Chapter 2 Electrostatics Action at a distance

2.1 The Electric Field: 2.1.1 Introduction

What is the force on the test charge Q due to a source Coulomb’s law, like Newton’s law of gravitation, involves the
charge q? concept of action at a distance.
We shall consider the special case of the electrostatics in It simply states how the particles interact but provides no
which all the source charges are stationary. explanation of the mechanism by which the force is
The principle of superposition states that the interaction transmitted from one point to the other.
between any two charges is completely unaffected by the Even Newton himself is not comfortable with this aspect of
presence of others. his theory.

What is the concept of action at a distance? This leads to the

gravitational, electric, and magnetic field.

1 2

2.1.2 Coulomb’s Law 2.1.3 The Electric Field

How does one particle sense the presence of the other?
Coulomb’s law quantitatively describe the interaction of
charges. The electric charge creates an electric field in the space
around it. A second charged particle does not interact
Coulomb determined the force law for electrostatic charges
directly with the first; rather, it responds to whatever field it
directly by experiment.
encounters. In this sense, the field acts as an intermediary
between the particles.
kqQ 1 qQ
F= rˆ = rˆ Q q1 q
r 2
4πε 0 r 2 F = F1 + F2 + " = ( rˆ + 22 rˆ2 + ") = QE
4πε 0 r1
2 1
r2
N ⋅ m2
Where k = 9 ×10 9
1 q1 q 1 n
qi
C2 where E =
4πε 0
(
r1
rˆ + 22 rˆ2 + ") =
2 1
r2 4πε 0
∑
i =1 ri
rˆ
2 i
C2
and ε 0 = 8.86 × 10 −12

N ⋅ m2 The electric field strength is defined as the force per

3
unit charge placed at that point. 4
 Example 2.1.4 Continuous Charge Distributions
On a clear day there is an electric field of approximately In order to find the electric field due to a continuous distribution
100 N/C directed vertically down at the earth’s surface. of charge, one must divide the charge distribution into
Compare the electrical and gravitational forces on an infinitesimal elements of charge dq which may be considered to
electron. be point charges. 1 dq 1 dq
Solution: dE =
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ ⇒ E=
4πε 0 ∫r 2
rˆ

The magnitude of the electrical force is

Fe=eE=1.6x10-19x100=1.6x10-17 N. (upward)

The magnitude of the gravitational force is

Fg=mg=9.11x10-31x9.8=8.9x10-30 N. (downward)

5 6

Example 2.1 Example

Non-conducting disk of radius a has a uniform surface
What is the field strength at a distance R from an infinite
charge density σ C/m2. What is the field strength at a
line of charge with linear charge density λ C/m.
distance y from the center along the central axis.
Solution:
Solution:
Since the charge carrier is infinite long,
the electric field in y-direction completely The y-component of the field is
cancel out. Thus the resultant field is kdq y
along the x-axis. dE y = dE cos θ =
r2 r
1 λ cos θdA 1 λR sec 2 θ cos θ dθ where r = x + y and dq = σ (2π xdx)
2 2 2

dE x = =
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 ( R sec θ ) 2 a 2 xdx
E y = π kσ y ∫
0 ( x 2 + y 2 )3/ 2
1 λ cos θdθ
=
4πε 0 R a dx 2
= π kσ y ∫
0 ( x + y 2 )3/ 2
2
1 λ π /2 λ
R∫π
Ex = cos θdθ =
4πε 0 − /2 2πε 0 R
7 8
 2.2 Divergence and Curl of Electrostatics Fields Field Lines
2.2.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law
How to determine the field strength from the field lines?
How to express the magnitude and vector properties of the
field strength? The lines are crowed together when the field is strong and
spread apart where the field is weaker. The field strength is
The field strength at any point could be represented by an proportional to the density of the lines.
arrow drawn to scale. However, when several charges are
present, the use of arrows of varying length and orientations
becomes confusing. Instead we represent the electric field by
continuous field lines or lines of force.

9 10

Example Flux
Sketch the field lines for two point charges 2Q and –Q. The electric flux ΦE through
this surface is defined as
Solution: Φ E = EA cos θ
= E⋅A
(a)Symmetry
(b)Near field
(c)Far field
For a nonuniform electric field
(d)Null point
(e)Number of lines Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ nˆ da

11 12
 Flux Gauss’s Law
Flux leaving a closed surface is positive, whereas flux How much is the flux for a spherical Gaussian surface around
entering a closed surface is negative. a point charge?
The net flux through the surface is zero if the number of The total flux through this closed
lines that enter the surface is equal to the number that Gaussian surface is
leave.
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ nˆ da
Q Q
= ⋅ 4π r 2 =
4πε 0 r 2 ε0
The net flux through a closed surface equals 1/ε0 times the
net charge enclosed by the surface.

Can we prove the above statement for arbitrary closed shape?

13 14

Gauss’s Law (II) Turn Gauss’s Law

from integral equation into differential form
•The circle on the integral sign indicates that the Gaussian
Qenc
∫ E ⋅ da = ∫ E ⋅ nˆ da =
surface must be enclosed.
•The flux through a surface is determined by the net charge S S ε0
enclosed. By applying the divergence theorem
Qenc 1
∫ E ⋅ nˆ da = ∫ (∇ ⋅ E)dτ
S v
and
ε0
=
ε0 ∫ ρ dτ
v

1
So ∫ (∇ ⋅ E)dτ = ε ∫ ρdτ
v
0
v

Since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal
How to apply Gauss’s law? 1
∇⋅E = ρ Gauss’s Law in differential form.
1. Use symmetry. ε0
2. Properly choose a Gaussian surface (E//A or E⊥A). 15 16
 2.2.2 The Divergence of Electric Field & Example 2.2
2.2.3 Application of the Gauss’s Law
The electric field can be expressed in the following form A non-conducting uniform charged sphere of radius R has
a total charge Q uniformly distributed throughout its volume.
1 dq 1 rˆ
E=
4πε 0 ∫
all space r 2
rˆ =
4πε 0 ∫
all space r2
ρ (r′)dτ ′ Find the field (a) inside, and (b) outside, the sphere.
Solution:
Divergence of the electric field is (a) inside
Why the divergence
1 rˆ Φ enc Q 43 πr 3 1
E= rˆ = ( 4 3 )
∇⋅E =
4πε 0 ∫all space (∇ ⋅ r 2 ) ρ (r′)dτ ′ operator doesn’t apply
4πr 2
3 πR 4πε 0 r 2
rˆ
on the r’ coordinate?
rˆ Q
Since (∇ ⋅ ) = 4πδ 3 (r ), = rrˆ
r 2 4πε 0 R 3
1 1 (b) outside
∇⋅E = ∫
4πε 0 all space
4πδ 3 (r − r′)ρ (r′)dτ ′ = ρ (r )
ε0 Φ Q
E= rˆ = rˆ
4πr 2
4πε 0 r 2
17 18

Example 2.3 Example 2.5

Find the field due to the following: (a) an infinite sheet of
A long cylinder carries a charge density that is proportional
charge with surface charge density +σ; (b) two parallel
to the distance from the axis: λ=ks, for some constant k.
infinite sheets with charges density +σ and -σ.
Find the electric field inside the cylinder?
Solution:
Solution:
Pick up a Gaussian surface as shown in the figure.
The total charge enclosed is
s 2
Qenc = A ∫ (ks′) s′ds′dφ = πkAs 3
0 3
Qenc 1
E= = ks 2 in sˆ direction
ε 0 2πsA 3

19 20
 How to Choose a Good Gaussian Surface? 2.2.4 The Curl of the Electric Field
The electric field can be expressed in the following form
Gauss’s Law is always true, but it is not always useful.
1 rˆ 1 1
Symmetry is crucial to the application of Gauss’s law. E=
4πε 0 ∫
all space r 2
ρ (r′)dτ ′ =
4πε 0 ∫
all space
(∇ )ρ (r′)dτ ′
r
There are only three kinds of symmetry that work:
Curl of the electric field is Why the divergence
1. Spherical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a
1 1 operator doesn’t apply
concentric sphere.
2. Cylindrical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a
∇×E =
4πε 0 ∫all space
(∇ × (∇ )) ρ (r′)dτ ′ on the r’ coordinate?
r
coaxial cylinder. Curl of gradient is always zero. ∴ ∇ × E = 0
3. Plane symmetry: Use a Gaussian “pillbox”, which
straddles the surface. The principle of superposition states that the total field is
a vector sum of their individual fields E=E1+E2+…

21
∇ × E = ∇ × (E1 + E 2 + ") = ∇ × E1 + ∇ × E 2 + " = 0 22

2.3 Electrical Potential Mechanical Analogous of Potential

2.3.1&2 Introduction to and Comments on Potential
The motion of a particle with positive charge q in a uniform
electric field is analogous to the motion of a particle of mass
Can we apply the concept of potential, first introduced in
m in uniform gravitational field near the earth.
mechanics, to electrostatic system and find the law of
conservation of energy? WEXT = + ∆U = U f − U i
We can define an electrostatic potential energy, analogous to
gravitational potential energy, and apply the law of If WEXT >0, work is done by the
conservation of energy in the analysis of electrical problems. external agent on the charges.
If WEXT <0, work is done on the
Potential is a property of a point in space and depends only external agent by the field.
on the source charges.

Potential energy depends not only on the “source” but also

Potential is not equal to the potential energy. on the “test” particle. Thus it will be more convenient if we
can define a potential function which is function of “source”
23 only. 24
 The Unit of Potential: Volt Only Changes in Potential are Significant
When a charge q moves between two points in the We see that only changes in potential ∆V, rather than the
electrostatic field, the change in electric potential, ∆V, is specific value of Vi and Vf, are significant.
defined as the change in electrostatic potential energy per It is convenient to choose the ground connection to earth as
unit charge, ∆U the zero of potential.
∆V =
q The potential at a point is the external work need to bring
The SI unit of electric potential is the volt (V). a positive unit charge, at constant speed, from the position
1V = 1 J / C = 1 N ⋅ m / C of zero potential to the given point.

In an external electric field, both positive and negative

The quantity V depends only on the field set up by the charges tend to decrease the electrostatic potential energy.
source charges, not on the test charge.
Which side will a charge particle drift if it is in the middle of
WEXT = q∆V = q(V f − Vi ) two conducting plates with potential difference, higher or
lower potential side?
25 26

Potential is Conservative Differential form of Potential

In mechanics, the definition of potential energy in terms of The fundamental theorem of gradient states that
the work done by the conservative force is ∆U=-Wc.. The B
negative sign tells us that positive work by the conservative VB − VA = ∫ (∇V ) ⋅ ds
A
force leads to a decrease in potential energy.
B
Therefore, the change in potential energy, associated with and VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ ds so E = −∇V
an infinitesimal displacement ds, is A

dU = −Fc ⋅ ds = − qE ⋅ ds The electric field E is a very special kind of vector function

dU whose curl is always zero.
dV = = − E ⋅ ds
q ∇ × E = −(∇ × ∇V ) = 0
B
VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ ds It is often easier to analyze a physical situation in terms of
A
Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the value of potential, which is a scalar, rather than the electric field
this line integral depends only on the end points A and B, strength, which is a vector.
not on the path taken. 27 28
Example 2.6 Find the potential inside and outside a 2.3.3 Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equation
spherical shell of radius R, which carries a uniform surface
charge. Set the reference point at infinity. The electric field can be written as the gradient of a scalar
potential.
Sol : Use the Gauss' s law to find the electric field E = −∇V
and then use the electric field to calculate the potential. What do the fundamental equations for E looks like, in
terms of V?
Inside (r < R ) E = 0 ρ
 Gauss' s law ∇ ⋅ E = −(∇ ⋅ ∇V ) = −∇ 2V =
 q
outside (r > R ) E = 4πε r 2 ε0
 0

r q Curl law ∇ × E = −(∇ × ∇V ) = 0

V ( r ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dA = (r > R)
∞ 4π ε 0 r
q ∇ × E = 0 permits E = −∇V ;
and V (r ) = (r < R)
4πε 0 R in turn, E = −∇V guarantees ∇ × E = 0
29 30

2.3.4 The Potential of a Localized Charge

The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution
Distribution
Setting the reference point at infinity, the potential of a point In general, the potential of a collection of charges is
charge q at the origin is 1 n
qi
−1 qr 1 q
V (r ) =
4πε 0
∑r
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫
∞ r′ 2
dr ′ =
4πε 0 r
i =1 i

For a continuous distribution

The conventional minus sign in the definition of V was 1 dq
chosen precisely in order to make the potential of a positive
V (r ) = ∫
4πε 0 r
charge come out positive.
For a volume charge ρ, a surface charge σ, a line charge λ.
1 ρ (r′) 1 σ (r′) 1 λ (r′)
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′

31 32
 Example Example
A nonconducting disk of radius a has a uniform surface A shell of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distributed
charge density σ C/m2. What is the potential at a point on over its surface. Find the potential at a distance r >R from
the axis of the disk at a distance from its center. its center.
Solution: Solution:
dq
dV = , dq = σ (2πxdx) It is more straightforward to use the electric field, which we
4πε 0 r know from Gauss’s law.
σπ Q r
dV = dx 2 r Q 1  1
4πε 0 x + y2 2 E= rˆ V ( r ) − V (∞ ) = − ∫
4πε 0 r
dr = − Q − 
4πε 0  r  0
4πε 0 r 2 ∞ 2

a σπ Q
V =∫ dx 2 V (r ) =
4πε 0 r
0
4πε 0 x 2 + y 2
σ σ
=
2ε 0
[( x 2 + y 2 ) 0.5 − y ]0 =
a

2ε 0
[(a 2 + y 2 ) 0.5 − y ] The potential has a fixed value at all points within the
conducting sphere equal to the potential at the surface.
33 34

2.3.5 Summary; Electrostatic Boundary Conditions Electrostatic Boundary Conditions: Normal

The electric field is not

We have derived six formulas continuous at a surface with
interrelating three fundamental charge density σ. Why?
quantities: ρ , E and V.
Consider a Gaussian pillbox. Gauss’s law states that
Qenc σA
∫ E ⋅ da =
S ε0
=
ε0
These equations are obtained from two observations:
The sides of the pillbox contribute nothing to the flux, in the
•Coulomb’s law: the fundamental law of electrostatics limit as the thickness ε goes to zero.
•The principle of superposition: a general rule applying to
⊥ ⊥ σA ⊥ ⊥ σ
all electromagnetic forces. ( Eabove − Ebelow )A = ⇒ ( Eabove − Ebelow )=
ε0 ε0
35 36
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions: Tangential Boundary Conditions in terms of potential

The tangential component of E, σ σ

E above − E below =
nˆ ⇒ (∇Vabove − ∇Vbelow ) = − nˆ
by contract, is always continuous. ε0 ε0
∂V ∂V σ
or ( above − below ) = −
∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
Consider a thin rectangular loop.
P
∂n ∂n ε0
The curl of the electric field states that
∂Vabove
where = ∇V ⋅ nˆ
The ends gives nothing (as εÆ0), and the sides give ∂n
( Eabove
//
− Ebelow
//
)A = 0 ⇒ Eabove
//
= Ebelow
// denotes the normal derivative of V.

σ Why?
In short, E above − E below = nˆ , and Vabove = Vbelow
ε0
37 38

2.4 Work and Energy in Electrostatics

2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a charge
Homework #3
How much work will you have to do, if
you move a test charge Q from point
Problems: 2.9, 2.12, 2.15, 2.20, 2.25 a to point b?

What we’re interested is the minimum force you must exert

to do the job.
b b
W = − ∫ F ⋅ dA = −Q ∫ E ⋅ dA = Q(V (b) − V (a))
a a

So V (b) − V (a) = W / Q
The potential difference between points a and b is equal to
the work per unit charge required to carry a particle from a
to b.
39 40
 2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution Potential and Potential Energy: Motion of Charges

How much work would it take to The motion of a charge in an electric field may be discussed
assemble an entire collection of point in terms of the conservation of energy, ∆K+∆U =0. In terms of
charges? potential, the conservation law may be written as

W1 = 0, W2 =
1 q
q2 ( 1 ) , W3 =
1 q q
q3 ( 1 + 2 ) ∆K = − q∆V
4πε 0 r12 4πε 0 r13 r23
It is convenient to measure the energy of elementary
1 qq qq q q particles, such as electrons and protons, in terms of a non-SI
W= ( 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3)
4πε 0 r12 r13 r23 unit called the electronvolt (1 eV=1.6x10-19 J).
1 n n qi q j 1 n n qi q j
The general rule : W =
4πε 0
∑∑
i =1 j =1 rij
=
8πε 0
∑∑
i =1 j =1 rij
According to Einstein famous E=mc2, find the energy in terms
j >i j ≠i of eV for an electron of rest mass 9.1x10-31 kg, where the
speed of light is 3x108 m/s.
1 n 1 n qj 1 n
= ∑ qi (
2 i =1 4πε 0
∑r
j =1
)= ∑ qiVi (ri )
2 i =1 E=9.1x10-31x(3x108)2/1.6x10-19=0.511 MeV
ij 41 42
j ≠i

2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution Example

A proton, of mass 1.67x10-27 kg, enters the region between
Generalizing the point charge distribution result: parallel plates a distance 20 cm apart. There is a uniform
1 1 electric field of 3x105 V/m between the plates, as shown below.
dWi = (dqi )Vi (ri ) = ρ iVi (ri )(dτ )
2 2 If the initial speed of the proton is 5x106 m/s, what is its final
1 1 ε speed?
W = ∫ ρVdτ = ∫ (ε 0∇ ⋅ E)Vdτ = 0 ∫ (∇ ⋅ E)Vdτ
2 2 2 Solution:

Integration by parts: ∇ ⋅ (VE) = (∇V ) ⋅ E + (∇ ⋅ E)V 1 2 1 2

mv f − mvi = −qV
ε0 ε0
[− ∫ E ⋅ (∇V )dτ + ∫ (EV )da]
2 2

2 ∫
W= (∇ ⋅ E)Vdτ = v f = vi2 + 2qV / m
2
=
ε0
2
[∫ E dτ + ∫ (EV )da]
2
S divergence theorem
= ((5 ×106 ) 2 − 2 ×1.6 ×10−19 × −6 ×104 / 1.67 ×10−27 ))0.5
= 6 ×106 m/s.
ε0
W= ∫ E dτ
2

2 all space
43 44
 Potential and Potential Energy of Point Charges Example
In 1913, Bohr proposed a model of the hydrogen atom in
which an electron orbits a stationary proton in a circular
path. Find the total mechanical energy of the electron given
that the radius of the orbit is 0.53x10-10 m.
Solution:
The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies, E=K+U. The centripetal force is
provided by the coulomb attraction.
e2
U =−
4πε 0 r
e2 mv 2 1 e2
F= = ⇒ K = mv 2 =
4πε 0 r 2
r 2 8πε 0 r
1 9 ×109 × (1.6 × 10 −19 ) 2
E =U + K = − U = − = −2.18 ×10 −18 J = −13.6 eV
45 2 2 × 0.53 ×10 −10 46

Example 2.4.4 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

A metal sphere of radius R has a charge Q. Find its
(i) A perplexing “inconsistency”
potential energy.
ε0
Solution: W= ∫ E dτ ≥0
2

2 all space Which equation is correct?

n
q 1
dW = Vdq =
4πε 0 r
dq W= ∑ qiVi (ri ) ≥ or ≤ 0
2 i =1
Both equations are correct.

Q q Q2
W =∫ dq =
0 4πε 0 r 8πε 0 R Why the energy of a point charge is infinite?
Does it make sense? No
The potential energy U=1/2QV is ε0 ε0 q
W= ∫ E dτ = 2 ∫ ( 4πε r ) 2 (r 2 sin θdrdθdφ ) = ∞
2
the work needed to bring the 2
2 0
system of charges together. all space

47 48
 Comments on Electrostatic Energy 2.5 Conductor
2.5.1 Basic Properties
(ii) Where is the energy stored?
ε0 1 n E = 0 inside a conductor
W= ∫ (
2
E 2 ) dτ W= ∑ qiVi (ri )
2 i =1
all space

It is unnecessary to worry about where the energy ρ = 0 inside a conductor

is located. Really?
(iii) Superposition principle is not valid, because the Any net charge resides on the surface
electrostatic energy is quadratic in the fields.
ε0 ε0
W= ∫ E dτ = ∫ (E + E 2 ) 2 dτ A conductor is an equipotential
2
1
2 all space
2 all space

ε0
= ∫ (E + E22 + 2E1 ⋅ E 2 )dτ
2 E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.
1
2 all space
49 50

Charge Redistribution Discharge at Sharp Points on a Conductor

Suppose two charged metal spheres with radius R1 and R2
are connected by a long wire. Charge will flow from one to σ 1
the other until their potential are equal. The equality of the E= ∝
potential implies that ε0 R
Q1 Q2
= , since Q = 4πR 2σ The above equation infer that the field strength is greatest at
R1 R2 the sharp points on a conductor.
σ 1 R1 = σ 2 R2 If the field strength is great enough (about 3x106 V/m for dry
air) it can cause an electrical discharge in air.
We infer that 1/R: The surface charge density on each
sphere is inversely proportional to the radius. How does the breakdown occur in high voltage transmission
The regions with the smallest radii of curvature have the line?
greatest surface charge densities.
51 52
 Dust Causing High Voltage Breakdown 2.5.2 Induced Charges
Induced charge
on metal sphere
The potential at the surface of a charged sphere is V=kQ/R
and the field strength is E=kQ/R2. So, for a given breakdown
field strength, breakdown voltage is proportional to the
radius, VB ∝ R.
The potential of a sphere of radius 10 cm may be raised to
3x105 V before breakdown. On the other hand, a 0.05 mm If there is some cavity in the conductor, and within that
dust particle can initiate a discharge at 150 V. cavity there is some charge, then the field in the cavity will
not be zero.

No external fields penetrate the conductor; they are

A high voltage system must keep at very clean condition. canceled at the outer surface by the induced charge there.

53 54

2.5.3 Surface Charge and Force on a Conductor 2.5.4 Capacitors

Using energy density viewpoint The magnitude of the charge Q stored on either plate of a
capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference V
In the immediate neighborhood of the surface, the
between the plates. Therefore, we may write
energy is
ε0 ε0 σ 2 Q = CV
dW = ( E 2 ) dτ = ( ( ) )dadx = fdadx
2 2 ε0 Where C is a constant of proportionality
σ 2 called the capacitance of the capacitor.
f = ←
 the force per unit area
2ε 0 The SI unit of a capacitance is the farad
This amounts to an outward electrostatic pressure on (F). 1Farad =1 coulomb/volt
the surface, tending to draw the charge into the field,
regardless of the sign of . The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the geometry
ε0 σ2 of the plates (their size, shape, and relative positions) and
P= E2 = the medium (such as air, paper, or plastic) between them.
2 2ε 0 55 56
 Parallel-plate capacitor Example
What is the capacitance of an isolated sphere of radius R?
A common arrangement found in capacitors consists of two
plates. σ Q dQ ε0 A
E= = ⇒ V = Ed = ∴ C= Solution:
ε0 ε0 A ε0 A d
Q
where ε0 is 8.85x10-12 F/m. V= ⇒ C = 4πε 0 R
4πε 0 R

If we assume that earth is a conducting sphere of radius

Example 2.10 A parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation 6370 km, then its capacitance would be 710 uF.
of 1 mm has a capacitance of 1 F. What is the area of each
plate? Is earth a good capacitor? No.

Cd 1× 10 −3
A= = = 1.13 × 108 m 2
ε0 8.85 × 10 −12
57 58

Example Example
A spherical capacitor consist of two concentric conducting A cylindrical capacitor consists of a central conductor of
spheres, as shown in the figure. The inner sphere, of radius radius a surrounded by a cylindrical shell of radius b, as
R1, has charge +Q, while the outer shell of radius R2, has shown below. Find the capacitance of a length L assuming
charge –Q. Find its capacitance. that air is between the plates.
Solution: Solution: λL λ
Er = =
Q R2 Q 1 1 ε 0 2πrL 2πε 0 r
E= ⇒ V = − ∫ Edr = ( − )
4πε 0 r 2 R1 4πε 0 R2 R1 b λ b
Vr = − ∫ Er dr = − ln( )
R1 R2 a 2πε 0 a
C = 4πε 0 ( )
R2 − R1 =−
Q b
ln( )
2πε 0 L a
The capacitance happens to be negative quantity. 2πε 0 L
C=−
Why we are interested only in its magnitude? ln(b / a )
Again, we are interested only in the magnitude of the
59 60
capacitance.
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The energy stored in a capacitor is equal to the work done---

Homework #4
for example, by a battery---to charge it.
The work needed to transfer an infinitesimal charge dq from
the negative plate to the positive plate is dW=Vdq=q/Cdq. Problems: 2.34, 2.36, 2.39, 2.46, 2.48

The total work done to transfer charge Q is

Q q Q 2 CV 2
W =∫ dq = =
0 C 2C 2

What kind of the potential energy does this work convert?

Electric potential energy.

61 62
 Chapter 3 Special Techniques 3.1.2. Laplace’s Equation in 1D
3.1 Laplace’s Equation: 3.1.1 Introduction
1 Suppose V depends on only one variable, x.
Poisson’s equation: ∇ V =−
2
ρ (r )
ε0 ∂ 2V
=0 ⇒ V ( x) = mx + b
Very often, we are interested in finding the potential in a ∂x 2
region where ρ =0. Two features of this solution:
There may be plenty of charge elsewhere, but we’re
confining our attention to places where there is no charge. 1. Laplace’s equation is a kind of averaging instruction.
1
V ( x) = (V ( x − a) + V ( x + a)) for any a
Laplace’s equation: ∇ V =0
2
2
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 2. Laplace’s equation tolerates no local maxima or minima,
In Cartesian coordinate, + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 since the second derivative must be zero.
1 2

3.1.3. Laplace’s Equation in 2D Features of Harmonic Function in 2D

Suppose V depends on two variables. 1. The value of V at a point (x, y) is the average of those
∂V ∂V
2 2
a partial differential equation (PDE); around the point.
+ = 0 
∂x 2 ∂y 2 not a ordinary differential equation (ODE). 1
Harmonic functions in two dimensions have the same
V ( x, y ) = ∫ Vd
2πR circle
properties that we noted in one dimension:
2. V has no local maxima or minima. All extrema occur at
the boundaries.

3 4
 3.1.4. Laplace’s Equation in 3D No Local Maxima or Minima in 3D
2. V has no local maxima or minima; the extreme values
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ + = 0 (partial differential equation (PDE)) must occur at the boundaries.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Ex. For a single point charge q located outside the sphere
In three dimensions we can neither provide you with an of radius R as shown in the figure, find the potential at the
explicit solution nor offer a suggestive physical example to origin.
guide your intuition. Sol: V =
1 q
=
1 q
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
Nevertheless, the same two properties remain true.
1 q R 2 sin θdθdφ
so Vave (r = 0) = ∫
4πR 4πε 0 ( z + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
2 2
1. The value of V at a point r is the average value of V
over a spherical surface of radius R centered at r: 1 q − d cos θ
2 4πε 0 ∫ ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
=

1
V (r ) = ∫ Vda
1 q π
= ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
2 zR 4πε 0
4πR 2
0

sphere
1 q q
= (( z + R) − ( z − R)) =
5 2 zR 4πε 0 4πε 0 z 6

3.1.5. Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems

Laplace’s equation does not by itself determine V; a First uniqueness theorem: the solution to Laplace’s
suitable set of boundary conditions must be supplied. equation in some volume is uniquely determined if V is
specified on the boundary surface.
Proof:
What are appropriate boundary conditions, sufficient to Suppose there were two solutions to
determine the answer and yet not so strong as to generate
Laplace's equation : ∇ 2V1 = 0 and ∇ 2V2 = 0
inconsistencies? It is not easy to see.
Their difference is : V3 ≡ V1 − V2 .
This obays Laplace's equation, ∇ 2V3 = 0
For a given set of boundary conditions, is V uniquely Since V3 is zero on all boundaries and
determined? Yes, it is. Î uniqueness theorem Laplace's equation suggests that all extrema
occur on the boundary, so V3 . ⇒ V1 = V2
7 8
 3.1.6. Conductors and the Second Uniqueness
Uniqueness Theorems with Charge Inside
Theorems
ρ ρ
∇ 2V1 = and ∇ 2V2 = . Let V3 ≡ V1 − V2 ⇒ ∇ 2V3 = 0 The simplest way to set the boundary conditions for an
ε0 ε0
electrostatic problem is to specify the value of V on all
Since V3 is zero on all boundaries and Laplace's equation suggests surfaces surrounding the region of interest.
that all extrema occur on the boundary, so V3 = 0. ⇒ V1 = V2
However, in some case we don’t know the potential at the
Corollary: The potential in a volume is uniquely boundaries rather the charges on various conducting
determined if (a) the charge density throughout the region, surfaces. Is the electric field still uniquely determined?
and (b) the value of V on all boundaries, are specified. Î Second uniqueness theorem.

The uniqueness theorem frees your imagination. It doesn’t

matter how you come by your solution; if (a) it satisfies
Laplace’s equation and (b) it has the correct value on the
boundaries, then it is right.
9 10

Second Uniqueness Theorems As before, we examine the difference E3 ≡ E1 − E 2

In a volume surrounded by conductors and containing a which obeys ∇ ⋅ E3 = 0 in the region between the conductors, and
specified charge density, the electric field is uniquely
determined if the total charge on each conductor is given. ∫E 3 ⋅ da = 0 over each boundary surface.
Proof: Although we don' t know how the charge distributes itself over
Suppose there are two solutions :
the conducting surface, we do know that each conductor is an
ρ ρ
∇ ⋅ E1 = and ∇ ⋅ E 2 = equal potential, and hence V3 is a constant.
ε0 ε0
Both obey Gauss' s law in integral form, Invoking product rule, we find that
1 1 ∇ ⋅ (V3E3 ) = V3 (∇ ⋅ E3 ) + E3 ⋅ ∇V3 = -( E3 ) 2
∫ E1 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qi and ∫ E 2 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qi
ith conducting
surface
ith conducting
surface =0
∫ ∇ ⋅ E τ = ∫ 3 3 da = ∫ -( E3 ) dτ = 0
E ⋅ 2
Likewise, for the outer boundary ( (V3 3 )) d (V )
v S v
1 1
∫ E1 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qtot and ∫ E 2 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qtot ∴ E3 = 0 everywhere. Consequently, E1 = E 2 .
outer outer 11 12
boundary boundary
 3.2 The Method of Images: The Image Charge
3.2.1 The Infinite Grounded Conducting Plane
We can easily find a solution which
Suppose a point charge is held a distance d above an infinite satisfies the boundary conditions as in
grounded conducting plane. What is the potential in the the figure.
region above the plane?
The uniqueness theory guarantees that
this case is got to be the right answer.

The potential can then be written down as

1  q q 
V ( x, y , z ) =  − 
4πε 0  x 2 + y 2 + ( z − d ) 2 2
+ 2
+ + 2

The boundary conditions of this case are:  x y ( z d )

1. V = 0 when z = 0 (since the conducting plane is grounded). Can we use this potential to find out the electric field,
2. V → 0 far from the charge. surface charge distribution, and the force? Yes.
13 14

3.2.2 Induced Surface Charge Total Induced Charge

It is straightforward to compute the surface charge σ The total induced charge is (use the polar coordinate)
induced on the conductor.

−1 qd −1 qd
σ= =
∂V ∂V 2π ( x + y + d )
2 2 2 3/ 2
2π (r + d 2 ) 3 / 2
2
σ = −ε 0 = − ε0
∂n ∂z ∞ 2π − 1 qd
Q = ∫ σda = ∫ ∫
z =0
rdrdφ
0 0 2π ( r + d 2 ) 3 / 2
2
−1 −1  2( z − d )q 2( z + d )q 
=  − 2 2 3/ 2 
4π 2  ( x + y + ( z − d ) )
2 2 2 3/ 2
( x + y + ( z + d ) )  z =0
2
∞ − qd qd
∞

=∫ dr 2 = 2 = −q
−1 −1 − 4qd −1 qd 0 2(r + d )
2 2 3/ 2
(r + d 2 )1/ 2
= = 0
4π 2 ( x + y + d )
2 2 2 3/ 2
2π ( x + y 2 + d 2 )3 / 2
2

15 16
 3.2.3 Force and Energy Work and Energy
Consider the work required to bring q in from infinity.
The charge q is attracted toward the plane, because of the
negative induced charge. d d 1q2 1 q2
W = ∫ Fdz = ∫ dz = −
The force and the energy of this system can be analogous ∞ ∞ 4πε 4 z 2 4πε 0 4d
0
to the case of two point charges.
which is half of that of the two point charge system.

1 q2 1 q2 This is because the conducting plane is grounded.

F=− zˆ ; W =−
4πε 0 4d 2 4πε 0 2d If the plane is not grounded, what would happen?

Unlike the two point charges system, there is no field in the

conductor. Handle must be care.

17 18

3.2.4 The Grounded Spherical Conducting Shell Example 3.2 A point charge is situated a distance a from the
center of a grounded conducting sphere of radius R. Find the
Any stationary charge distribution near a grounded conducting potential outside the sphere.
plane can be treated in the same way, by introducing its mirror
image---method of images.

The image charges have opposite sign; this is what

guarantees that the plane will be at potential zero.

Can this method be applied to a curved surface? Yes. Sol : Assume the image charge q′ is placed at a distance b from
the center of the sphere.
Here is an examples. A point charge is situated in front of a It is equipotential on the surface of a grounded sphere.
grounded conducting sphere.
Using two boundary conditions at P1 and P2 .
19 20
 1q′ q  Ex. Two equal conducting spheres with radius R, each
At P1 : (+ ) = 0
4πε 0 R − b a − R  carries a total charge Q and –Q at a distance d from each
1 q′ q  two equations and two unknowns (q′ and b) other. Find the electric field outside the conducting spheres.
At P2 : ( + ) = 0
4πε 0 R + b a + R 
Sol:
R2 R
b= , q′ = − q
a a
The force of attraction between charge and the sphere is
1 qq ′ −1 q 2 Ra
F= =
4πε 0 (a − b) 2 4πε 0 (a 2 − R 2 ) 2

If the sphere is connected to a fixed potential, can this

method still be applied? Yes. Assume the charges are located at the perspective centers.
Using the image charge method, calculate the first level
Just imagine another image charge situated at the center of induced charges. Then, calculated the second level induced
the sphere, which provides a constant potential at the charges, and so on. The series should converges rather fast.
surface. 21 22

3.3 Separation of Variables 3.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates

We shall attack Laplace’s equation directly, using the method
of separation of variables, which is the physicist’s favorite Example 3.3 Two infinite grounded metal plates lies parallel
tool for solving partial differential equations. to the xz plane, one at y=0, and the other at y=a. The left end,
at x=0, is closed off with an infinite strip insulated from the
Applicability: The method is applicable in the circumstances two plates and maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find
where the potential (V) or the charge density (σ) is specified the potential inside this “slot”.
on the boundaries of some region, and we are asked to the
potential in the interior (where ρ =0).

Laplace’s equation: ∇ 2V = 0
Basic strategy: look for solutions that are products of
functions, each of which depends on only one of the
coordinates.
V ( x, y, z ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
23 24
 Boundary Condition Separation of Variables

The configuration is independent of z, so Laplace’s equation The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
reduces to two dimensions.
V ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y )
∂V ∂V
2 2
+ =0 Substituting into Laplace’s equation, we obtain
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂2 X ∂ 2Y 1 1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
(Y + X = 0) × ⇒ + =0
The potential inside is subject to the boundary conditions. ∂x 2 ∂y 2 XY X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2
The first term depends only on x and the second only on y.
(i) V = 0 when y = 0,
The sum of these two functions is zero, which implies these
(ii) V = 0 when y = a, two functions must both be constant.
(iii) V = V0 ( y ) when x = 0,
1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
(iv) V → 0 as x → ∞. = C and = −C0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2
0

25 26

A Simple Solution A Complete Solution in Fourier Series

Now we have an infinite set of solutions.
Let C0 equal k2, for reasons that will appear in a moment. ∞

1 ∂ X
2 =0 (iv) V ( x, y ) = ∑ Cn e − nπx a sin (nπy a)
= k 2 ⇒ X ( x) = Ae kx + Be − kx n =1
X ∂x 2
Can we use the remaining boundary condition (iii) to
1 ∂ 2Y =0 (i)
= − k 2
⇒ Y ( y ) = C sin ky + D cos ky determine the coefficients Cn? Yes.
Y ∂y 2 ∞

V ( x, y ) = ( Ae + Be
kx − kx
)(C sin ky + D cos ky ) V (0, y ) = ∑ Cn sin (nπy a) = V0 ( y )
n =1

The boundary condition (iv) require A equal zero, and (i) This is a Fourier sine series. Virtually any function V0(y)---
demands that D equal zero. can be expanded in such a series. 這麼神奇!
Meanwhile (ii) yields sin ka = 0, from which it follows that
We can use the so-called “Fourier’s trick” to find out the
nπ coefficients Cn.
k= , n = 1,2,3, … Why not n=0?
a
27 28
 The Fourier Trick A Concrete Example
For a constant potential V0
∞
 0, if n is even
∑C ∫
a a
sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a )dy = ∫ V0 ( y ) sin (n′πy a)dy 2V0 a 2V0
n =1
n
0 0 Cn =
a ∫
0
sin (n′πy a)dy =
nπ
(1 − cos nπ ) =  4V0
 nπ
, if n is odd
The integral on the left is
∞
4V0 1 − nπx a
∫0
a
sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a)dy So V ( x, y ) = ∑
π n =1,3,5,... n
e sin (nπy a )

1 a πy πy 0, if n′ ≠ n
2 ∫0
= (cos(( n − n′) ) − cos(( n + n′) ) dy =  a , if n′ = n
a a  2
2 a
Cn′ = ∫ V0 ( y ) sin (n′πy a)dy
a 0

29 30

Completeness and Orthogonality Rectangular Metal Pipe

The success of this method hinges on two extraordinary
properties, i.e. completeness and orthogonality. Example 3.5 An infinitely long rectangular metal pipe (side a
and b) is grounded, but one end, at z=0, is maintained at a
specified potential V0(y,z), as shown in the figure. Find the
Completeness: If any other function f(y) can be expressed potential inside the pipe.
as a linear combination of a complete function set fn(y):
∞
f ( y ) = ∑ Cn f n ( y )
n =1

Orthogonality: If the integral of the product of any two

different members of the set is zero:
a
∫0
f n ( y ) f n′ ( y )dy = 0 for n′ ≠ n

31 32
 Boundary Condition Separation of Variables
This is a genuinely three-dimensional problem,
The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ + =0 V ( x, y, z ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Substituting into Laplace’s equation, we obtain
The potential inside is subject to the boundary conditions. 1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y 1 ∂ 2 Z
+ + =0
(i) V = 0 when y = 0, X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂z 2
(ii) V = 0 when y = a,
It follows that
(iii) V = 0 when z = 0, 1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y 2 1 ∂ Z
2

(iv) V = 0 when z = b, = (k 2 + 2
), = −k , =− 2

X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂y 2
(v) V = V0 ( y, z ) when x = 0,
How do we know? Any other possibility?
(vi) V → 0 as x → ∞.
33 34

A Simple Solution A Complete Solution in Fourier Series

=0 (vi)
1 ∂2 X The solution is
= (k 2 + 2 ) ⇒ X ( x) = Ae k + x + Be − k +
2 2 2 2
x

X ∂x 2
−π ( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
V ( x, y, z ) = BCEe sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b),
1 ∂ 2Y =0 (i)
= − k 2 ⇒ Y ( y ) = C sin ky + D cos ky where n and m are unspecified integers.
Y ∂y 2

1 ∂2Z =0 (iii) Completeness: the solution can be written as

=− 2
⇒ Z( z ) = E sin z + F cos z
Z ∂y 2 ∞ ∞
V ( x, y, z ) = ∑∑ Cn ,m e
−π ( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)
Meanwhile (ii) and (iv) yields sin ka = 0 and sin b = 0, n =1 m =1

from which it follows that

Use the boundary condition (v) and the orthogonality to find
nπ mπ out the coefficients Cn,m.
k= , n = 1,2,3, … = , m = 1,2,3, …
a b ∞ ∞
V (0, y, z ) = ∑∑ Cn ,m sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b) =V0 ( y, z )
n =1 m =1
35 36
 The Fourier Trick & Constant Voltage Solution
∞ ∞ Homework #5
∑∑ Cn,m ∫ sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a)dy ∫ sin (mπz b) sin (m′πz b)dz
a b

0 0
n =1 m =1
a b
=∫ ∫ V ( y, z ) sin (n′πy
0 a ) sin (m′πz a)dydz
0 0

4 a b
ab ∫0 ∫0
Cn ,m = V0 ( y, z ) sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)dydz Problems: 10, 12, 15, 47

If the end of the tube is a conductor at constant potential V0

4V0 2a 2b 16V0
Cn ,m = = if n and m are odd.
ab nπ mπ nmπ 2
=0 if n or m are even.
∞
16V0 1 −π
∑
( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
V ( x, y , z ) = e sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)
π 2
n , m =1, 3, 5,… nm
37 38

3.3.2 Spherical Coordinates Separation of Variables

The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
For round objects spherical coordinates are more suitable.
In the spherical system, Laplace’s equation reads V (r , θ ) = R(r )Θ(θ )
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ 2V Substituting into spherical Laplace’s equation, we obtain
(r )+ 2 (sin θ )+ 2 2 =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂R 1 ∂ ∂Θ
(r )+ (sin θ )=0
R ∂r ∂r Θ sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
We will first treat the problem with azimuthal symmetry,
so that the potential is independent of φ. The first term depends only on r and the second only on θ.
The sum of these two functions is zero, which implies these
∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V
(r )+ (sin θ )=0 two functions must both be constant.
∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ 1 ∂ 2 ∂R 1 ∂ ∂Θ
(r ) = ( + 1), (sin θ ) = − ( + 1)
R ∂r ∂r Θ sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
39 Again, how do we know? Any other possibility? 40
 Simplest Case: A Metal Sphere A Simple Solution & Legendre Polynomials
Example: A metal sphere of radius R, maintains a specified The general solutions for R and Θ are
potential V0. Find the potential outside the sphere.
∂ 2 ∂R 1
Sol: The potential is independent of θ and φ. (r ) = ( + 1) R ⇒ R = Ar + B +1
∂r ∂r r
The Laplace’s equation is: 1 ∂ (r 2 ∂R ) = 0 1 ∂ ∂Θ
R ∂r ∂r (sin θ ) = − ( + 1)Θ The solutions are not simple.
A ∂R A sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
R= +B ⇒ =− 2
r ∂r r The solutions are Legendre polynomials in the variable cosθ.
2 ∂R ∂ 2 ∂R
r = −A ⇒ (r )=0 Θ(θ ) = P (cosθ )
∂r ∂r ∂r
1 The polynomials is most conveniently defined by the
R(r = R0 ) = A + B = V0 ∴ B = 0 ( lim V = 0)
R0 r →∞ Rodrigues formula (generating function):
R 1 d
V (r ) = V0 0 P ( x) = ( ) ( x 2 − 1)
r 2 ! dx
41 42

Rodrigues Formula
d 1 d ( x 2 − 1)
Prove: P ( x) = ) ( x 2 − 1) , x =cosθ
( Let k = and u = v ( ) = = P (cos θ )(2 !)
2 ! dx dx
1 ∂ ∂P (cos θ ) ∴ (1 − x 2 )u ′′ − 2 xu ′ + ( + 1)u = 0
where (sin θ ) = − ( + 1) P (cos θ )
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ d 2 P (cos θ ) dP (cos θ )
Sol: ⇒ (1 − cos θ )
2
2
− 2x + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) = 0
dx dx
Let v = ( x 2 − 1)
v′ = 2 x( x 2 − 1) −1 × ( x 2 -1) dP (cos θ ) dP (cos θ ) dθ 1 dP (cos θ )
⇒ (1 − x 2 )v′ + 2 xv = 0 = =−
dx dθ dx sin θ dθ
d 2 P (cos θ ) d 1 dP (cos θ ) 1
= (− )(− )
(1 − x 2 )v′′ − 2 xv′ + 2 xv′ + 2 v = 0 dx 2
dθ sin θ dθ sin θ
(1 − x 2 )v′′ + 2( − 1) xv′ + 2 v = 0 1 d 2 P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
= − 3
(1 − x 2 )v′′′ + 2( − 2) xv′′ + 2(2 − 1)v′ = 0 sin 2 θ dθ 2 sin θ dθ
(1 − x 2 )v ( k + 2) + 2( − k − 1) xv ( k +1) + (k + 1)(2 − k )v ( k ) = 0
43 44
 Properties of Legendre Polynomials
1 d P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
2
(1 − cos 2 θ )[ − 3 ] The first few Legendre polynomials are listed
sin 2 θ dθ 2 sin θ dθ
1 dP (cos θ )
− 2 cos θ [− ] + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) P ( x) : an th - order polynomial in x
sin θ dθ
d 2 P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
= + + ( + 1) P (cos θ )
dθ 2 sin θ dθ
1 d dP (cos θ )
= (sin θ ) + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) = 0
sin θ dθ dθ Completeness: The Legendre polynomials constitute a
complete set of function, on the interval -1<x<1.
Orthogonality: The polynomials are orthogonal functions:
1 d (cos 2 θ − 1) 1 π
∴ P (cos θ ) =
2 ! dx
∫ −1
P ( x) P ′ ( x)dx = ∫ P (cos θ ) P ′ (cos θ ) sin θdθ
0

 0 if ′ ≠
= 2
, if ′ =
45  2 + 1 46

A Complete Solution in Legendre Polynomials Example 3.6 The potential V0(θ)=V0sin2(θ/2) is specified on
the surface of a hollow sphere, of radius R. Find the potential
The Rodrigues formula generates only one solution. What inside the sphere.
and where are other solutions?
Sol: In this case Bι=0 for all ι---otherwise the potential would
These ”other solutions” blow up at θ=0 and/or θ=π, are
blow up at the origin. Thus,
therefore unacceptable on physical grounds.
∞ ∞
V (r ,θ ) = ∑ A r P (cosθ ) → V ( R,θ ) = ∑ A R P (cosθ )
=0 =0
1
V (r , θ ) = ( Ar + B ) P (cosθ ) 2 +1 1 π
r +1 A =
2 R ∫0
V ( R, θ ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
The general solutions is the linear combination of separable 2 +1 1 π θ
solutions.
∞
=
2 R ∫ V sin 2 ( ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
0 0 2
1
V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( Ar + B ) P (cosθ ) 2 +1 1 πV

=0 r +1 =
2 R ∫0 20 (1 − cos θ ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
2 +1 1 πV
47
=
2 R ∫0 20 ( P0 (cos θ ) − P1 (cos θ )) P (cosθ ) sin θ dθ 48
 Example 3.8 An uncharged metal
2 +1 1 π V0 sphere of radius R is placed in an
A =
2 R ∫
0 2
( P0 (cos θ ) − P1 (cos θ )) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ otherwise uniform electric field E = E0 zˆ
Find the potential in the region outside
1  0 if ′ ≠ the sphere.
∫−1 P ( x ) P ′ ( x ) dx =  2
 2 + 1
, if ′ =
Sol: The sphere is an equipotential---we may as well set it to
zero.
The potential is azimuthal symmetric and by symmetry the
entire xy plane is at potential zero.
V0
A0 = In addition, the potential is not zero at large z.
V0  r 
2 ⇒ V (r ,θ ) = 1 − R cos θ  Boundary conditions are:
V 2
A1 = − 0
2R (i) V = 0 when r = R,
(ii) V → − E0 r cos θ for r >> R.
49 50

∞ 3.4 Multiple Expansion

V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( A r + B r − ( +1)
) P (cos θ ) 3.4.1 Approximate Potential at Large Distance
=0
∞ If you are very far from a localized charge distribution, it
B.C. (i): V ( R,θ ) = ∑ ( A R + B R − ( +1)
) P (cos θ ) = 0 “looks” like a point charge, and the potential is---to good
=0
+1 approximation—(1/4πε0)Q/r, where Q is the total charge.
⇒ B = A R2
∞
But what if Q is zero?
B.C. (ii): V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( A r ) P (cos θ ) = − E0 r cos θ Develop a systematic expansion for the potential of an
=0
arbitrary localized charge distribution, in powers of 1/r.
⇒ A1 = − E0 , all other A are zero.
1 1
R 3 V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r − r′ ρ (r′)dτ ′
V (r , θ ) = − E0 (r − ) cos θ
r2 Using the law of cosines,
R3
E r = R = −∇V = E0 (1 + 2 3 ) cos θrˆ = 3E0 cos θrˆ 1 1 Note, for simplicity,
R =
r − r′ (r + (r ′) − 2rr ′ cos θ ′)
2 2 r =rzˆ
σ (θ ) = ε 0 (3E0 cos θrˆ )rˆ = 3ε 0 E0 cos θ
51 52
 Large Distance Approximation Legendre Polynomials & Multiple Expansion
1 1 r′ r′
1 1 1 = (1 + ( ) cos θ ′ + ( ) 2 ((3 cos 2 θ ′ − 1) / 2) + …)
= = (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 r − r′ r r r
r − r′ (r + (r ′) − 2rr ′ cos θ ′ r
2 2

1 ∞ r′
r′ r′
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′)
= ∑ ( ) P (cosθ ′)
r =0 r
Taylor’s expansion
r r 1 ∞
r′
1 1 1 3 5 V (r ) = ∫
4πε r
∑ ( r ) P (cosθ ′) ρ (r′)dτ ′ This is the desired result.
(1 + ε ) −1/ 2 = (1 − ε + ε 2 − ε 3 + …), if ε << 1 0 =0
r r 2 8 16 1 ∞
1
So
1 1
= (1 −
1 r′ r′ 3 r′ r′
( − 2 cos θ ′) + ( ( − 2 cos θ ′)) 2
=
4πε r
∑ r ∫ (r ′)
=0
P (cos θ ′) ρ (r′)dτ ′
r − r′ r
0
2r r 8 r r
1 1 
5 r′ r′ 1 r  ∫ ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 2 ∫ r ′ cos θ ′ρ (r′)dτ ′ 
− ( ( − 2 cos θ ′))3 + …) or more exolicity,V (r ) = 
r

16 r r 4πε 0  1
(r ′) ( cos θ ′ − 1) ρ (r′)dτ ′ + …
3
 r 3 ∫
+ 2 2
1 r′ r′ 2 
= (1 + ( ) cos θ ′ + ( ) 2 ((3 cos 2 θ ′ − 1) / 2) + …)
r r r
53
The multiple expansion of V in power of 1/r. 54

Legendre Polynomials & Multiple Expansion

Dipoles
V (r ) What is dipole? The arrangement of a pair of
1 1 1 1 3 equal and opposite charges separated by
= ( ∫ ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 2 ∫ r ′ cos θ ′ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 3 ∫ (r ′) 2 ( cos 2 θ ′ − 1) ρ (r′)dτ ′ + …)
4πε 0 r r r 2 some distance is called an electric dipole.

Permanent dipole: such as molecules of HCl, CO, and H2O.

Induced dipole: An electric field may also induce a charge

separation in an atom or a nonpolar molecule.

55 56
Example 3.10 A electric dipole consists of
The Electric Field of a Dipole
two equal and opposite charges separated
1 qd cos θ 1 rˆ ⋅ p p cos θ Why?
by a distance d. Find the approximate V (r ) = = =
potential at points far from the dipole. 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2 Just a convention.
where P = qd ