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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Research Design

Md. Inaam Akhtar

Deptt. of Political Science,
Faculty of Social Sciences,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Abstract
A research is valid when a conclusion is accurate or true and
research design is the conceptual blueprint within which research is
conducted. A scholar for his research, prepare an action plan, it
constitutes the outline of collection, measurement and analysis of
data. Research design is not associated to any particular technique of
data collection or any particular type of data. When designing
research it is necessary that we recognize the type of evidence
1
required to answer the research question in a reasonable way. This
chapter has sketched the purpose, its importance and types of
research design.

Keywords: Origin, Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory,

Experimental

Introduction
Research design can be considered as the structure of
research it is the “Glue” that holds all of the elements in a research
project together, in short it is a plan of the proposed research work.
Research design is defined by different social scientists in different
terms; some of the definitions are as: according to Jahoda, Deutch &
Cook “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
2
relevance to the research purpose with economy and procedure”.
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy and investigation
concaved so as to obtain ensured to search question and control
3
variance”. Henry Manheim says that research design not only
anticipates and specifies the seemingly countless decisions
connected with carrying out data collection, processing and analysis
4
but it presents a logical basis for these decisions. Zikmund defined
as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedure for collecting
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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
5
and analyzing the needed information”. The definitions stress
systematic methodology in collecting right information for
interpretations with economy and procedure. In-fact the research
design is the conceptual within which research is conducted:
1. The blueprint for the collection.
2. Measurement and
3. Analysis of data.
Aresearch design should be based more or less on some
methodology the research design should be made once the topic and
problem of research have been selected and formulated, objectives
have been properly outlined, concepts have been properly defined
and the hypothesis have been properly framed. The research design
should be able to provide answers of the following reserve queries:

1. What is the study about and, what type of data is required?

2. What is the purpose of study?
3. What are the sources of needed data?
4. What should be the place or area of the study?
5. What time, approximately, is required for the study?
6. What should be the amount of materials or number of cases for
the study?
7. What type of sampling should be used?
8. What method of data collection would be appropriate?
9. How will data be analysed?
10. What should be the approximate expenditure?
6
11. What should be the specific nature of the study?

Origins
Research design emerged as a recognizable field of study in
the 1960s, at first marked by a conference on Design Method at
Imperial college, London in 1962. It led to the founding of the Design
Research Society (DRS) in 1966. John Christopher Jones founded a
postgraduate Design Research laboratory at the University
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (who initiated the
1962 conference) and L. Bruce Scher founded the postgraduate
Department of Design Research at the Royal College of Art, London
7
and became the first professor of Research Design. Some of the
origin of design methods and research design lay in the emergence
after the and world management decision making technique the most
fundamental challenge to conventional ideas on design has been the

69
 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
grouching advocacy of systematic methods of problem and the
development of design solutions. Herbert Simon (1969) established
the foundations for a science of design which would be a body of
intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical,
8
teachable doctrine about the design process.

Features
1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of information
relevant to the research problem.
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach distill be used
gathering and analyzing data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are
9
done under these two constraints.
In brief research design must at least contain-
1. A clear statement of research problem.
2. Procedures and technique to be used for gathering data or
information.
3. The population to be studied.
10
4. Methods to be used in processing & analysis data.

Phases in Research Designing

The Research process proceeds in six phases:
1. Specifying the problem/topic to be studied
2. Framing research design
3. Planning a sample (probability or non-probability or combination
of the two)
4. Collecting the data
5. Analyzing the data (editing, coding, processing, tailgating)
11
6. Preparing the report

Elements of Design
Observation our Measures
These are symbolized by an „O‟ in design notation. An O can
refer to a single measure (e.g. measure of a body weight), a single
instrument with multiple items (e.g. a 10 item self-esteem scale), a
complex multipart instrument (e.g., survey), or a whole battery of tests
or measures given out on one occasion. If you need to distinguish
among specific measures, you can use subscripts with the O, as in
O1, O2 & So on.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Treatments our Programs

These symbolized will an „X‟ in design notation the X can
refer to a simple intervention (e.g. a onetime surgical technique) or to
a complex hodgepodge program (e.g. an employment training
program). Usually, a non-treatment control or comparison group has
no symbol for the treatment.

Group:- Each group in a design gives its own line in the design
structure if the design notation has three lines, there are three groups
in the design.

Assignment to Group
Assignment to group is designed by a latter at the beginning
of each time (eg. Group) that describe how the group was assigned.
The major types of assignment are: -
R = Random Assignment
N = Nonequivalent groups
C = Assignment by cutoff
Time
Time moves from left to right elements that are listed on the
12
left occur before elements that are listed on the right.

Need for Research Design

Research design is necessary because it makes possible
the smooth sailing of the various research procedures, thereby
creation research as professional as possible, yielding maximum
information with a minimum expenditure of effort, time and money.
For better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we
need a blueprint (or what is a community called the map of the house)
prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design
or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for four research
projects. Research design stands for advance planning of the
methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in the analysis, keeping in view the objective of
13
the research and the audibility of staff, time and money. Designing
the research project may result in rending the research exercise
unsuccessful. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and
appropriate design must be prepared before starting research
processes. The research design helps the investigator to organize his

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
ideas in a shape whereby it will be possible for him to look for errors
14
and shortages.

Nature of Good Research Design

A good research design is regularly characterized by
adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so
on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and collected &
analyses is considered a good design. The design which gives the
smallest experimental error in supposed to be the best design in
many investigations similarly; a design which yields maximal
information many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research
15
problems. Some of the strategies of good research design are as
follows:

Theory – Grounded
Good research reflects the theories which are being
investigated where specific theoretical expectations can be
hypothesized these are incorporated into the design.

Situational
Good research designs make known the settings for the
study, this was shown above where a specific need of teacher and
administrators was openly addressed in the design plan. Similarly,
demoralization, intergroup competition and competition might be
accessed throughout the use of the additional comparison group who
are not in direct contact with the original group.

Feasible
Good design can be implemented. The series and timing of
events are cautiously throughout. Possible problems in measurement,
devotion to project database construction and the like, are
predictable.

Redundant
Good research designs have some flexibility built into them
often this flexibility results from the repetition of essential design
16
features.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Efficient
Good research design strikes a balance between
redundancy and the tendency to over design. Where it is responsible,
other, less costly, strategies for ruling out potential threats validity
17
cure utilized.

Types of Research Design

Typology of Research study

Exploratory Descriptive Explanratory Experimental

or or
1. Exploratory or Formulative
Formulator Analytical

1. Exploratory or Formulative Research

2. Descriptive Research or Statistical Research
3. Explanatory Research
4. Experimental Research or Analytical Research

Exploratory Research
It is the primary stage of research and the purpose of this
research is to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This research
is one which has the purposes of formulating a problem for more
accurate investigating a problem for more accurate investigation or for
developing a hypothesis. This is applied when there are few or no
earlier research/studies to which references can be made for
information. The focus of this research is on gaming insights and
familiarity with the subject area fair more rigorous investigation later.
Exploratory studies are usually more appropriate in case of problem
about which little research knowledge is available, for instance, there
is little knowledge available about social interaction pattern of
members of a most monastery an enterprising researcher may be
interested in such a problem to obtain insights in the face of little
18
knowledge available about it.

Steps of Exploratory Research

We have already noted the exploratory research should be
considered the initial step in a continuous research processes rather

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
than a detached exercise. The following methods may be is helpful for
exploratory research:-
Survey of Literature
An exploratory is concerned with an area of subject matter in
which hypothesis have not got been formulated. The researcher‟s
task then is to review the available material with an eye on the
possibilities of developing a hypothesis from it. In some areas if the
subject matter, the hypothesis may have been stated by previous
research works. The researcher has to gather these various
hypothesis with a view to evaluate their usefulness for further
research and to consider whether they suggest new hypothesis.

