT BRIDGE PROCEDURES AND DESIGN GUIDE, 2005.
way or as protection prior to the placement of a permanent armouring. Such liners are placed where an ordinary 14) Oregon Department of Transportation, ODOT Hydraulics Manual, 2005.
seeding and mulch application would not be expected to withstand the force in the channel flow. Some typical 15) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels, Engineering and Design Manual,
temporary channel liners are excelsior, jute, and paper mats and fibreglass roving. EM 1110-2-1601, July 1991, Change 1 (June 1994).
16) United States Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for
12.10.4.5 Diversion dikes and ditches can be used to intercept surface runoff and direct it to a desirable collection
Small Watersheds, Technical Releases No. 55, Second Edition, June 1986.
or discharge point. These dikes and ditches may be constructed to intercept and divert flow before it reaches a
17) United States Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service, Computer Program for
graded area, or they may be provided within the graded area to control flow.
Project Formulation - Hydrology, Technical Releases No. 20, May 1965.
12.10.4.6 Check dams are temporary barriers constructed of rock, woven wire and brush, limbs, logs and/or other 18) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Surface Drainage Design,
durable material placed across a natural or artificial channel. A check dam serves to control both erosion and Advisory Circular No: 150/5320-56, 2006.
sediment. This is accomplished by the dam creating an area of reduced velocity within the channel to promote 19) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Hydraulic Design of Highway
the deposition of suspended sediment and provide a trap for bed-load material. This area of reduced velocity Culverts, Hydraulic Design series No. 5, HDS 5,. 2005.
and flattening of the energy gradient also reduces the erosive forces on the channel sides. Improperly placed or
20) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Debris Control Structures
inadequately designed check dams are vulnerable to failure due to their location in areas of concentrated flow.
Evaluation and Countermeasures, Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 9, HEC 9,. 2005.
They must be designed and constructed with adequate spillways, dissipator aprons, and tie-ins to the channel

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21) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Design of Riprap Revetment,
Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 11, HEC 11, 1989.
22) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Hydraulic Design of Energy
Dissipators for Culverts and Channels, Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 14, HEC 14, 3rd edition, 2000.
23) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Design of Roadside Channels
with Flexible Linings, Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 15, HEC 15, 3rd edition, 2005.
24) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Stream Stability at Highway
Structures, Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 20, HEC 20, 3rd edition, 2001.
25) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Design of Bridge Deck Drainage,
Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 21, HEC 21, 1993.
26) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Urban Drainage Design Manual,
Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 22, HEC 22, 2nd edition, 2001.
27) United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Tidal Hydrology, Hydraulics
and Scour at Bridges, Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 25, HEC 25, 2nd edition, 2008.
28) Dalrymple, T. and M. A. Benson. Measurement of Peak Discharge by the Slope-Area Method. U.S. Geological
Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Book 3, Chapter A2. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1967

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GD 12.01 Ditch Inlet Details

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GD 12.02 Ditch Outlet Details

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GD

GD 12.03 Vented Floodway Details

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GD 12.04
12.05 Floodways Details
and Vented Floodways - Marker Post and Depth Gauge Details

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GD 12.06 Pipe Culvert Details

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GD 12.07 Box Culvert Details

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GD 12.08 Grate Inlet Details

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GD 12.09 Curb Inlet Details

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GD 12.10 Manhole Type “A” – H < 3500

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GD 12.11 Manhole Type “B” – 3500 < H < 7000

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GD 12.12 Precast Concrete Standard Chamber Rings

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SD 12.13 Miscellaneous Manhole Details

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