International Relations Notes

● International Organization, Regional Organization, Multilateral Organization
● Eu, SAARC, BRICS

● CSTO, ICC, ICJ
● UNSC Reforms
● NGO duty?
● Global Governance
● International Laws
● Violent Nonstate actors
● UN charter Use of force
● IMF
● World Bank
● QUAD
● AUKUS
● BIMSTSC
● IORA
● AIIB
● Theory of IO
Case studies
● Taliban in Afghanistan
● Russia Ukraine
● Human rights violation Rohyingya
● South China sea dispute
Theories of IO
● Realism
● Liberalism
● Marxism
International, Regional, and Multilateral Organizations
International Organizations
Definition:
International organizations are entities formed by treaties between sovereign states to address
common issues and achieve shared objectives on a global scale. These organizations often
operate beyond national borders and aim to foster international cooperation, peace, security,
and development.
Examples:
United Nations (UN): Established in 1945, the UN aims to maintain international peace and
security, promote human rights, and foster social and economic development. Its agencies
include the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Statistics: The UN has 193 member states. The WHO has a budget of $6.27 billion for the
20202021 biennium.
World Bank: Provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for
development projects (e.g., bridges, roads, schools).
Statistics: The World Bank committed $65 billion in loans and grants in 2021.
Quotes:
"The United Nations is our one great hope for a peaceful and free world." Ralph Bunche
"The World Bank is a powerful force for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life
around the world." Jim Yong Kim
Regional Organizations
Definition:
Regional organizations are international organizations but focused on a specific geographic
area. They address regional issues and often aim to enhance economic integration, political
stability, and security within the region.
Examples:
European Union (EU): A political and economic union of 27 European countries that are located
primarily in Europe. It has its own currency, the Euro, and policies aimed at ensuring free
movement of people, goods, services, and capital.
Statistics: The EU's GDP was approximately $17 trillion in 2021, making it one of the largest
economies in the world.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Comprises ten Southeast Asian countries
and promotes economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region.
Statistics: ASEAN's combined GDP was $3.2 trillion in 2021, and it represents a market of
661 million people.
Quotes:
"Europe was created by history. America was created by philosophy." Margaret Thatcher (on
the EU’s historical and philosophical significance)
"The ASEAN way refers to a methodology or approach to solving issues that respects the
cultural norms of Southeast Asia." Tommy Koh
Multilateral Organizations
Definition:
Multilateral organizations are formed by three or more nations to work on issues that are
pertinent to all the member countries. These issues can range from trade to environmental
protection and security.
Examples:
World Trade Organization (WTO): Deals with global rules of trade between nations. Its main
function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.
Statistics: The WTO has 164 member countries as of 2021, and global trade facilitated by the
WTO amounted to $19 trillion in 2020.
International Monetary Fund (IMF): Works to ensure the stability of the international monetary
system—the system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries to
transact with each other.
Statistics: The IMF has 190 member countries. In 2020, it provided $102 billion in financial
assistance to 85 countries.
Quotes:
"The WTO is the third pillar of global economic governance, alongside the IMF and World
Bank." Pascal Lamy
"The IMF’s work in providing economic stability and its efforts to reduce poverty worldwide are
crucial for global economic health." Christine Lagarde
Conclusion:
International, regional, and multilateral organizations play crucial roles in fostering cooperation,
peace, and development globally and regionally. They address a wide range of issues, from
economic stability and development to security and human rights. Understanding these
organizations helps comprehend the complex web of global governance and international
relations.
EU, SAARC, and BRICS
European Union (EU)
Definition:
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of member countries that are
primarily located in Europe. The EU aims to foster economic cooperation, political stability, and
unity among its members.
Members:
As of 2024, the EU has 27 member countries. Notable members include Germany, France, Italy,
Spain, and Poland.
Objectives:
- Promote economic integration and free trade among member states.
- Ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market.
- Establish a common currency (the Euro) used by 19 of the member countries.
- Uphold common policies on agriculture, fisheries, and regional development.
- Promote peace, stability, and respect for human rights within and beyond its borders.
Expansion:
- The EU has expanded from its original six members (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, and West Germany) to its current 27 members through several waves of
enlargement.
- Potential future members include countries from the Western Balkans, such as Albania, North
Macedonia, and Serbia, which are in different stages of the accession process.
Statistics:
- Population: Approximately 450 million.
- GDP: Approximately $17 trillion (2021).
- Trade: The EU is one of the largest trading blocs, accounting for around 15% of global trade in
goods.
Latest Example or Reform:
Green Deal and Climate Policy: In 2021, the EU launched the European Green Deal, an
ambitious plan to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. This involves
significant reforms in energy, transport, and industry sectors to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels .
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
Definition:
SAARC is a regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia. It
aims to promote development and cooperation among its member countries.
Members:
As of 2024, SAARC has 8 member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Objectives:
- Promote regional integration and economic cooperation.
- Enhance the welfare and quality of life of the people in South Asia.
- Strengthen collective self-reliance among member countries.
- Accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development.
- Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in various fields, such as agriculture, rural
development, science, technology, and culture.
Expansion:
- SAARC has not expanded since its inception but has granted observer status to several
countries and organizations, including China, Japan, the United States, and the European
Union.
Statistics:
- Population: Approximately 1.9 billion (about 24% of the world’s population).
- GDP: Approximately $3.5 trillion.
- Trade: Intra-regional trade is relatively low, accounting for only about 5% of the region's total
trade.
COVID-19 Emergency Fund: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, SAARC countries

established a COVID-19 Emergency Fund in 2020, with an initial contribution of $10 million from
India. This fund aims to support member countries in their efforts to combat the pandemic and
mitigate its impacts .
BRICS
Definition:
BRICS is an acronym for five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and
South Africa. This group aims to enhance cooperation and develop more equitable global
economic governance.
Members:
BRICS includes Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. South Africa was the last to join
in 2010, expanding the original BRIC group.
Objectives:
- Promote peace, security, and development in member countries.
- Reform global financial institutions to reflect the interests of emerging economies.
- Enhance cooperation in areas such as finance, agriculture, energy, technology, and trade.
- Facilitate mutual investment and trade among member countries.
- Provide a platform for dialogue and collaboration on international and regional issues.
Expansion:
- While BRICS has discussed the potential for expansion, it remains focused on deepening
cooperation among its current members.
- The group has considered increasing engagement with other emerging economies through
mechanisms like the BRICS Plus initiative.
Statistics:
- Population: Approximately 3.2 billion (about 41% of the world’s population).
- GDP: Approximately $24 trillion (2021), representing about 25% of global GDP.
- Trade: The intra-BRICS trade has been growing, with significant trade flows among member
countries, especially between China and the other BRICS nations.
Conclusion
The EU, SAARC, and BRICS are pivotal organizations in their respective regions and on the
global stage. Each has unique objectives, membership structures, and degrees of economic
and political integration. Understanding these organizations provides insight into the dynamics
of regional and international cooperation and development.
New Development Bank (NDB) Expansion: In 2021, the BRICS New Development Bank
announced the admission of three new member countries: Bangladesh, the United Arab
Emirates, and Uruguay. This expansion is part of BRICS' strategy to enhance its global
influence and promote development finance cooperation beyond its core members .
CSTO, ICC, and ICJ
Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
Definition:
The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is an intergovernmental military alliance
formed in 1992, originally as the Collective Security Treaty (CST), and later reorganized as the
CSTO in 2002. It aims to ensure the collective defense of its member states.
Members:
As of 2024, CSTO has six member states: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia,
and Tajikistan.
Objectives:
- Provide collective defense against any external aggression.
- Combat international terrorism and drug trafficking.
- Conduct joint military exercises and foster military cooperation.
- Support peacekeeping operations.
Recent Example or Reform:

- Kazakhstan Unrest Response: In January 2022, CSTO deployed a peacekeeping force to
Kazakhstan in response to violent protests. This marked the first time the organization deployed
troops to aid a member state in maintaining internal order .
Statistics:
- Personnel: The CSTO has a Collective Rapid Reaction Force (CRRF) comprising about
20,000 troops.
- Budget: Funded primarily by Russia, the budget specifics are typically not disclosed publicly.
International Criminal Court (ICC)
Definition:
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international court established in 2002 by
the Rome Statute to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes,
and the crime of aggression.
Members:
As of 2024, the ICC has 123 member states. Notable non-members include the United States,
China, Russia, and India.
Objectives:
- Hold individuals accountable for the most serious crimes of international concern.
- Serve as a court of last resort, intervening when national jurisdictions are unwilling or unable to
prosecute criminals.
- Contribute to the prevention of such crimes and the promotion of international peace and
security.

- Investigation into Ukraine: In 2022, the ICC launched an investigation into alleged war crimes
and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict in Ukraine. This includes looking into
actions by all parties involved, underscoring the court's role in addressing ongoing international
crises .
Statistics:
- Cases: As of 2024, the ICC has issued 31 arrest warrants and has concluded 10 cases with
convictions.
- Budget: The ICC's annual budget for 2023 was approximately €158 million.
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Definition:
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations,
established in 1945 by the UN Charter. It settles legal disputes between states and gives
advisory opinions on international legal issues referred to it by the UN General Assembly or
Security Council.
Members:
The ICJ is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and
Security Council.
Objectives:
- Resolve legal disputes submitted by states in accordance with international law.
- Provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by duly authorized international
organs and agencies.