The Experience of Survey

Many people in the course of their day-to-day experience, by
virtue of their peculiar placement as officials, social workers,
professional etc., are in a position to observe the effects of different
19
policy –actions and to relate these to problems of human welfare.

Following are the ways of Experience Survey

Best Hypothesis
By the help of experience survey best hypothesis can be
made.

Behavioural Possibility
It introduces the different study of behavioural possibility.

Knowledge of Facilities
By the help of knowledge of facilities source of important
knowledge can be found.

Control Factor
By the help of related factors controlled and un-controlled knowledge
can be found.

Knowledge of Helping Persons

By the help of this we found that type of knowledge which is
related to the agencies, business worker and another person which is
helpful of study.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Case Study
In a case study, the insight-stimulating cases should be
selected for special study. For particular problems, certain cases may
be found more appropriate than others. The observations of strangers
or foreigners may be very valuable, with reference to a certain
community or culture. In case study, the researcher himself has to be
20
very alert.

Under the case study method, the subject matter studied in

all its dimensions & ramifications. The researcher may take into
account in this method, the transitional case, pathological cases,
complicated may take into account in this method, the transitional
case, pathological cases, complication and simple cases and
description by foreigners and marginal individuals. The aim of the
case study is to know precisely the factors and causes which plain the
complete behavioral patterns of unit and the place of the unit in its
surrounding social miller. It gives enough information about a person
or a group or a unit the case study technique, generally, studies the
21
subject-matter qualitatively and covers all aspects of a single entity.
However, it we can say that, exploratory research leads to insights
and formulation of hypothesis, but the hypothesis is not tested in such
studied/research for testing hypothesis, we revise more carefully
controlled studies/research. The results of exploratory research are
not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results
of qualitative research can give some indication as to the „why‟, „how‟
and „when‟ something occurs, it cannot tell us “how often” or „how
22
many‟.

Descriptive Research
It is also known as statistical research, this describes
phenomena as they exist. It is used to identify and obtain information
on characteristic of a particular issue like community, group or people.
In other words, we can say that this type of research describes social
events, social structure, social situations, etc. The observer observe
and describe what did he find? Descriptive research answers the
questions, what, who, where, how and when. It is used to study the
current situation. It is widely used in the physical and natural science.
But it is used more common in the social sciences, as in socio-
23
economic survey and job and activity analysis.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Descriptive research aim at portraying accurately the
characteristics of a particular group or situation, one may undertake a
descriptive study about the works in a factory, their age distribution,
their community-wise, distribution, their educational level, their state
of their physical health and so on also one may study the conditions
of work in a factory health, safety and welfare. One may undertake to
describe the organization of industrial establishment or if a trade
union congress. A descriptive study may be concerned with the
attitude or views (of a person) towards anything e.g., attitudes
presidential form of government, right to strike, capital punishment,
24
prohibition, college autonomy etc.

Steps of Descriptive Research

A descriptive research involves the following steps:

The Clear discrimination of objective of Research

First step is to select the main purpose of research it is
necessary because for proper study of research. Without main aim
and purpose research cannot go properly.

Determination of the Method of Data Collection

For any research method, data collection is necessary which
type of research the researcher want, he must have to select the
method like questionnaire observation, interview etc. of their
research.
Selection of Sampling
The place which is selected by the researcher, there must be
many people so it is difficult to make contact with all persons this the
researcher select some people these selected people are known as
sampling selection of sampling have some essential terms.
Real Collection of Data
For real collection of data, the researcher must have to in his
real research field, and it is collected in a selected step at the time of
data collection reality is necessary for investigation.

Analysis of Achieved conclusion

After the collection of data the researcher makes the
conclusion of the whole research or investigation for conclusion
25
coding, tabulating and graph representation is used.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Limitation of Descriptive Research
The Research may make description an end itself research
is essentially creative and demand the discovery of the facts in order
to lead to a solution of the problem. Another limitation lies in going to
the other extreme, and generally is associated weather the statistical
technique dominates. This limitation arises because statistics, which
is partly a descriptive tool of analysis can aid, but not always explain
causal relation. Thus, the major goal of a descriptive research is to
describe events, phenomena and situation. Since the description is
made on the basis of scientific observation, it is expected to be more
accurate and precise than casual. Descriptive research cannot be
used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects
another; in other words, description research can be said to have a
26
low requirement for internal validity.

In short, descriptive research concern with the whole thing

that can be studied and counted. But there are always limitations to
that other research must have an impact on the lives of the people
around us. If a investigator is studying a community which is familiar
and his research area is to represent accurately and in detail the
character of a particular institution, group or an event in the
community, the suitable research design is called Descriptive
research design sometimes, descriptive design form a second step of
research the first being explanatory design thus, sometimes, research
design is formulated through explanatory design and to test the
27
research design, description design is formulated.

Explanatory Research Design

When the purpose of the study is to explore a new universe,
one that has not been studied earlier, the research design is called
explanatory. The research is mainly concerned with causes or „why‟
factor about some phenomenon. It does not involve comparison and
28
factors of change. For instance, research on „violence against
bloomed‟ conducted by this author described not only varieties of
violence like criminal assault, lettering, kidnapping, murder, dourly
death, etc. but also explain why men commit violence because of
personality traits like dominance, suspicion, possession, etc. and
situational factors like resourcefulness, alcoholism, maladjustment
strains, and stresses, and so on.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
The research purpose in this case is to gain familiarity in
unknown areas. Often explanatory research design is used to
formulate a problem for specific investigations, or aim at formulating
research Design thus, often when the universe of study is an
unidentified community, this design forms the first step of research,
after which other types of research designs can be used. The
hypothesis in an explanatory research that states the relationship
between two or more variable, i.e., not only it is hypothesized that A is
related to B but rather that A has some particular effect on B. In other
words, we can say an explanatory study thus focuses on determining
29
the „why‟ aspect of correlationship. Example; we can say that the
study of voting behavior of people in parliamentary elections, held in
March 1998 and September 1999 respectively, were explanatory
student because these explained how people so voted because of,
programmers and policies of political parties, language or alignments,
caste, political ideology, committed image and honest of the
candidate, etc. The important variable between two periods was
Kargil was because of which there was a swing in votes in famous of
NDA, led by BJP this research was conducted into two situations at
the times, but it was focused on causal factors of more votes in favor
of the BJP due to Kargil war, Decision of congress into two groups
after Sharad Pawar‟s forming a separate political party, and alignment
30
of the BJP with more regional party. Thus, explanatory studies have
not confused with empiricism, with fact gathering, i.e., unrelated to
sociological theory. Explanatory research also, many kinds of designs
could be appropriate, e.g. two-cell, four-cell design, marching design.
The explanatory study always carries with it a set of concept that
31
guide the researcher to look for the facts.

Experimental Research Design

The Research design that is used to test a Research Design
of causal relationship under controlled situation is called experimental
design. We should remember that an experiment is an observation
under controlled conditions or in other words, we can say that it is a
design in which some of the variables being studied are manipulated
or which seek to control the condition within which persons are
observed. Controlling of conditions means that the phenomenon or
the condition should not be allowed to change while the
experimentation is going on. In experimentation, various types of
evidence have to be, controlled so that the alternative hypothesis can

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
be tested, and causal relationship may be found out. In short, here
„control‟ means holding once factor constant while others are free to
vary in the experiment. Independent variable are manipulated and its
effect upon dependent variable is measured, while other variables
32
which may confound such a relationship are controlled.

Types of Experimental Research

1. After-only experimental design
2. Before – after experimental design.
3. Ex-post facto design
4. Panel study
In the first type of experimental design, the experimental
group and the control group are similar the uncontrolled extreme
factors may affect both the group causal. The experimental group is
exposed to the assumed causal variable (X) but the control group is
not exposed. After the experimentation is over, both groups are
compared, and it may be noticed that some effect (Y) is produced in
the experimental group, but not in the control group the groups are
assumed to be exactly similar. This may not be true. Secondly, it is
possible that Y is produced not by X, but by some other external
33
factors, or by the joint interaction of X & other external factions.

In the second type, the dependent variable, i.e. effect is

measured both a before and after the exposure of group, groups to
experiment. This experiment may use one group or several groups.
There may be one control group or more than one control group. The
greatest weakness of this design is that during experiment, a group
may be influenced by the external factor in a different way than the
other group, for there is nothing to ensure uniform change. However,
34
this design is more reliable than after-only design.

In the third type of experimental research design, researcher

depend on historical background because sometimes it is not
possible to divide the population into two clear and similar groups this
may be the case where the entire society consisting of different
varieties of people and conditions are involved. It may be necessary
to study the entire historical background of a country in the export
35
facto design past is studied through the present.
And the last type of experimental research design is panel
study. It is a method of study of aparticular subject over time by using

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
different kinds of data. In this, the researcher may secure direct
evidence of time relationship among variables. It involves repeated
observations on the same subject at different period of time. In after
sense it is a time-series study. In the panel technique, the variation in
the result may be attributed to a real change in phenomena. It is
continuous, through deep & reliable, it has also many limitations, e.g.,
loss of panel members, non-representativeness, rigid attitude of the
36
members and so on.

Thus, we find that the experimental research are affected by

several limitations Human Society reveals inequalities in many
choose and find out homogeneous groups for experiments. The
purpose of experimental research is to test the hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables. For an experimental study/research,
two groups are required, and compared in terms of the assured effect
of the experimental variable the validity of an experiment depends on
the equivalence between control group & the experimental group
chosen.

Common Application of Research Design

Design Best for Also used for
Survey
1. Cross-Section Description Explanation
2. Longitudinal Description Exploration
Explanation
Literature Reviews Exploration Description &
Explanation
Unobtrusive Method
1. Cross-Section Description Explanation
Exploration
2. Longitudinal Description
Explanation Exploration
Experiment Experimentation
Field Search Exploration Description
Explanation
Conclusion
From the above defined notes we can say that design
means “drawing an outline” or arranging or planning details. It is the
method of building decisions before a situation arises in which the

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
37
decision has to be carried out. Research design is the preparation of
a strategy of conducting research these are the important points to be
considered in formulating any research. All these steps are to be put
on paper to avoid ambiguity at a later stage. The work in research
design, thus starts after the selection of problem and ends before
collection of data. The gap between two should be bridged carefully
with a well planned research design.

Thus, it can be said that a research design should contain

detailed information about Research topic, Objectives, Concepts and
their operational definition, Variables, Hypothesis, Method of data
collection & method of the data process, Analysis and interpretation,
Time dimension of study and approximate expenditure involve.

Reference
1. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Method, New Delhi: Rawat
Publication
2. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Rawat
Publication
3. Borwankar P.V., (1995), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Seth
Publisher
4. Claire Selltiz and others, (1962), Research Methods in Social
Sciences, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Published for
the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
5. Coldwel D. and Herbst F.J., (2004), Business Research, Cape
Town: Juta and Company Ltd
6. Crotty, M., (1998), The foundations of social Research: Meaning
and Perspective in the Research Process, London: Sage
Publication
7. Dawson Catherine, (2002), Practical Research Methods, New
Delhi: UBS Publisher‟s Distributors
8. Gupta Mukul and Gupta Deepa, (2011), Research Methodology,
New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited
9. Khanzode V.V., (1995), Research Methodology: Technique &
Trends, New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation
10. Kothari C.R., (2010), Research Methodology: Methods and
Technique, New Delhi: New Age International Publishers
11. Kumar Ranjit, (2005), Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step
Guide for Beginners, (2nd.ed.), Singapore: Pearson Education.

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
12. Manheim Hanry, (1977), Sociological Research: Philosophy and
Methods, Illinois: The Dorsey Press
13. McNabb David E., (2010), Case Research in Public
Management, New York: Routledge Publication
14. Michael Crotty, (1998), The Foundations of Social
Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process,
New Delhi: SAGE Publications
15. Mustafa A., (2010), Research Methodology, Delhi: A.I.T.B.S
Publishers
16. Sam Daniel P. and Sam Aroma G., (2011), Research
Methodology, Delhi: Kalpaz Publication
17. Sharma Vimlesh, (2003), Residual Sighted Children, New Delhi:
Discovery Publishing House
18. Shrivastva T.N. and Rogo Shailaja,(1958), Business Research
Methodology, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Private Limited
19. Singh Tejinde Jeet and Sahu Shantanu Kumar, (2015), Research
Methodology, Agra: SBPD Publication
20. Trivedi R.N. and Shukla D.P., (1998), Research Methodology,
Jaipur: College Book Depot
21. Trochim William, Donnelly James P. and Arora Kanika, (2015),
Research Methods: The essential Knowledge Base, United
Kingdom: CENGAGE Learning
22. Vaus David de., (2001), Research Design in Social Research,
New Delhi: Sage Publication
23. Zikmund William, (1988), Business Research Methods, Chicago:
The Dryden Press.

Foot Notes
1. Vaus David de., (2001), Research Design in Social Research,
New Delhi: Sage Publication, p.16
2. Claire Selltiz and others, (1962), Research Methods in Social
Sciences, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Published for
the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, p. 70,
Also See: Gupta Mukul and Gupta Deepa, (2011), Research
Methodology, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited, p. 32
3. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Rawat
Publication, p. 121
4. Manheim hanry, (1977), Sociological Research: Philosophy and
Methods, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, p. 140

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
5. Zikmund William, (1988), Business Research Methods, Chicago:
The Dryden Press, p. 41
6. Kothari C.R., (2010), Research Methodology: Methods and
Technique, New Delhi: New Age International Publishers, p. 31
7. Sam Daniel P. and Sam Aroma G., (2011), Research
Methodology, Delhi: Kalpaz Publication, p. 91
8. Selltiz ,op.cit., p. 71
9. Kothari, (2010), p. 32
10. Ibid
11. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Method, New Delhi: Rawat
Publication, p. 125
12. Trochim William, Donnelly James P. and Arora Kanika, (2015),
Research Methods: The essential Knowledge Base, United
Kingdom: CENGAGE Learning, p. 219,220
13. Kothari, p. 32
14. ibid
15. Ibid
16. Coldwel D. and Herbst F.J., (2004), Business Research, Cape
Town:Juta and Company Ltd, p. 37, 38
17. ustafa A., (2010), Research Methodology, Delhi: A.I.T.B.S
Publishers, p. 86,87
18. Sellitz op.cit., p. 50
19. Mustafa, op.cit., p. 91
20. Borwankar P.V., (1995), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Seth
Publisher, p. 45
21. Michael Crotty, (1998), The Foundations of Social
Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process,
New Delhi: SAGE Publications, p. 5
22. Sellitz op.cit., p.72, Also see, Singh Tejinde Jeet and Sahu
Shantanu Kumar, (2015), Research Methodology, Agra: SBPD
Publication, p. 9
23. Khanzode V.V., (1995), Research Methodology: Technique &
Trends, New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation, p. 35
24. Ibid
25. Borwankar, op.cit., p.46
26. Crotty, M., (1998), The foundations of social Research: Meaning
and Perspective in the Research Process, London: Sage
Publication, p. 115

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 Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
27. Shrivastva T.N. and Rogo Shailaja,(1958), Business Research
Methodology, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Private Limited, p.
1.19
28. Trivedi R.N. and Shukla D.P., (1998), Research Methodology,
Jaipur: College Book Depot, p. 54.
29. McNabb David E., (2010), Case Research in Public
Management, New York: Routledge Publication, p.29
30. Singh and Sahu, op.cit., p.40
31. Sellitz op.cit., p.73
32. Kothari, op.cit. p.39
33. Ibid, p. 40
34. Ibid, p. 41
35. Ibid, p. 42
36. ibid
37. Sharma Vimlesh, (2003), Residual Sighted Children, New Delhi:
Discovery Publishing House, p. 48

84

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