Calculus 13

2 E LE M E N T ARY I LLU S T RA TI O N S O F
wh at facili tated We would no t nevertheless th at

.
, ,
the s tuden t sho uld i m agi ne we c an re m ove all o b

s t acles we m ust i n trod uce n otion s the con sideration ,
o f whi ch h as n o t hi therto occupied h i s m in d ; and

S h all therefore co n sider o ur obj e c t as gained i f we ,
can succeed in so pl acin g the subj ect before hi m th a t ,
two indepen dent d iffi cul ties sha ll never o ccu p y hi s

m in d at once .
O N T H E R A TI O O R P R O P O R T I O N O F T WO M A G N IT U D E S .
The ra ti o or proportio n of t wo m a gni tude s i s bes t

conceived by e x pressin g the m i n num bers of so m e
uni t when th ey are com m en surable o r wh en thi s i s ,
not the c ase the s am e m ay still b e done as ne arl y as

,
we please by m ean s o f n u mbers T hus the ratio o f .

,
the d i agon al o f a squ are to i ts side i s th at o ft/ 2 to 1 ,
wh ich i s ver y ne arl y th at of 14 1 4 2 t o 1 0000 an d is ,
certainly between th i s and th a t o f 1 4 1 4 3 to 1 0000 .
A g ain any ratio whatever num b ers e x press i t m ay

, , ,
b e the rati o o f two m agn i tudes each of wh ich is as ,
s m al l as w e p lease ; by which we m ean th at i f we ,
t ake an y given m agni t ude h owever s m all s uch as the , ,
li ne A we m ay fin d two o ther l ines B and C each

, ,
less th an A whose rat io sh all be wh atever w e p lease

,
.
L e t the given r at i o be th at of the n um bers m an d n .
Then P bein g a l ine m P and n P are in the prop or

, ,
t ion o f m to n ; and i t i s eviden t th a t le t m n an d A , , ,
be wh at the y m ay P c an be so taken th at mP sh all b e

,
l ess th an A Th is i s on l y s ay i n g th at P can be t a k en
.
les s th an the m p art of A wh ich i s obvi ous S in ce A

h t
, , ,
h owever s m al l i t m ay b e h as i ts ten th its hun dredth

, , ,
i ts th o us and th p ar t etc as certainl y as i f i t were

,
.
,
l arger We are no t therefo re entitl ed to say th a t

.
, ,
b ec au se two m agni tudes are dim inished th ei r rati o is ,

8 E LE M E N T A R Y I LLUS T RA TI O N S OF
0 . L et A re m ain fi x ed bu t le t B and wi th i t th e t a
, ,
dins O B m ove toward s A the p oin t B alwa ys rem ain

, ,
i ng on the circle A t every p o si tion o f B su ppose

.
,
the followi ng fig ure D raw A T tou ching the circl e at

.
A prod uce O B to m eet A T in T draw B M and E N

, ,
perpen di cular an d p arallel to C A and j oi n B A B i sect ,

.
the arc A B i n C and d raw O C m eetin g the chord i n

,
D and bisectin g i t The ri gh t angled tri angles O D A

.
-
and E M A h avin g a co m m on an gle an d al so ri gh t ,
an gles are si m il ar as are al so B O M an d T E N

, ,
If .
now we s upp ose B to m ove towards A be fore B ,
re aches A we sh al l h ave the foll owin g re sul ts : T he

,
are and chord BA th e line s B M M A B T T N t h e

, , , , ,
angles B O A CO A M BA and T E N will di m ini sh

, , , ,
with out l i m i t ; th at i s assi g n a l ine and a n an g l

, e ,
however s m all B can be pl aced so n e ar to A th a t th e

,
li nes and an gles ab ove alluded to sh al l be severall y

less th an the assi g ned l in e an d ang le A g ai n O T d i .
,
m i nishes an d O M in cre ases but nei ther wi tho u t l i m i t , ,
for the firs t is never le ss nor th e secon d gre ater th an, ,
the radi u s The an gle s O E M M A B and B TN in

.
, , ,
cre ase b u t not wi th ou t l i m i t e ach bein g al ways less

, ,
th an the ri gh t angle b u t capable o f bein g m ade as

,
T H E D I F F E RE NT I AL A N D I NT E G RA L C A L C U LU S .
9
near to i t a s we p l e as e by b ri n gin g B sufficien tl y ne ar

,
to A .
S o m uch for the m a gni tudes wh i ch com p o se th e

fi g ure : we pro ceed to co n s ider t hei r rati o s prem i s in g ,
th at the arc A B i s greater th an th e chord A B an d ,
les s th an BN N A Th e tri an gle E M A bein g alwa y s

.
si m il ar t o O D A thei r S ides ch an ge alwa y s i n the s am e

,
p ro p orti on an d th e si des of the fi rs t d ecre ase wi th

o u t l i m i t wh i ch is the case wi th o nly o ne side o f the
,
se co nd A n d S in ce O A a nd O D diffe r by D C wh ich
.
,
di m i ni sh es w i th ou t l i m i t a s co m p are d wi th OA th e ,
rati o O D O A i s a n in cre asin g rat i o wh o s e li m i t i s 1 .
But OD O A = BM BA We can therefore b ring .
B s o ne ar to A th at B M and B A sh all di ffer by a s

s m al l a frac t i on o f ei ther of the m as we p le as e .
To i ll ustrate th i s res ul t from th e t ri gon o m etri cal

t able s o b serve th at i f th e radi us O A b e the l ine a r
,
uni t an d A BO A d B M an d BA are re spectively