- Myanmar Genocide Case: In 2019, The Gambia brought a case against Myanmar to the ICJ,
alleging genocide against the Rohingya people. The ICJ issued provisional measures in
January 2020, ordering Myanmar to protect the Rohingya from genocidal acts, a significant step
in international judicial intervention .
Statistics:
- Cases: As of 2024, the ICJ has adjudicated over 170 cases.
- Budget: The ICJ's budget for the biennium 2022-2023 was approximately $51 million.
Conclusion
The CSTO, ICC, and ICJ are essential organizations within the international system, each with
distinct roles in maintaining global security, justice, and legal order. The CSTO focuses on
military and security cooperation among its members, the ICC seeks to hold individuals
accountable for severe crimes, and the ICJ resolves legal disputes between states.
Understanding their functions and recent activities highlights their importance in addressing
contemporary global challenges and fostering international cooperation.
United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Reforms (expand)
Introduction:
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations, responsible for maintaining international peace and security. The need for UNSC
reform has been a topic of intense debate and discussion for many years, driven by criticisms
about its representativeness, transparency, and effectiveness.
Current Structure:
- Permanent Members: The UNSC has five permanent members (P5) with veto power: the
United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and China.
- Non-Permanent Members: There are ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms
by the General Assembly, representing different regions of the world.
Main Criticisms:
1. Representation: The current structure is seen as outdated, reflecting the power dynamics of
1945 rather than today's geopolitical realities. Key regions such as Africa and Latin America lack
permanent representation.
2. Veto Power: The veto power held by the P5 is often criticized for enabling these countries to
block resolutions that may be in the global interest but are against their national interests.
3. Effectiveness: The UNSC's ability to address conflicts and crises effectively has been
questioned, particularly in cases where the interests of the P5 members are involved.
Proposed Reforms:
1. Expansion of Membership:
- Permanent Members: Adding new permanent members to reflect contemporary geopolitical

realities. Countries often mentioned for permanent seats include Germany, Japan, India, and
Brazil (the G4 nations), as well as potential African representatives like Nigeria or South Africa.
- Non-Permanent Members: Increasing the number of non-permanent members to ensure

broader regional representation and inclusivity.
2. Limiting Veto Power:
- Restricting Use: Proposals to limit the use of veto power, especially in cases of mass
atrocities, genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. One suggestion is the
"Responsibility Not to Veto" principle, which encourages the P5 to refrain from using their veto in
situations involving severe human rights violations.
- Veto Override: Another proposal is to introduce a mechanism allowing a supermajority of the

General Assembly to override a UNSC veto.
3. Improving Transparency and Working Methods:
- Transparency: Enhancing the transparency of the UNSC's decision-making processes by

making meetings more open and accessible to non-members and the public.
- Working Methods: Reforming working methods to improve the efficiency and accountability of
the Council. This includes more inclusive consultations with non-members and stakeholders.
Challenges to Reform:
- Consensus Requirement: Any amendment to the UN Charter, including UNSC reform, requires
the agreement of two-thirds of the General Assembly and ratification by two-thirds of UN
member states, including all P5 members. This makes substantial reforms challenging to
achieve.
- Conflicting Interests: The interests of current permanent members and potential new members
often conflict, complicating consensus on reforms.
Recent Developments:
- Intergovernmental Negotiations (IGN): Ongoing discussions in the IGN framework aim to build
consensus on different aspects of UNSC reform. These discussions include various models for
expansion and approaches to limiting veto power.
- G4 and African Union Proposals: The G4 nations and the African Union have put forward
specific proposals for UNSC reform, advocating for increased permanent and non-permanent
representation.
Conclusion:
Reforming the UNSC is essential for making it more representative, democratic, and effective in
addressing global challenges. While there is widespread agreement on the need for reform,
achieving it remains a complex and politically sensitive process. Continued dialogue,
negotiation, and compromise among member states are crucial for advancing meaningful
reforms that reflect the evolving landscape of international relations.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Definition:
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are non-profit, voluntary groups organized at local,
national, or international levels. They are independent from government influence and are often
established to address social, political, environmental, or humanitarian issues.
Characteristics:
- Non-Profit: NGOs operate without the aim of making a profit. Any surplus funds are reinvested
in the organization's mission and activities.
- Voluntary Participation: NGOs often rely on volunteers or a dedicated workforce that believes
in the organization's cause.
- Independence: NGOs maintain independence from government and commercial interests,

which allows them to advocate freely and provide unbiased services.
- Diverse Focus Areas: NGOs work on a wide range of issues, including human rights,
environmental protection, development, health, education, and disaster relief.
Examples:
1. Amnesty International: A global movement of more than 10 million people who campaign for
a world where human rights are enjoyed by all.
2. Greenpeace: An environmental organization that uses direct action, lobbying, and research to
expose environmental problems and promote solutions.
3. Doctors Without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières, MSF): Provides medical care to people
affected by conflict, epidemics, disasters, or exclusion from healthcare.
Objectives:
- Advocacy: Influence public policy and raise awareness about specific issues.
- Service Provision: Deliver services such as healthcare, education, and disaster relief to
communities in need.
- Capacity Building: Strengthen the capabilities of communities and local organizations through
training and resources.
- Research and Monitoring: Conduct research to inform policy and practice, and monitor the
implementation of laws and policies.
Role and Impact:
- Humanitarian Aid: NGOs often provide immediate relief and long-term support in the aftermath
of disasters and conflicts. For example, MSF's rapid response to the Ebola outbreak in West
Africa.
- Advocacy and Awareness: NGOs play a critical role in bringing attention to underreported
issues. Amnesty International's campaigns have led to the release of political prisoners and the
abolition of the death penalty in some countries.
- Environmental Protection: Organizations like Greenpeace have been instrumental in promoting

sustainable practices and influencing environmental policies globally.
- Development Projects: NGOs contribute to development projects that improve infrastructure,

education, healthcare, and economic opportunities in underserved communities.
Challenges:
- Funding: NGOs often rely on donations, grants, and fundraising efforts. Securing consistent
funding can be challenging.
- Political and Legal Constraints: NGOs can face restrictions from governments, particularly in
authoritarian regimes where their activities may be seen as a threat.
- Operational Risks: Working in conflict zones or disaster areas can pose significant risks to staff
and volunteers.
- Accountability and Transparency: Ensuring accountability to donors and beneficiaries while

maintaining transparency in operations and finances is crucial for trust and effectiveness.
- Digital Advocacy: NGOs are increasingly using digital platforms to mobilize support, conduct
online campaigns, and engage with a global audience. For example, the use of social media by
Greta Thunberg's Fridays for Future movement to raise awareness about climate change.
- Partnerships: NGOs are forming strategic partnerships with governments, international

organizations, and the private sector to enhance their impact and reach. Collaboration with the
UN on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a notable example.
- Focus on Local Empowerment: There is a growing emphasis on building local capacities and
empowering communities to take charge of their own development initiatives.
Conclusion:
NGOs play a vital role in addressing global and local issues that governments and other
institutions may not fully cover. Their independence, commitment, and innovative approaches
enable them to effect significant change and advocate for the rights and well-being of
marginalized and vulnerable populations. Despite facing numerous challenges, NGOs continue
to adapt and evolve, leveraging technology and partnerships to enhance their impact and reach.
Global Governance
Definition:
Global governance refers to the systems, institutions, and processes through which collective
decisions are made and implemented at the global level. It encompasses the efforts of
international organizations, states, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational
corporations, and other actors to address global issues and challenges.
Key Components of Global Governance:

1. International Organizations:
- United Nations (UN): The central platform for global governance, addressing peace and
security, human rights, and development through various specialized agencies (e.g., WHO,
UNESCO).
- World Trade Organization (WTO): Manages international trade rules and resolves trade
disputes between countries.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank: Provide financial assistance and advice to
member countries to foster economic stability and development.
2. Regional Organizations:
- European Union (EU): Promotes economic and political integration among its member states.
- African Union (AU): Works towards economic development, political unity, and peace in Africa.
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Enhances economic cooperation, political
stability, and cultural exchange in Southeast Asia.
3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

- Greenpeace: Advocates for environmental protection.
- Amnesty International: Campaigns for human rights.
- Doctors Without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières, MSF): Provides humanitarian medical
assistance.
4. Multinational Corporations (MNCs):

- MNCs play a significant role in global governance through corporate social responsibility
initiatives, participation in public-private partnerships, and influencing international policies and
standards.
5. Informal Networks and Forums:

- G7 and G20: Forums where leaders of major economies discuss and coordinate policies on
global economic issues.
- World Economic Forum (WEF): Brings together business, political, academic, and other
leaders to discuss global issues.
Objectives of Global Governance:
➢ Peace and Security: Prevent and resolve conflicts, promote disarmament, and ensure
global stability.
➢ Economic Development: Foster economic growth, reduce poverty, and ensure fair trade
practices.
➢ Human Rights: Protect and promote human rights, including civil, political, economic,
social, and cultural rights.
➢ Environmental Protection: Address climate change, conserve biodiversity, and promote
sustainable development.
➢ Health and Well-being: Combat global health threats, improve health systems, and
ensure access to healthcare.
Challenges in Global Governance:
❖ Sovereignty vs. Global Needs:

Balancing national sovereignty with the need for collective action on global issues
remains a significant challenge. States often prioritize their national interests over global
commitments.
❖ Representation and Inclusivity:

Ensuring that all countries, especially developing ones, have a voice in global
decision-making processes is critical for fair and effective governance.
❖ Coordination and Coherence:

The multiplicity of actors and institutions can lead to fragmented and overlapping efforts,
reducing the overall effectiveness of global governance.
❖ Accountability and Legitimacy:

International organizations and institutions must be transparent and accountable to
maintain legitimacy and trust among global populations.
❖ Resource Mobilization:
Adequate funding and resources are essential for implementing global initiatives and
responding to crises.
❖ Climate Action:
The Paris Agreement (2015) under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) is a landmark accord aiming to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees
Celsius. Recent COP meetings, such as COP26 in Glasgow, have focused on enhancing
commitments and actions.
❖ Global Health:
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of global health governance.
Initiatives like COVAX aim to ensure equitable access to vaccines worldwide.
❖ Economic Recovery:
In response to the economic impacts of COVID-19, the G20 has coordinated efforts to
support global economic recovery, including debt relief for developing countries and
financial support packages.
❖ Digital Governance:
As digital technologies evolve, global governance frameworks are being developed to
address cybersecurity, data privacy, and the digital divide. The UN’s efforts towards a
Global Digital Compact are an example.
❖ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

The UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development outlines 17 goals aimed at ending
poverty, protecting the planet, and ensuring prosperity for all. Global efforts are
underway to achieve these goals.
Conclusion:
Global governance is essential for addressing the complex and interconnected challenges
facing the world today. While significant progress has been made, ongoing efforts to improve the
effectiveness, inclusivity, and accountability of global governance systems are crucial.
Enhancing cooperation among states, international organizations, NGOs, and other
stakeholders will be key to building a more just, peaceful, and sustainable world.
International Law
What is International Law?
International law is a body of rules and principles that govern the conduct of states, international
organizations, and other actors in the international community. It encompasses norms,
agreements, treaties, and customary practices that regulate interactions between sovereign
states and promote stability, cooperation, and order in the global arena.
Types of International Law:
➢ Public International Law:

Governs the relationships between states and international organizations. It includes
areas such as international humanitarian law, human rights law, environmental law, and
the law of the sea.
➢ Private International Law (Conflict of Laws):

Addresses disputes involving individuals, corporations, or other private entities with
connections to multiple legal jurisdictions. It deals with issues like international contracts,
cross-border litigation, and recognition of foreign judgments.
Sources of International Law:

➢ Treaties and Conventions:
Formal agreements negotiated and ratified by states. Examples include the United
Nations Charter, Geneva Conventions, and Paris Agreement.
➢ Customary International Law:

Practices and customs accepted as law by states out of a sense of legal obligation. It
evolves from consistent state practice accompanied by a belief that such practice is
legally required (opinio juris).
➢ General Principles of Law:

Fundamental legal principles recognized by civilized nations, such as principles of equity,
justice, and good faith. They serve as supplementary sources of law.
➢ Judicial Decisions and Scholarly Writings:

Decisions of international and national courts, as well as writings of legal scholars,
contribute to the development and interpretation of international law.
Subjects of International Law:
➢ States:
Primary subjects of international law, possessing legal personality and rights and
obligations under international law.
➢ International Organizations:
Entities created by states through international agreements, such as the United Nations,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Health Organization (WHO).
➢ Individuals:
Though traditionally not direct subjects of international law, individuals increasingly play
roles in international legal proceedings, especially in areas like human rights and
international criminal law.
International Law and International Organizations:

International organizations play a crucial role in the development, interpretation, and
enforcement of international law. They provide forums for negotiation, facilitate treaty-making
processes, monitor compliance, and adjudicate disputes between states. For example, the
United Nations oversees a wide range of treaties and conventions aimed at promoting peace,
security, human rights, and sustainable development.
Debate on Enforcement of International Law:
Despite its significance, international law faces challenges in enforcement due to several
factors:
- State Sovereignty: States retain primary authority over their territories and may prioritize their
interests over international legal obligations.
- Lack of Centralized Enforcement Mechanism: Unlike domestic law, there is no global law
enforcement body to ensure compliance with international law.
- Power Dynamics: Powerful states may disregard international legal norms or influence their
interpretation to suit their interests.
- Resource Constraints: Limited resources and capacities hinder the ability of international
organizations and courts to enforce judgments and sanctions effectively.
Efforts to strengthen enforcement mechanisms include diplomatic pressure, economic

sanctions, international tribunals, and the International Criminal Court (ICC). However, debates
continue regarding the balance between state sovereignty and international legal obligations, as
well as the effectiveness of existing enforcement mechanisms in addressing complex global
challenges.
In conclusion, international law serves as a crucial framework for regulating interstate relations
and promoting peace, justice, and cooperation in the international community. While challenges
persist in its enforcement, ongoing efforts are essential to strengthen compliance mechanisms
and uphold the rule of law at the international level.
International law, why need it?
1. Maintaining Peace and Security:

- International law provides a framework for resolving conflicts between states peacefully and
preventing the outbreak of wars. It establishes rules governing the use of force, arms control,
and disarmament, contributing to global stability and security.
2. Promoting Cooperation and Diplomacy:

- By setting common standards and norms, international law facilitates cooperation among
states in addressing shared challenges such as climate change, terrorism, transnational crime,
and public health crises. It promotes dialogue, negotiation, and diplomatic solutions to
international disputes.
3. Protecting Human Rights:

- International law establishes fundamental principles and norms for the protection of human
rights and dignity worldwide. It prohibits discrimination, torture, slavery, genocide, and other
forms of human rights violations. Treaties and conventions such as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights set standards that
states are obligated to uphold.
4. Fostering Economic Development and Trade:

- International law regulates economic interactions between states, promoting fair trade
practices, investment protection, intellectual property rights, and the resolution of commercial
disputes. Treaties like those under the World Trade Organization (WTO) facilitate global
commerce, economic growth, and development.
5. Addressing Global Challenges:

- International law provides mechanisms for tackling transnational issues that require
collective action, such as environmental protection, public health, migration, and cybersecurity.
Treaties like the Paris Agreement on climate change and the Kyoto Protocol set targets and
obligations for mitigating environmental degradation.
6. Ensuring Accountability and Justice:

- International law holds states and individuals accountable for their actions by establishing
legal obligations, standards of conduct, and mechanisms for accountability. International
criminal tribunals and courts, such as the International Criminal Court (ICC), prosecute
individuals responsible for war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity, and other serious
international crimes.
7. Protecting the Rule of Law:

- International law upholds the principle of the rule of law at the international level, ensuring
that states and international organizations operate within legal frameworks and respect legal
procedures. It promotes adherence to treaties and agreements, reinforces legal order, and
strengthens the legitimacy of international institutions.
Examples of international law include:
1. United Nations Charter (1945):

- The UN Charter is the foundational treaty of the United Nations, establishing the purposes
and principles of the organization, its structure, and the rights and obligations of member states.
It codifies principles such as the prohibition of the use of force except in self-defense or under
Security Council authorization, the peaceful settlement of disputes, and respect for human
rights.
2. Geneva Conventions (1949):

- The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols are a set of treaties that establish
standards of international humanitarian law (IHL) for the protection of civilians, prisoners of war,
and other persons affected by armed conflict. They regulate the conduct of parties to conflicts
and prohibit war crimes such as torture, indiscriminate attacks, and the use of certain weapons.
3. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948):

- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a landmark document adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly, affirming fundamental human rights and freedoms that are
inherent to all individuals, regardless of race, nationality, religion, or other status. It serves as a
common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations.
4. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998):

- The Rome Statute established the International Criminal Court (ICC), the first permanent
international tribunal with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the most serious crimes of
international concern, including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of
aggression.
5. Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015):

- The Paris Agreement is an international treaty aimed at combating climate change by limiting
global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts
to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It sets binding commitments for
countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and
provide financial assistance to developing countries.
6. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982):

- UNCLOS is a comprehensive treaty that establishes the legal framework for the use and
conservation of the world's oceans and seas. It governs issues such as maritime boundaries,
navigation, marine resources, environmental protection, and scientific research.
7. World Trade Organization Agreements (1995):

- The agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO) constitute a comprehensive
framework of rules governing international trade in goods, services, and intellectual property.
They aim to promote free and fair trade, eliminate discriminatory practices, and facilitate the
resolution of trade disputes among member states.
Violent non-state actors
(VNSAs) are groups or entities that operate outside the control of established governmental
authorities and engage in violent activities to achieve their objectives. These actors can range
from insurgent groups and terrorist organizations to criminal syndicates and militias.
Here's an overview of violent non-state actors:
Characteristics:
Autonomy: VNSAs operate independently of state authority, often in areas where state control
is weak or absent.
Violence: VNSAs use violence as a primary means to achieve their goals, which may include
political, ideological, religious, or economic motives.
Non-Uniformity: VNSAs vary in size, structure, capabilities, and objectives. They can range
from small, localized groups to large, sophisticated organizations with transnational reach.
Adaptability: VNSAs are often agile and adaptive, able to adjust their tactics, strategies, and
alliances in response to changing circumstances.
Types of Violent Non-State Actors:

Insurgent Groups: Armed groups that seek to overthrow or challenge the authority of a
government through armed struggle or political violence.
Terrorist Organizations: Groups that use violence and intimidation to achieve political,
religious, or ideological objectives. They often target civilians to instill fear and undermine
government authority.
Militias and Paramilitary Groups: Armed groups that operate outside the regular military or
police forces. They may be formed for self-defense, community protection, or to advance
political agendas.
Criminal Syndicates: Organized crime groups engaged in illegal activities such as drug
trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling, and extortion. They often use violence to
maintain control over territory and illicit markets.
Examples of Violent Non-State Actors:

1. Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL): A transnational terrorist organization that aims to establish a
caliphate governed by its interpretation of Islamic law. ISIS has carried out numerous acts of
terrorism, including bombings, kidnappings, and mass executions.
2. Taliban: An insurgent group in Afghanistan and Pakistan that seeks to impose its strict
interpretation of Islamic law. The Taliban has engaged in guerrilla warfare, suicide bombings,
and attacks on government and civilian targets.
3. Al-Qaeda: A global terrorist network responsible for numerous attacks, including the
September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States. Al-Qaeda aims to overthrow what it sees as
corrupt and oppressive regimes and establish a global Islamic caliphate.
4. Boko Haram: An Islamist extremist group based in Nigeria that has carried out a campaign of
violence, including bombings, abductions, and attacks on schools and villages. Boko Haram
seeks to establish an Islamic state in Nigeria.
Challenges Posed by Violent Non-State Actors:
1. Security Threats: VNSAs pose significant security challenges, destabilizing regions, and
undermining state authority. They contribute to conflict, displacement, and human suffering.
2. Transnational Crime: VNSAs engage in various forms of transnational crime, including drug
trafficking, human trafficking, and arms smuggling, which have far-reaching implications for
global security and stability.
3. Radicalization and Recruitment: VNSAs often exploit grievances, ideologies, and social
networks to radicalize individuals and recruit new members, including through online
propaganda and social media.
4. State Weakness and Fragility: VNSAs thrive in environments characterized by weak

governance, corruption, and socioeconomic marginalization. Addressing the root causes of
state weakness is essential for countering VNSAs effectively.
In summary, violent non-state actors represent a diverse array of groups and organizations that
pose significant challenges to peace, security, and stability at the national, regional, and global
levels. Effectively addressing these challenges requires comprehensive strategies that address
the underlying drivers of violence and instability while promoting good governance, rule of law,
and inclusive development.
The UN Charter and use of Force
Adopted in 1945, is the foundational treaty of the United Nations and serves as the primary legal
framework governing international relations. It outlines principles and rules aimed at maintaining
international peace and security, one of which pertains to the use of force by member states.
Here's an overview of the relevant provisions regarding the use of force in the UN Charter:
Chapter I: Purposes and Principles (Article 2)
Article 2(4):
- "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against
the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent
with the Purposes of the United Nations."
Article 2(7):
- "Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in
matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the
Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall
not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII."
Chapter VII: Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace,
and Acts of Aggression
Article 39:
- "The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the
peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall
be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and
security."
Article 41:
- "The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to
be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United
Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of
economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of
communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations."
Article 42:
- "Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be
inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces
as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security."
Principles of Use of Force in the UN Charter:
1. Prohibition of Aggression:
- Article 2(4) prohibits member states from using or threatening to use force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any state. This principle aims to prevent acts of
aggression and maintain the sovereignty of states.
2. Collective Security:
- Chapter VII empowers the UN Security Council to take collective action, including the use of
force, to address threats to international peace and security. Such actions are authorized when
the Security Council determines the existence of threats, breaches of the peace, or acts of
aggression.
3. Security Council Authority:

- The Security Council is vested with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace
and security. It has the authority to determine the existence of threats and decide on measures,
including the use of force, to address them.
Interpretation and Application:
- The UN Charter establishes a framework for the collective management of conflicts and the
prevention of armed conflicts through diplomacy, mediation, and, if necessary, the use of force
authorized by the Security Council.
- The principles of the UN Charter have been fundamental in shaping customary international
law regarding the use of force, influencing state practice and legal opinions on matters of
aggression and self-defense.
- The interpretation and application of these provisions have evolved over time through practice
and jurisprudence, including the development of norms regarding self-defense, humanitarian
intervention, and the responsibility to protect (R2P).
Examples of the application of the UN Charter's provisions on the use of force:
1. Korean War (1950-1953):

- The Korean War began when North Korean forces invaded South Korea in June 1950. The
United Nations Security Council, acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, authorized military
action to repel the aggression and restore peace and security. A UN Command, led by the
United States, intervened to support South Korea, marking one of the earliest examples of
collective security under the UN Charter.
2. Gulf War (1990-1991):

- In response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, the UN Security Council passed
resolutions condemning the aggression and demanding Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait. When
Iraq failed to comply, the Security Council authorized the use of force under Chapter VII. A
coalition of UN member states, led by the United States, launched Operation Desert Storm to
liberate Kuwait and enforce UN resolutions.
3. Intervention in Libya (2011):

- In 2011, during the Libyan Civil War, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973,
authorizing the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya and measures to protect civilians from
attacks by the Libyan government. The resolution was invoked to prevent further bloodshed and
civilian casualties, illustrating the use of force for humanitarian purposes under Chapter VII.
4. Peacekeeping Operations:
- The UN Charter allows for the deployment of peacekeeping forces to maintain or restore
international peace and security, typically with the consent of the parties involved. Examples
include UN peacekeeping missions in Cyprus, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali,
where UN forces have been deployed to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and support peace
processes.
5. Counterterrorism Operations:
- In response to terrorist threats and attacks, member states have sometimes invoked the right
to self-defense under Article 51 of the UN Charter. For example, the United States led military
operations in Afghanistan following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, citing self-defense
against the Taliban regime, which harbored Al-Qaeda terrorists responsible for the attacks.
These examples demonstrate how the UN Charter's provisions on the use of force have been
applied in different contexts, ranging from interstate conflicts to interventions for humanitarian
purposes and counterterrorism operations. They illustrate the principles of collective security,
authorization by the Security Council, and the right to self-defense as outlined in the Charter.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Formation
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in 1944 during the Bretton Woods
Conference, held in New Hampshire, USA. It came into formal existence on December 27,
1945, when 29 countries signed the Articles of Agreement. The IMF began its financial
operations on March 1, 1947.
Objectives
The primary objectives of the IMF, as outlined in its Articles of Agreement, are:
❖ 1. Promote International Monetary Cooperation: By providing a forum for consultation
and collaboration on international monetary issues.
❖ 2. Facilitate the Expansion and Balanced Growth of International Trade: To promote high
levels of employment and real income.
❖ 3. Promote Exchange Rate Stability: By maintaining orderly exchange arrangements

among member countries and avoiding competitive devaluations.
❖ 4. Assist in Establishing a Multilateral System of Payments: To facilitate payments for

current transactions between members and eliminate foreign exchange restrictions.
❖ 5. Provide Resources to Member Countries: To help them correct balance of payments

problems without resorting to measures destructive to national or international prosperity.
Membership
The IMF has 190 member countries. Membership is open to any country that agrees to abide
by the IMF's rules and regulations. Members are required to pay a quota subscription, which is a
financial commitment that determines their financial and organizational relationship with the IMF.
Funding and Quota

1. Quota Subscriptions:
❖ - Each member's quota is determined based on its relative size in the global economy.
The quota represents a member's financial commitment to the IMF and determines its
voting power, access to IMF financing, and allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs).
❖ - Quotas are reviewed periodically, usually every five years. As of the latest review, the
total quotas of the IMF amount to approximately SDR 477 billion (about US$650 billion).
2. Sources of Funding:
❖ - Quota subscriptions from member countries.
❖ - Borrowing arrangements, such as the New Arrangements to Borrow (NAB) and

Bilateral Borrowing Agreements, which provide additional resources.
Voting Power
1. Weighted Voting System:
❖ - Voting power in the IMF is determined by a combination of basic votes and
quota-based votes. Each member has 750 basic votes plus one additional vote for each
SDR 100,000 of quota.
❖ - Major decisions require an 85% supermajority, giving significant influence to countries

with larger quotas, such as the United States, which holds about 16.5% of the total vote.
Structure of the Organization

❖ 1. Board of Governors:
The highest decision-making body, consisting of one governor from each member
country, usually the finance minister or central bank governor. The Board of Governors
meets annually.
❖ 2. Executive Board:
Responsible for day-to-day operations, consisting of 24 Executive Directors who
represent the IMF's member countries or groups of countries. The Executive Board
meets several times a week.
❖ 3. Managing Director:
The head of the IMF, appointed by the Executive Board for a renewable five-year term.
The Managing Director is responsible for conducting the IMF's business and overseeing
its staff.
❖ 4. IMF Staff:
Composed of international civil servants who work in various departments, including
research, policy development, and technical assistance.
Recent Case Studies
1. Argentina (2018-2021):
- In 2018, Argentina entered into a stand-by arrangement with the IMF worth approximately
$57 billion, the largest in the IMF's history, to stabilize its economy, address fiscal deficits, and
curb inflation. However, the program faced challenges due to economic volatility and political
changes. A new program was negotiated in 2021 to address ongoing economic issues.
2. Greece (2010-2018):
- Greece received significant financial assistance from the IMF as part of a broader package
with the European Union to address its sovereign debt crisis. The IMF provided around €32
billion under various programs, contingent on implementing structural reforms and fiscal
austerity measures. These programs aimed to restore fiscal balance, improve competitiveness,
and stabilize the financial system.
3. Pakistan (2019-present):
- Pakistan entered into a $6 billion Extended Fund Facility arrangement with the IMF in 2019
to address its balance of payments crisis, reduce fiscal deficits, and implement structural
reforms. The program includes measures to improve tax revenue, reduce public debt, and
enhance social spending.
4. IMF and COVID-19 Response (2020-present):

- The IMF has played a critical role in responding to the economic impact of the COVID-19
pandemic. It has provided emergency financing to over 85 countries, totaling more than $110
billion, to help them cope with the health crisis, support economic recovery, and stabilize
financial systems. The IMF has also advocated for debt relief for the poorest countries and
increased SDR allocations to provide additional liquidity.
These case studies illustrate the IMF's role in providing financial support, policy advice, and
technical assistance to member countries facing economic challenges, helping to stabilize
economies and promote sustainable growth.
World Bank
Formation
The World Bank was established in 1944 alongside the International Monetary Fund (IMF) at the
Bretton Woods Conference in New Hampshire, USA. The World Bank Group formally came into
existence on December 27, 1945, when its Articles of Agreement were signed. The World Bank
Group consists of five institutions, with the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA) being the main
components commonly referred to as the World Bank.
Objectives
The primary objectives of the World Bank are to:

❖ 1. Reduce Poverty and Improve Living Standards:
- By providing financial and technical assistance to developing countries for
development programs (e.g., bridges, roads, schools, health projects) that are
expected to improve the economic prospects and quality of life for people in
those countries.
❖ 2. Promote Sustainable Development:
- By focusing on projects that contribute to long-term development and sustainable
economic growth.
❖ 3. Support Reconstruction and Development:
- Initially focused on post-war reconstruction, the World Bank now aims at
development projects that can foster economic progress and reduce inequality.
❖ 4. Facilitate Investment:
- By creating environments conducive to private investment and economic stability.
Membership
The World Bank has 189 member countries. Membership in the World Bank requires
membership in the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Member countries must subscribe to
shares in the Bank, which determines their financial and voting power.
Funding and Quota
❖ 1. Capital Subscription:
- Member countries subscribe to shares in the World Bank's capital. This
subscription consists of paid-in capital and callable capital, which serves as a
guarantee for borrowing but is not actually paid unless required.
❖ 2. Borrowing on International Capital Markets:

- The IBRD raises funds for its lending operations primarily through issuing bonds
in the world's financial markets.
❖ 3. Replenishments:
- The IDA, which provides concessional loans and grants to the poorest countries,
is periodically replenished by donor countries.
Voting Power
❖ 1. Weighted Voting System:

- Voting power in the World Bank is based on a weighted system, where votes are
allocated based on the number of shares held by each member. This system
gives greater influence to countries with larger financial contributions.
❖ 2. Major Decisions:
- Key decisions require a supermajority, typically 85% of the total voting power,
ensuring that major stakeholders have significant influence in the
decision-making process.
❖ 1. Board of Governors:
- The highest decision-making body, consisting of one governor from each
member country, typically the finance minister or central bank governor. The
Board of Governors meets annually to discuss major policy issues and approve
changes in the Bank's capital structure and governance.
❖ 2. Executive Directors:
- Responsible for day-to-day operations, the Executive Board consists of 25
Executive Directors who represent the member countries or groups of countries.
They meet regularly to oversee the Bank’s business, approve projects, and
formulate policies.
❖ 3. President:
- The President of the World Bank is selected by the Board of Executive Directors
for a renewable five-year term. The President oversees the Bank's operations
and reports to the Board.
❖ 4. World Bank Staff:

- Comprising economists, development experts, and other professionals who work
on various projects and research initiatives aimed at promoting development and
reducing poverty.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. India: Rural Infrastructure Development (2019-2021):

- The World Bank provided significant financing for the National Rural Economic
Transformation Project (NRETP) to enhance the economic opportunities and
resilience of rural poor, particularly women. The project aimed to promote
diversified and resilient economic development in rural areas.
❖ 2. Nigeria: Power Sector Recovery Program (2018-2022):

- The World Bank supported Nigeria with a $750 million loan to help the country
improve its electricity supply and reliability. The program focuses on enhancing
the performance of the power sector, reducing losses, and ensuring financial
sustainability.
❖ 3. Ethiopia: COVID-19 Emergency Response (2020):

- In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Bank approved a $82.6
million credit to support Ethiopia’s efforts to prevent, detect, and respond to the
threat posed by COVID-19 and strengthen its public health preparedness
systems.
❖ 4. Egypt: Women’s Economic Empowerment (2021):

- The World Bank, through a $200 million project, aimed to support the economic
inclusion of women in Egypt by improving access to entrepreneurship and
employment opportunities, enhancing the enabling environment for women in the
labor market, and providing skill development and training.
❖ 5. Bangladesh: Climate Resilient Infrastructure (2021-2026):

- The World Bank approved a $500 million project to improve disaster
preparedness and enhance climate resilience of critical infrastructure in coastal
and flood-prone areas in Bangladesh. This project is part of a broader initiative to
build climate resilience in the country.
These case studies highlight the World Bank’s role in addressing diverse development
challenges, from infrastructure and energy to health and gender equality, illustrating its
multifaceted approach to promoting sustainable development and reducing poverty worldwide.
International Trade Organization (ITO)
Formation
The International Trade Organization (ITO) was conceived during the Bretton Woods
Conference in 1944, alongside the IMF and the World Bank, as part of the post-World War II
efforts to establish a framework for international economic cooperation. The ITO was intended
to be the specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for overseeing international trade
and promoting trade liberalization.
The Havana Charter, which outlined the structure and functions of the ITO, was completed in
1948. However, the ITO never came into existence because the Havana Charter was not ratified
by the United States Congress and lacked support from other key countries. Instead, the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), initially intended as a temporary arrangement,
became the principal organization for regulating international trade until the establishment of the
World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
Objectives
The objectives of the ITO as outlined in the Havana Charter were:

❖ 1. Promote International Trade: To encourage the expansion of international trade by
reducing tariffs and other trade barriers.
❖ 2. Economic Development: To facilitate economic development, particularly in

developing countries, through trade and investment.
❖ 3. Employment and Living Standards: To promote full employment, higher living

standards, and better working conditions worldwide.
❖ 4. Fair Trade Practices: To prevent unfair trade practices and restrictive business
practices that distort international trade.
❖ 5. Stabilize Commodity Markets: To stabilize commodity prices and ensure fair returns
for producers, particularly in developing countries.
Membership
Membership in the ITO was intended to be open to all United Nations member states and any
other states invited to join by the ITO. However, since the ITO never came into existence, formal
membership never materialized.
Funding and Quota
❖ 1. Funding:
- The funding structure for the ITO was designed to be based on contributions from
member countries, similar to other international organizations. These
contributions were to be assessed based on the economic size and trade volume
of each member country.
❖ 2. Quotas:
- There were no specific quota systems outlined for the ITO, but member
contributions were expected to support the organization's operations and
programs.
Voting Power
❖ 1. Voting System
- Since the ITO never came into existence, the specifics of its voting power and
decision-making processes were never fully implemented. However, the Havana
Charter did propose a system where each member country would have one vote,
with important decisions requiring a two-thirds majority.
According to the Havana Charter, the ITO was to have a comprehensive organizational
structure, including:
❖ 1. Conference of the ITO:

- The highest decision-making body, consisting of representatives from all member
countries. The Conference was to meet at regular intervals to discuss and make
decisions on major trade policies and issues.
❖ 2. Executive Board:
- Responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the ITO. The Executive
Board was to consist of a smaller group of member countries, representing a
balance of developed and developing nations, to ensure diverse representation.
❖ 3. Director-General:
- The chief executive officer of the ITO, appointed by the Executive Board,
responsible for managing the organization's activities and implementing the
policies set by the Conference and the Executive Board.
❖ 4. Secretariat:
- Composed of international civil servants working in various departments, the
Secretariat was to provide technical and administrative support to the ITO's
activities and programs.
Recent Case Studies
Since the ITO was never established, there are no case studies specifically related to its
operations. However, the principles and objectives of the ITO were carried forward by the GATT
and later by the WTO, which can be seen in the following examples:
❖ 1. Uruguay Round (1986-1994):

- The Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations led to the establishment of the WTO in
1995. This round resulted in significant reductions in trade barriers and the
creation of new trade rules, reflecting the objectives initially intended for the ITO.
❖ 2. WTO Dispute Settlement:

- The WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) has handled numerous cases
involving trade disputes between member countries, promoting fair trade
practices and resolving conflicts. An example includes the Airbus-Boeing dispute
between the European Union and the United States, where both parties claimed
unfair subsidies for their respective aircraft manufacturers.
❖ 3. Trade Facilitation Agreement (2017):

- The Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which entered into force in 2017 under
the WTO, aims to simplify and modernize customs procedures, reducing trade
costs and enhancing international trade flows. This agreement aligns with the
ITO's goals of promoting trade liberalization and economic development.
❖ 4. Aid for Trade Initiative:

- The WTO's Aid for Trade initiative helps developing countries build the capacity
and infrastructure needed to benefit from trade. This program aligns with the
ITO's objective of supporting economic development and improving living
standards through trade.
These examples demonstrate how the vision and objectives of the ITO have influenced the
development of international trade governance, primarily through the GATT and the WTO,
contributing to the regulation and facilitation of global trade.
QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue)
Formation
The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, commonly known as the QUAD, was first conceptualized in
2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. It is an informal strategic forum involving the
United States, Japan, India, and Australia. The initiative aimed to ensure a free, open, and
inclusive Indo-Pacific region. The QUAD gained renewed momentum in 2017 in response to the
rising influence and assertiveness of China in the region.
Objectives
1. Promote a Free and Open Indo-Pacific: Ensure that the Indo-Pacific region remains free from
coercion and open to international maritime and air transit.
2. Enhance Maritime Security: Strengthen maritime security and ensure freedom of navigation.
3. Foster Economic Cooperation: Promote economic growth and connectivity in the Indo-Pacific
region.
4. Collaborate on Global Issues: Address global issues such as climate change, cybersecurity,
and health crises through cooperation and joint initiatives.
Membership
The QUAD consists of four member countries: the United States, Japan, India, and Australia.
Funding and Quota
The QUAD is not a formal organization with a structured funding mechanism. Each member
country funds its participation and activities associated with the QUAD.
Voting Power
Since the QUAD is an informal dialogue rather than a formal institution, it operates through
consensus rather than a structured voting system.
❖ 1. Leaders' Meetings: Heads of government from the member countries meet

periodically to discuss strategic issues and coordinate policies.
❖ 2. Ministerial Meetings: Foreign ministers and other senior officials from the member
countries meet regularly to deliberate on specific areas of cooperation.
❖ 3. Working Groups: Various working groups address specific issues such as
cybersecurity, health security, climate change, and infrastructure development.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. COVID-19 Vaccine Initiative (2021): The QUAD announced a plan to deliver up to one
billion COVID-19 vaccine doses to Indo-Pacific countries by the end of 2022, leveraging
each country's strengths in production, financing, and distribution.
❖ 2. Malabar Naval Exercises: These joint naval exercises enhance interoperability and
coordination among the navies of the four member countries, demonstrating a
commitment to ensuring a free and open Indo-Pacific.
AUKUS
Formation
AUKUS is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United
States, announced on September 15, 2021. The pact aims to deepen defense and security
cooperation, with a significant focus on developing nuclear-powered submarines for Australia.
Objectives
❖ 1. Enhance Security Cooperation: Strengthen defense and security collaboration among

the member countries.
❖ 2. Develop Advanced Military Capabilities: Facilitate the transfer of advanced defense
technologies, including nuclear-powered submarines.
❖ 3. Ensure Regional Stability: Promote peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region
through enhanced military presence and capabilities.
Membership
AUKUS consists of three member countries: Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United
States.
Funding and Quota
Each member country is responsible for funding its commitments under the pact. Australia, for
instance, will bear the cost of developing and deploying nuclear-powered submarines with
technological support from the UK and the US.
Voting Power
AUKUS operates through consensus and mutual agreement rather than a formal voting system.
❖ 1. Leaders' Summits: Heads of government from the member countries meet to set
strategic directions and oversee the implementation of the pact.
❖ 2. Defense and Security Working Groups: Focus on specific areas of defense
collaboration, such as cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, and quantum
technologies.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. Nuclear Submarine Development (2021-Present): Australia is set to acquire

nuclear-powered submarines with the support of the US and the UK, marking a
significant enhancement in its naval capabilities. This initiative aims to strengthen
deterrence and defense in the Indo-Pacific region.
❖ 2. Joint Military Exercises: AUKUS member countries have engaged in joint military
exercises to enhance interoperability and readiness, demonstrating their commitment to
collective security.
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation)
Formation
BIMSTEC was established on June 6, 1997, through the Bangkok Declaration. It aims to
promote regional cooperation and economic integration among countries bordering the Bay of
Bengal.
Objectives
❖ 1. Foster Economic Cooperation: Promote trade, investment, and economic cooperation

among member countries.
❖ 2. Enhance Connectivity: Improve transportation and communication linkages within the
region.
❖ 3. Address Common Challenges: Collaborate on issues such as climate change, natural
disasters, and public health.
❖ 4. Promote Sustainable Development: Enhance cooperation in sectors such as
agriculture, fisheries, and renewable energy.
Membership
BIMSTEC has seven member countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri
Lanka, and Thailand.
Funding and Quota
BIMSTEC's activities are funded through contributions from member countries and support from
external donors and international organizations.
Voting Power
BIMSTEC operates on a consensus-based approach rather than a formal voting system, with
decisions made through mutual agreement among member countries.
❖ 1. BIMSTEC Summit: Heads of government meet periodically to set the overall direction
and priorities for the organization.
❖ 2. Ministerial Meetings: Ministers from various sectors meet to discuss and implement
cooperation initiatives.
❖ 3. Working Groups: Specialized groups focus on specific areas of cooperation, such as
trade, technology, energy, and environment.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement (FTA) Negotiations: Ongoing negotiations aim to

establish a comprehensive FTA to enhance intra-regional trade and investment.
❖ 2. Disaster Management Exercise (DMEx) 2020: BIMSTEC conducted a joint disaster
management exercise to improve preparedness and response to natural disasters in the
region.
IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association)
Formation
IORA was established on March 7, 1997, in Mauritius. It aims to promote regional cooperation
and sustainable development within the Indian Ocean region.
Objectives
❖ 1. Promote Economic Cooperation: Enhance trade, investment, and economic

collaboration among member countries.
❖ 2. Ensure Maritime Security: Strengthen maritime security and safety within the Indian
Ocean.
❖ 3. Foster Sustainable Development: Promote sustainable use of marine resources and
address environmental challenges.
❖ 4. Enhance Connectivity: Improve transportation and communication linkages in the
region.
Membership
IORA has 23 member countries, including Australia, Bangladesh, Comoros, India, Indonesia,
Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Singapore,
Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, UAE, Yemen, and Maldives.
Funding and Quota
Funding for IORA activities comes from member country contributions, external donors, and
international organizations.
Voting Power
IORA operates on a consensus basis, with decisions made through mutual agreement among
member countries.
❖ 1. Council of Ministers: The principal decision-making body, comprising foreign ministers

from member countries.
❖ 2. Committee of Senior Officials: Senior officials meet to implement decisions made by
the Council of Ministers.
❖ 3. Working Groups and Committees: Focus on specific areas of cooperation, such as
maritime security, trade, and environmental sustainability.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. IORA Blue Economy Initiatives: Various projects aimed at promoting sustainable

development of marine and coastal resources in the Indian Ocean.
❖ 2. Maritime Safety and Security Workshops: Conducted to enhance regional cooperation
in maritime safety and combatting piracy and other maritime threats.
AIIB (Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank)
Formation
The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) was proposed by China in October 2013 and
officially launched on January 16, 2016. The AIIB was established to address the vast
infrastructure needs in Asia and to promote sustainable development and economic growth in
the region.
Objectives
❖ 1. Promote Infrastructure Development: Support the construction and improvement of

infrastructure in Asia, including transportation, energy, and telecommunication projects.
❖ 2. Enhance Regional Connectivity: Improve connectivity among Asian countries and
between Asia and other parts of the world to foster trade and economic integration.
❖ 3. Foster Economic Development: Contribute to economic growth and reduce poverty
through strategic investments in infrastructure.
❖ 4. Promote Sustainable Development: Support environmentally sustainable and socially
inclusive infrastructure projects that contribute to long-term economic development.
Membership
As of 2021, the AIIB has 105 approved members, including major economies from Asia,
Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Membership is open to any country willing to adhere to the
bank's principles and objectives.
Funding and Quota
❖ 1. Capital Subscription: Member countries subscribe to the AIIB’s capital stock, which
determines their financial and voting contributions. The AIIB's initial authorized capital
was USD 100 billion.
❖ 2. Borrowing from Financial Markets: The AIIB raises additional funds through issuing
bonds and other financial instruments on international capital markets.
Voting Power
Voting power in the AIIB is based on the number of shares held by each member country. The
voting system combines:
1. Basic Votes: Distributed equally among all members.
2. Share Votes: Reflecting each member's capital subscription.
3. Economic Weight Votes: Accounting for the relative size of each member's economy.
China is the largest shareholder, followed by India and Russia, which gives them significant
influence in the bank's decision-making processes.
❖ 1. Board of Governors: The highest decision-making body, composed of one governor

from each member country, usually the finance minister or central bank governor. The
Board of Governors meets annually to set strategic directions and policies.
❖ 2. Board of Directors: Responsible for overseeing the bank's daily operations and
approving projects. The Board of Directors consists of representatives elected by the
member countries.
❖ 3. President: The President of AIIB is appointed by the Board of Governors for a
renewable term of five years. The President oversees the bank's operations and
implements the decisions of the Board of Governors and the Board of Directors.
❖ 4. AIIB Staff: The bank's staff includes experts in various fields who manage and
implement projects and initiatives, ensuring they align with the AIIB’s objectives and
standards.
Recent Case Studies
❖ 1. AIIB and COVID-19 Crisis Recovery Facility: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic,
AIIB launched a USD 13 billion Crisis Recovery Facility to help member countries
mitigate the economic and health impacts of the crisis. This facility supports healthcare
infrastructure, financial liquidity, and other critical areas.
❖ 2. India Infrastructure Fund (2020): AIIB approved USD 500 million to support
infrastructure development in India, including investments in renewable energy and
urban infrastructure. This fund aims to promote sustainable growth and improve the
quality of life in urban areas.
❖ 3. Turkey Renewable Energy Projects (2021): AIIB invested USD 200 million to support
renewable energy projects in Turkey. This investment contributes to Turkey's transition to
a sustainable energy future, promoting environmental sustainability and reducing
reliance on fossil fuels.
❖ 4. Bangladesh Power System Upgrade and Expansion Project (2021): AIIB approved a
USD 200 million loan to support the expansion and upgrading of Bangladesh’s power
system. The project aims to increase electricity supply, improve grid reliability, and
promote economic development by ensuring a stable power supply.
These examples highlight AIIB's role in financing critical infrastructure projects that promote
sustainable development and economic growth in member countries. The bank’s initiatives
reflect its commitment to addressing infrastructure gaps and supporting long-term development
in Asia and beyond.
Case Studies on Terrorism
Taliban in Afghanistan
Key Events:
❖ Rise to Power (1996-2001): The Taliban first gained control of Afghanistan in 1996,
imposing strict Islamic law until they were ousted by the US-led invasion in 2001
following the September 11 attacks.
❖ Insurgency (2001-2021): After their removal from power, the Taliban waged a persistent
insurgency against the Afghan government and NATO forces.
❖ Return to Power (2021): In August 2021, the Taliban rapidly took over Afghanistan
following the withdrawal of US and NATO troops. The Afghan government collapsed,
and President Ashraf Ghani fled the country.
Current Situation:
❖ Governance: The Taliban have re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Their
governance has been marked by restrictions on women's rights, freedom of expression,
and the media.
❖ Humanitarian Crisis: The country faces a severe humanitarian crisis, with widespread
poverty, food insecurity, and lack of access to healthcare.
❖ International Recognition: Most countries have not officially recognized the Taliban
government, and many have imposed sanctions, complicating aid delivery.
Russia-Ukraine Conflict
Key Events:
❖ Annexation of Crimea (2014): Russia annexed Crimea following a disputed referendum,
leading to international condemnation and sanctions.
❖ War in Donbas (2014-present): Pro-Russian separatists, supported by Russia, declared

independence in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions, leading to ongoing conflict with
Ukrainian forces.
❖ Invasion of Ukraine (2022): In February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of

Ukraine, causing widespread destruction and a significant refugee crisis.
Current Situation:
❖ Military Stalemate: The conflict has evolved into a prolonged war, with significant
casualties on both sides and heavy fighting in Eastern Ukraine.
❖ International Response: Western countries have provided military and financial aid to
Ukraine, imposed severe sanctions on Russia, and pushed for diplomatic solutions.
❖ Humanitarian Impact: Millions of Ukrainians have been displaced internally and abroad,
and there is extensive damage to infrastructure and civilian areas.
Human Rights Violations Against the Rohingya
Key Events:
❖ Historical Discrimination: The Rohingya, a Muslim minority in Myanmar, have faced
decades of systemic discrimination and denial of citizenship.
❖ 2017 Crisis: A brutal military crackdown in 2017, described by the UN as ethnic

cleansing, led to the exodus of over 700,000 Rohingya to Bangladesh.
❖ International Reactions: The crisis has drawn widespread condemnation, with calls for
accountability and humanitarian assistance.
Current Situation:
❖ Refugee Camps: The majority of Rohingya refugees live in overcrowded camps in
Bangladesh, facing poor living conditions, lack of education, and limited prospects for
the future.
❖ Legal Actions: There are ongoing international legal proceedings against Myanmar for
alleged genocide and crimes against humanity.
❖ Limited Repatriation: Efforts to repatriate Rohingya to Myanmar have stalled due to

safety concerns and lack of citizenship guarantees.
South China Sea Dispute
Key Events:
❖ Territorial Claims: Several countries, including China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia,
Brunei, and Taiwan, claim parts of the South China Sea, a strategic and resource-rich
area.
❖ Chinese Expansion: China has built artificial islands and military installations in the
region, intensifying disputes.
❖ International Arbitration: In 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the
Philippines, stating that China's claims had no legal basis, but China rejected the ruling.
Current Situation:
❖ Military Presence: There is a significant and increasing military presence from claimant
countries, especially China, leading to frequent standoffs and incidents.
❖ Diplomatic Efforts: ASEAN countries and China have engaged in dialogues to create a
Code of Conduct to manage disputes, but progress has been slow.
❖ Global Interest: The dispute involves major global powers, including the United States,
which conducts freedom of navigation operations to challenge China's claims.
These case studies highlight complex geopolitical, humanitarian, and legal challenges that have
significant implications for regional and global stability.
International Organisation on Counter Terrorism; Conventions
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (The Hague

Convention)
Adoption Date: December 16, 1970
Key Points:
❖ Objective: The convention aims to deter and punish acts of hijacking and unlawful
seizure of aircraft.
❖ Scope: It applies to acts of hijacking committed on board aircraft that are registered in a
State party to the convention or when the aircraft lands on the territory of a State party.
❖ Obligations of State Parties:
❖ Criminalization: States must establish severe penalties for offenders who unlawfully
seize or exercise control over an aircraft by force or threat of force.
❖ Jurisdiction: States are required to take measures to establish jurisdiction over the
offenses if they occur in their territory, or involve their nationals or aircraft registered in
their country.
❖ Extradition: States must either extradite the offenders to the country seeking prosecution
or prosecute them under their own laws. This principle is often summarized as "aut
dedere aut judicare" (extradite or prosecute).
❖ Mutual Assistance: States are encouraged to cooperate in preventing hijacking and to

exchange information to aid in investigations and prosecutions.
Context and Importance
The Hague Convention was developed in response to the increasing number of aircraft
hijackings in the 1960s and 1970s, which posed significant threats to international civil aviation
and passenger safety. It represents a critical component of international efforts to combat
terrorism and enhance aviation security.
Subsequent Developments
The Hague Convention is part of a broader framework of international treaties addressing

aviation security, including:
- The Tokyo Convention (1963): Addressing offenses and certain other acts committed on board
aircraft.
- The Montreal Convention (1971): Addressing acts of sabotage and other forms of unlawful
interference with civil aviation.
These conventions collectively strengthen the legal mechanisms available to states to prevent,
respond to, and punish acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation, ensuring greater
international cooperation and security in air travel.
International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings
Adoption Date: December 15, 1997
Entry into Force: May 23, 2001
Purpose:
The International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings aims to enhance
international cooperation in preventing, prosecuting, and punishing acts of terrorism, specifically
those involving bombings in public places, government facilities, infrastructure, and transport
systems.
Key Provisions:
1. Definition of Offenses:
- The convention criminalizes the unlawful and intentional delivery, placement, discharge, or
detonation of explosive or other lethal devices in public places, government facilities,
transportation systems, or infrastructure with the intent to cause death, serious injury, or
extensive destruction.
2. Obligations of State Parties:

- Criminalization: States must establish the offenses outlined in the convention as criminal acts
under their domestic law, ensuring they are punishable by appropriate penalties.
- Jurisdiction: States are required to take measures to establish jurisdiction over these
offenses when:
- They are committed in their territory or on board their registered aircraft or vessels.
- The offender or the victim is a national of the state.
- The offense is aimed at coercing the state.
- Extradition and Prosecution: States must either extradite offenders to the requesting state
or prosecute them domestically under their own legal system. This principle is known as "aut
dedere aut judicare" (extradite or prosecute).
3. International Cooperation:
- Information Sharing: States agree to exchange information and cooperate in the
investigation, prosecution, and prevention of terrorist bombings.
- Mutual Legal Assistance: States are encouraged to provide the greatest measure of
assistance in criminal investigations or proceedings related to the offenses covered by the
convention, including evidence gathering and extradition requests.
- Prevention Measures: States must adopt measures to prevent terrorist bombings, including
improving border controls, enhancing security measures, and increasing surveillance and
intelligence sharing.
Importance and Impact:
1. Enhancing Security:
- The convention aims to strengthen international legal frameworks to combat terrorism,
specifically targeting the use of explosive devices, which have been a preferred method for
terrorist groups due to their destructive potential and ability to cause mass casualties.
2. Promoting Accountability:
- By obligating states to criminalize and prosecute terrorist bombings, the convention
promotes accountability and ensures that perpetrators of such acts face justice, either through
extradition or domestic prosecution.
3. Facilitating Cooperation:
- The convention fosters international cooperation and coordination among states, recognizing
that terrorism is a global threat requiring a unified response. It provides mechanisms for
information sharing, mutual legal assistance, and coordinated efforts to prevent and respond to
terrorist bombings.
Challenges and Considerations:
1. Implementation:
- Effective implementation of the convention's provisions requires states to enact appropriate
domestic legislation, allocate resources for enforcement, and develop robust legal and security
frameworks.
2. Balancing Security and Rights:

- States must balance the need for stringent anti-terrorism measures with the protection of
human rights and civil liberties, ensuring that efforts to prevent and prosecute terrorist bombings
do not lead to abuses or erosion of fundamental freedoms.
3. Addressing Root Causes:

- While the convention focuses on criminalization and prevention of terrorist bombings,
addressing the underlying causes of terrorism, such as political, social, and economic
grievances, remains essential for a comprehensive approach to combating terrorism.
The International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings represents a significant
step in global efforts to combat terrorism, providing a legal framework for international
cooperation, accountability, and prevention of terrorist bombings.
International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear
Terrorism
The International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism is a crucial
international treaty aimed at preventing and combating nuclear terrorism. It provides a legal
framework for states to cooperate in preventing, investigating, and prosecuting acts of nuclear
terrorism. Here are the key details:
Adoption Date: April 13, 2005
Entry into Force: July 7, 2007
Purpose:
The convention aims to enhance international cooperation to prevent, investigate, and
prosecute acts of nuclear terrorism, as well as to protect against radiological dispersal devices
(RDDs), also known as "dirty bombs." It complements existing international legal instruments
related to nuclear security and counterterrorism.
Key Provisions:
1. Definition of Offenses:
- The convention criminalizes several acts related to nuclear terrorism, including:
- Illicit trafficking of nuclear or radioactive material.
- Unlawful possession, use, or threat to use nuclear or radioactive material or devices.
- Intentional and unauthorized release of radioactive material or devices.
- Threats to commit any of the above acts.
2. Obligations of State Parties:

- Criminalization: States must make these offenses punishable by appropriate penalties under
their domestic laws.
- Jurisdiction: States are required to establish jurisdiction over these offenses when they are
committed in their territory or on board their ships or aircraft, or by their nationals.
- Extradition and Prosecution: States must either extradite or prosecute individuals accused of
these offenses, in accordance with their domestic laws and international obligations.
3. International Cooperation:
- Information Sharing: States are encouraged to exchange information and cooperate in
preventing, investigating, and prosecuting acts of nuclear terrorism.
- Technical Assistance: The convention provides for mutual assistance in law enforcement,
including extradition, cooperation in criminal investigations, and sharing of expertise and best
practices in nuclear security.
4. Protection of Human Rights:

- The convention reaffirms the obligation of states to ensure that measures taken to combat
nuclear terrorism are consistent with international law, including human rights law, refugee law,
and humanitarian law.
Importance and Impact:
1. Strengthening Nuclear Security:

- By criminalizing acts of nuclear terrorism and promoting international cooperation, the
convention strengthens global efforts to prevent illicit trafficking of nuclear and radioactive
material and enhance nuclear security measures.
2. Enhancing International Cooperation:

- The convention facilitates information sharing, technical assistance, and mutual legal
assistance among states, fostering collaboration in preventing, investigating, and prosecuting
acts of nuclear terrorism.
3. Promoting Nuclear Non-proliferation:

- By addressing the threat of nuclear terrorism, the convention contributes to broader efforts to
promote nuclear non-proliferation, disarmament, and the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Challenges and Considerations:
1. Implementation and Compliance:

- Effective implementation of the convention requires states to enact appropriate domestic
legislation, allocate resources for enforcement, and strengthen their nuclear security and
counterterrorism capabilities.
2. International Cooperation and Trust:

- Building trust and cooperation among states, particularly in sharing sensitive information
related to nuclear security, remains essential for the successful implementation of the
convention.
3. Evolving Threat Landscape:

- States must remain vigilant and adapt their strategies and measures to address emerging
threats and challenges in nuclear security and terrorism, including advancements in technology
and changes in terrorist tactics.
The International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism represents a
significant milestone in international efforts to prevent and combat nuclear terrorism, providing a
comprehensive legal framework for cooperation and action by the international community.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1617 (2005)
Adoption Date: July 29, 2005
Purpose: The resolution aims to strengthen international efforts to combat terrorism by imposing
sanctions on individuals and entities associated with Al-Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, the Taliban,
and their associates.
Key Provisions:
1. Asset Freezes: Member states are required to freeze the assets of individuals and entities
designated by the United Nations Sanctions Committee established under Resolution 1267
(1999) and its subsequent resolutions. These designated individuals and entities are associated
with Al-Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, the Taliban, and their associates.
2. Travel Bans: Member states are obligated to impose travel bans on individuals designated
by the Sanctions Committee, preventing them from entering or transiting through their territories.
3. Arms Embargo: The resolution imposes an arms embargo on designated individuals and
entities, prohibiting the supply, sale, or transfer of arms and related materiel to them.
4. Compliance Monitoring: The resolution calls on member states to report to the Sanctions
Committee on the steps they have taken to implement the measures outlined in the resolution.
Impact and Implementation:
Resolution 1617 represents a significant international effort to disrupt the financial networks,
mobility, and operational capabilities of terrorist organizations such as Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
By imposing targeted sanctions, including asset freezes and travel bans, the resolution aims to
undermine their ability to carry out terrorist activities and support their networks.
Member states are expected to implement the provisions of the resolution by enacting domestic
legislation, enforcing asset freezes and travel bans, and cooperating with the United Nations
Sanctions Committee to monitor compliance and update the list of designated individuals and
entities.
Continued Efforts:
Resolution 1617 is part of a broader framework of international measures aimed at combating

terrorism, including other United Nations Security Council resolutions, national counterterrorism
strategies, and multilateral cooperation initiatives. Efforts to combat terrorism remain ongoing,
with regular updates to sanctions regimes and adaptation to evolving threats and challenges.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1977, adopted on April 20, 2011, addresses the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and aims to prevent non-state actors,
particularly terrorist groups, from acquiring and using such weapons. Here's an overview of
Resolution 1977 and its key provisions:
Purpose:
Resolution 1977 focuses on preventing non-state actors, including terrorist groups, from
acquiring and using weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons, as well as their means of delivery.
Key Provisions:
1. Non-Proliferation Commitment: The resolution reaffirms the commitment of all member

states to prevent the proliferation of WMDs and their means of delivery to non-state actors.
2. Security Council Oversight: The Security Council emphasizes its role in addressing threats
to international peace and security related to the proliferation of WMDs by non-state actors.
3. Implementation of Obligations: Member states are called upon to fully implement their
obligations under relevant international treaties, conventions, and Security Council resolutions
related to non-proliferation and disarmament.
4. Cooperation and Assistance: The resolution encourages states to enhance cooperation

and assistance at the national, regional, and international levels to prevent the proliferation of
WMDs and their means of delivery to non-state actors.
5. Technical Assistance: Member states are urged to provide technical assistance, training,
and capacity-building support to enhance the ability of states to prevent the proliferation of
WMDs to non-state actors.
6. Sanctions and Enforcement: The resolution emphasizes the importance of imposing and
enforcing effective sanctions and measures against individuals, groups, and entities involved in
the proliferation of WMDs to non-state actors.
Resolution 1977 underscores the collective commitment of the international community to

prevent the proliferation of WMDs to non-state actors, particularly terrorist groups. It emphasizes
the importance of cooperation, assistance, and enforcement measures to address this critical
security threat.
Member states are expected to take concrete steps to implement the provisions of the
resolution, including enhancing their national legal frameworks, strengthening border controls,
improving export controls, and cooperating with international partners to prevent illicit trafficking
in WMD-related materials and technologies.
Continued Efforts:
Resolution 1977 is part of broader international efforts to prevent the proliferation of WMDs and
enhance global security. It complements other relevant Security Council resolutions,
international treaties, and multilateral initiatives aimed at strengthening non-proliferation regimes
and preventing the spread of WMDs to non-state actors.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540, adopted on April 28, 2004, is a landmark
resolution aimed at preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs),
particularly nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, to non-state actors, including terrorist
groups. Here's an overview of Resolution 1540 and its key provisions:
Purpose:
Resolution 1540 addresses the threat posed by the proliferation of WMDs to non-state actors,
including terrorist groups. It aims to prevent the acquisition, development, and use of WMDs by
non-state actors, as well as their means of delivery.
Key Provisions:
1. Binding Obligations: The resolution imposes legally binding obligations on all member
states under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter to take effective measures to prevent the
proliferation of WMDs to non-state actors.
2. National Measures: Member states are required to adopt and enforce effective national
measures to prevent the proliferation of WMDs, including the enactment and enforcement of
appropriate laws and regulations.
3. Export Controls: States are called upon to establish and enforce effective export controls to
prevent the illicit transfer of WMD-related materials, equipment, and technology to non-state
actors.
4. Border Security: Member states are urged to strengthen border security measures to detect
and interdict the illicit trafficking of WMD-related materials and technologies.
5. Non-State Actors: The resolution emphasizes the importance of preventing non-state actors,
including terrorist groups, from acquiring, developing, or using WMDs and their means of
delivery.
6. International Cooperation: Member states are encouraged to enhance international

cooperation and assistance to strengthen national capacities to prevent the proliferation of
WMDs to non-state actors.
Resolution 1540 represents a significant international effort to address the proliferation of WMDs
and the threat posed by their acquisition by non-state actors, particularly terrorist groups. It
underscores the collective responsibility of all member states to take effective measures to
prevent such proliferation and enhance global security.
Member states are expected to take concrete steps to implement the provisions of the
resolution, including enacting and enforcing national laws and regulations, enhancing export
controls and border security measures, and cooperating with international partners to prevent
illicit trafficking in WMD-related materials and technologies.
Continued Efforts:
Resolution 1540 continues to serve as a cornerstone of international efforts to prevent the

proliferation of WMDs to non-state actors and enhance global security. It complements other
relevant Security Council resolutions, international treaties, and multilateral initiatives aimed at
strengthening non-proliferation regimes and preventing the spread of WMDs.

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● International Organization, Regional Organization, Multilateral Organization

● Eu, SAARC, BRICS

European Union (EU)

Latest Example or Reform:

Latest Example or Reform:

COVID-19 Emergency Fund: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, SAARC countries

Latest Example or Reform:

Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)

Recent Example or Reform:

Recent Example or Reform:

Recent Example or Reform:

- Permanent Members: Adding new permanent members to reflect contemporary geopolitical

- Non-Permanent Members: Increasing the number of non-permanent members to ensure

2. Limiting Veto Power:

- Veto Override: Another proposal is to introduce a mechanism allowing a supermajority of the

- Transparency: Enhancing the transparency of the UNSC's decision-making processes by

- Independence: NGOs maintain independence from government and commercial interests,

- Environmental Protection: Organizations like Greenpeace have been instrumental in promoting

- Development Projects: NGOs contribute to development projects that improve infrastructure,

- Accountability and Transparency: Ensuring accountability to donors and beneficiaries while

- Partnerships: NGOs are forming strategic partnerships with governments, international

Key Components of Global Governance:

3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

4. Multinational Corporations (MNCs):

5. Informal Networks and Forums:

Challenges in Global Governance:

❖ Sovereignty vs. Global Needs:

❖ Representation and Inclusivity:

❖ Coordination and Coherence:

❖ Accountability and Legitimacy:

❖ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

What is International Law?

Types of International Law:

➢ Public International Law:

➢ Private International Law (Conflict of Laws):

Sources of International Law:

➢ Customary International Law:

➢ General Principles of Law:

➢ Judicial Decisions and Scholarly Writings:

International Law and International Organizations:

Debate on Enforcement of International Law:

Efforts to strengthen enforcement mechanisms include diplomatic pressure, economic

1. Maintaining Peace and Security:

2. Promoting Cooperation and Diplomacy:

3. Protecting Human Rights:

4. Fostering Economic Development and Trade:

5. Addressing Global Challenges:

6. Ensuring Accountability and Justice:

7. Protecting the Rule of Law:

1. United Nations Charter (1945):

2. Geneva Conventions (1949):

3. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948):

4. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998):

5. Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015):

6. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982):

7. World Trade Organization Agreements (1995):

Types of Violent Non-State Actors:

Examples of Violent Non-State Actors: