Chapter 13

Superposition of waves
13.1 The principle of superposition of waves
When two waves meet, they combine, with the displacements of the two waves adding together.
Figure 13.3 shows the displacement–distance graphs for two sinusoidal waves (blue and green)
of different wavelengths. It also shows the resultant wave (red), which comes from combining
these two.

Consider position A. Here, the displacement of both waves is zero, and so the resultant
displacement must also be zero. At position B, both waves have positive displacement. The
resultant displacement is found by adding these together. At position C, the displacement of one
wave is positive while the other is negative. The resultant displacement lies between the two
displacements.
The idea that we can find the resultant of two waves that meet at a point simply by adding up the
displacements at each point is called the principle of superposition of waves.
A statement of the principle of superposition is:
When two or more waves meet at a point, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of the
displacements of the individual waves.
The supersession of waves has another name called interference.
The following figure gives more explanation to principle of supersession
• If two crests or troughs are meeting the resulting amplitude is the sum of their
amplitudes. This is called constructive interference.
• If crest and trough are meeting, the resulting amplitude is the difference of their
amplitude. This is called destructive interference.

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13.2 Diffraction of waves
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it passes through a gap or around an edge.

Diffraction effects are greatest when waves pass through a gap with a width roughly equal to or
smaller than the wavelength of the waves.
If the wavelength of wave is increasing or the hole’s diameter is decreasing, diffraction
becomes greater, then the wave spread wider.
If the wavelength of wave is decreasing or the hole’s diameter is increasing, diffraction
becomes smaller, then the wave spread narrower.
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If the hole or slit is much smaller that wave length, the wave will not pass through the hole or
slit.

Explaining diffraction
Diffraction is a wave effect that can be explained by the principle of superposition. We have to
think about what happens when a wave reaches a gap in a barrier (Figure 13.10). Each point on
the wave can be thought of as a source of new wave spreading out into the space beyond the
barrier. Now we have a lot of new waves, and we can use the principle of superposition to find
their resultant effect.

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13.3 Interference
If two waves of the same type, and having the same wavelength, overlap at a point. Again, we
will use the principle of superposition to explain steady interference.

Interference of sound waves

A simple experiment shows what happens when two sets of sound waves meet. Two
loudspeakers are connected to a single signal generator (Figure 13.11). They each produce sound
waves of the same wavelength. Walk around in the space in front of the loudspeakers; you will
hear the resultant effect.

At some points, the sound is louder than for a single loudspeaker. At other points, the sound is
much quieter. The space around the two loudspeakers consists of a series of loud and quiet
regions. We are observing the phenomenon known as interference. This phenomenon results in
the formation of points of cancellation and reinforcement where two coherent waves pass
through each other.
Coherent waves are same type waves that have same wavelength and frequency with
constant phase difference.

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Interference in a ripple tank
The below figure shows the interference pattern of to water waves overlapping.

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Explaining interference
The loudspeakers in Figure 13.11 (Practical Activity 13.2) are emitting waves that are in phase
because both are connected to the same signal generator. At each point in front of the
loudspeakers, waves are arriving from the two loudspeakers. At some points, the two waves
arrive in phase (in step) with one another and with equal amplitude (Figure 13.14a). The
principle of superposition predicts that the resultant wave has twice the amplitude of a single
wave. We hear a louder sound.
At other points, something different happens. The two waves arrive completely out of phase or in
antiphase (phase difference is 180°) with one another (Figure 13.14b). There is a cancelling out,
and the resultant wave has zero amplitude. At this point, we would expect silence.
At other points again, the waves are neither perfectly out of step nor perfectly in step, and the
resultant wave has an amplitude less than that at the loudest point.
Where two waves arrive at a point in phase with one another so that they add up, we call this
effect constructive interference. Where they cancel out, the effect is known as destructive
interference.

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Whether the waves combine constructively or destructively at a point depends on the path
difference of the waves from the two coherent sources. The path difference is defined as the
extra distance travelled by one of the waves compared with the other.

Conditions of interference
1- Constructive: the path difference between two waves is 0 or whole number of
wavelengths and the phase difference is 00 or multiple of 3600.
Path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, and so on

Path difference = nλ
Phase difference ϕ = 0, 360, 270 degree, and so on.
2- Destructive: the path difference between two waves is halves of odd numbers of
wavelengths and the phase difference is odd multiple of 1800.
1 1 1
Path difference = λ, 12 λ, 22 λ, and so on
2

1
Path difference = (n+2) λ

phase difference ϕ = 180, 540 degrees, and so on.

Interference of light (the young double-slit experiment)

Here is one way to show the interference effects produced by light. A simple arrangement
involves directing the light from a laser at a double-slit (Figure 13.16). The slits are two clear
lines on a black slide, separated by a fraction of a millimetre. Where the light falls on the screen,
a series of equally spaced dots of light are seen (see Figure 13.21). These bright dots are referred
to as interference maxima or ‘fringes’, and they are regions where light waves from the two
slits are arriving in phase with each other; in other words, there is constructive interference.
The dark regions (dark fringes) in between are the result of destructive interference.

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If one of the slits is covered so that light from the laser is only passing through one slit. You
should find that the pattern of interference fringes disappears. Instead, a broad band of light
appears across the screen. This broad band of light is the diffraction pattern produced by a single
slit.

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Explaining the experiment
The sources of the waves must be coherent– the phase difference between the waves emitted at
the sources must remain constant. This also means that the waves must have the same
wavelength. A laser produces intense coherent light. As the light passes through the slits, it is
diffracted so that it spreads out into the space beyond. Now we have two overlapping sets of
waves, and the pattern of fringes on the screen shows us the result of their interference (Figure
13.21).

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Point A
This point is directly opposite the midpoint of the slits. Two rays of light arrive at A, one from
slit 1 and the other from slit 2. Point A is equidistant from the two slits, and so the two rays of
light have travelled the same distance. The path difference between the two rays of light is
zero. they will be in phase when they arrive at A. Hence they will interfere constructively, and
we will observe a bright fringe at A. The fringe here is called central bight (maxima).

Point B
This point is slightly to the side of point A, and is the midpoint of the first dark fringe. Again,
two rays of light arrive at B, one from each slit. The light from slit 1 has to travel slightly further
than the light from slit 2, and so the two rays are no longer in step. Since point B is at the
midpoint of the dark fringe, the two rays must be in antiphase (phase difference of 180°). The
path difference between the two rays of light must be half a wavelength, and so the two rays
interfere destructively. The fringe here is called first dark.

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Point C
This point is the midpoint of the next bright fringe, with AB = BC. Again, ray 1 has travelled
further than ray 2; this time, it has travelled an extra distance equal to a whole wavelength λ.
The path difference between the rays of light is now a whole wavelength. The two rays are in
phase at the screen. They interfere constructively, and we see a bright fringe. This is called the
first bright fringe.

In the same way of points B and C we will see series of bright and dark fringes on the screen
above and below central bright as shown in the following figure.
Note that the brightness (intensity) of bright fringes decreases as it goes away from central bight.

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The conditions of constructive and destructive interference work on all types of waves as
discussed previously.

Conditions of interference
1- Constructive: the path difference between two waves is 0 or whole number of
wavelengths and the phase difference is 00 or multiple of 3600.
Path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, and so on

Path difference = nλ
Phase difference ϕ = 0, 360, 270 degree, and so on.
2- Destructive: the path difference between two waves is halves of odd numbers of
wavelengths and the phase difference is odd multiple of 1800.
1 1 1
Path difference = λ, 12 λ, 22 λ, and so on
2

1
Path difference = (n+2) λ

phase difference ϕ = 180, 540 degrees, and so on.

n is called order number for each fringe on both sides of the central bight fringe.
The following tables demonstrate how to choose the correct n for each fringe.

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 Bright fringe Central 1st 2nd 3rd
number
Order number n 0 1 2 3
Path difference 0 λ 2λ 3λ
Phase difference in 0 360 \2π 720\4 π 1080/6 π
degrees\ radian

Dark fringe 1st 2nd 3rd

number
Order number n 0 1 2
Path difference 1 3 5
λ λ λ
2 2 2
Phase difference in 180 \π 540\3 π 900/5 π
degrees\ radian

Determining wavelength λ
The double-slit experiment can be used to determine the wavelength λ of monochromatic light.
The following three quantities have to be measured:
• Slit separation a – This is the distance between the centres of the slits, which is the
distance between slits 1 and 2 in Figure 13.22.
• Fringe separation x – This is the distance between the centres of adjacent bright (or
dark) fringes, which is the distance AC in Figure 13.22.
• Slit-to-screen distance D – This is the distance from the midpoint of the slits to the
central fringe on the screen.
Once these three quantities have been determined, the wavelength λ of the light can be found
using the relationship:

From the equation above we find that the fringe separation x increases as the λ and D
increase and a decreases.

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13.5 Diffraction gratings
A transmission diffraction grating is similar to the slide used in the double-slit experiment, but
with many more slits than just two. It consists of a large number of equally spaced lines ruled on
a glass or plastic slide. Each line is capable of diffracting the incident light.
A reflection diffraction grating consists of lines made on a reflecting surface so that light is both
reflected and diffracted by the grating. The shiny surface of a CD (compact disc), or a DVD
(digital versatile disc), is an everyday example of a reflection diffraction grating.

Observing diffraction with a transmission grating

In Figure 13.25, monochromatic light from a laser is incident normally on a transmission
diffraction grating. In the space beyond, interference fringes are formed. These can be observed
on a screen, as with the double slit. However, it is usual to measure the angle θ at which they are
formed, rather than measuring their separation.
The bright fringes are also referred to as maxima. The central fringe is called the zeroth-order
maximum, the next fringe is the first-order maximum, and so on. The pattern is symmetrical, so
there are two firstorder maxima, two second-order maxima, and so on.

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Explaining the experiment
The principle is the same as for the double-slit experiment, but here we have light passing
through many slits. As it passes through each slit, it diffracts into the space beyond. So now we
have many overlapping beams of light, and these interfere with one another.
There is a bright fringe, the zeroth-order maximum, in the straight-through direction (θ = 0). This
is because all of the rays here are travelling parallel to one another and in phase, so the
interference is constructive (Figure 13.26a).

The first-order maximum forms in a specific direction as follows. Diffraction occurs at all of the
slits. Rays of light emerge from all of the slits to form a bright fringe – all the rays must be in
phase. In the direction of the first-order maximum, ray 1 has travelled the smallest distance
(Figure 13.26b). Ray 2 has travelled an extra distance equal to one whole wavelength and is
therefore in phase with ray 1. The path difference between ray 1 and ray 2 is equal to one
wavelength λ so on for other bright fringes.

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Determining wavelength λ with a diffraction grating
By measuring the angles at which the maxima occur, we can determine the wavelength λ of the
incident monochromatic light. The wavelength λ is related to the angle θ by the equation:

θ is shown in figure 13.25.

Bright fringe Central 1st 2nd 3rd
number
Order number n 0 1 2 3
Path difference 0 λ 2λ 3λ
Phase difference in 0 360 \2π 720\4 π 1080/6 π
degrees\ radian

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If a question, asks you to find the maximum number of fringes n use θ = 900.

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Diffracting white light
A diffraction grating can be used to split white light up into its component colours. This splitting
of light is known as dispersion, shown in Figure 13.27. A beam of white light is shone onto the
grating. A zeroth-order, white maximum is observed at θ = 0°, because all waves of each colour
are in phase in this direction.
On either side, a series of spectra appear, with violet closest to the centre and red furthest away.
Red light is at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum, and so it appears at the greatest
angle.

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