,
z
,
'
sin d an d Z S in i d L e t the n sin

an d 2 5 in § 9 = 0 1 7 4 5 3 0 ; wh en ce 2 si n % 0 —
.
si n 0
1 00003 very ne arly s o th a t B M d i ffers fro m B A by
-
l e ss th an fou r o f i ts own h un dred tho u sand th p arts -

.
I f A B O A = 4 the sam e rati o i s 1 0000002 d i fferin g

’
, ,
fro m uni ty by less th an th e hu ndred th p art o f the

di fferen ce in th e l as t e x am p l e .
A g ai n since D A di m in i she s con ti n u all y an d wi th

,
o u t l i mi t wh i ch i s no t th e case ei the r w i th O D or
,
OA th e rati o s O D
, D A an d 0 A D A i n crea se wi th
out limit The se a re respectively e q u al t o B M
. MA
an d B A M A ; when ce i t ap pe ars th a t let a n u m ber ,
he eve r s o gre at B ca n b e b rou gh t s o ne ar to A th at

, ,
B M and BA sh all e ach con tain M A m ore ti m e s th a n

there are uni ts i n th a t n u m ber Thu s i f 4 B O A . :
BM M A = 1 1 4 5 8 9 and B A '
M A = 1 1 4 6 93 ver y ~

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2 E LE M E N T ARY I LLU S T RA TI O N S O F

wh at facili tated We would no t nevertheless th at

the s tuden t sho uld i m agi ne we c an re m ove all o b

o f whi ch h as n o t hi therto occupied h i s m in d ; and

can succeed in so pl acin g the subj ect before hi m th a t ,

two indepen dent d ifﬁ cul ties sha ll never o ccu p y hi s

The ra ti o or proportio n of t wo m a gni tude s i s bes t

not the c ase the s am e m ay still b e done as ne arl y as

we please by m ean s o f n u mbers T hus the ratio o f .

the d i agon al o f a squ are to i ts side i s th at o ft/ 2 to 1 ,

wh ich i s ver y ne arl y th at of 14 1 4 2 t o 1 0000 an d is ,

certainly between th i s and th a t o f 1 4 1 4 3 to 1 0000 .

A g ain any ratio whatever num b ers e x press i t m ay

b e the rati o o f two m agn i tudes each of wh ich is as ,

s m al l as w e p lease ; by which we m ean th at i f we ,

t ake an y given m agni t ude h owever s m all s uch as the , ,

li ne A we m ay ﬁn d two o ther l ines B and C each

less th an A whose rat io sh all be wh atever w e p lease

L e t the given r at i o be th at of the n um bers m an d n .

Then P bein g a l ine m P and n P are in the prop or

t ion o f m to n ; and i t i s eviden t th a t le t m n an d A , , ,

be wh at the y m ay P c an be so taken th at mP sh all b e

les s th an the m p art of A wh ich i s obvi ous S in ce A

h owever s m al l i t m ay b e h as i ts ten th its hun dredth

i ts th o us and th p ar t etc as certainl y as i f i t were

l arger We are no t therefo re entitl ed to say th a t

b ec au se two m agni tudes are dim inished th ei r rati o is ,

dins O B m ove toward s A the p oin t B alwa ys rem ain

i ng on the circle A t every p o si tion o f B su ppose

the followi ng ﬁg ure D raw A T tou ching the circl e at

A prod uce O B to m eet A T in T draw B M and E N

perpen di cular an d p arallel to C A and j oi n B A B i sect ,

the arc A B i n C and d raw O C m eetin g the chord i n

D and bisectin g i t The ri gh t angled tri angles O D A

and E M A h avin g a co m m on an gle an d al so ri gh t ,

an gles are si m il ar as are al so B O M an d T E N

now we s upp ose B to m ove towards A be fore B ,

re aches A we sh al l h ave the foll owin g re sul ts : T he

are and chord BA th e line s B M M A B T T N t h e

angles B O A CO A M BA and T E N will di m ini sh

with out l i m i t ; th at i s assi g n a l ine and a n an g l

however s m all B can be pl aced so n e ar to A th a t th e

li nes and an gles ab ove alluded to sh al l be severall y

m i nishes an d O M in cre ases but nei ther wi tho u t l i m i t , ,

for the ﬁrs t is never le ss nor th e secon d gre ater th an, ,

the radi u s The an gle s O E M M A B and B TN in

cre ase b u t not wi th ou t l i m i t e ach bein g al ways less

th an the ri gh t angle b u t capable o f bein g m ade as

near to i t a s we p l e as e by b ri n gin g B sufﬁcien tl y ne ar

S o m uch for the m a gni tudes wh i ch com p o se th e

th at the arc A B i s greater th an th e chord A B an d ,

les s th an BN N A Th e tri an gle E M A bein g alwa y s

si m il ar t o O D A thei r S ides ch an ge alwa y s i n the s am e

p ro p orti on an d th e si des of the ﬁ rs t d ecre ase wi th

rati o O D O A i s a n in cre asin g rat i o wh o s e li m i t i s 1 .

But OD O A = BM BA We can therefore b ring .

B s o ne ar to A th at B M and B A sh all di ffer by a s

To i ll ustrate th i s res ul t from th e t ri gon o m etri cal

uni t an d A BO A d B M an d BA are re spectively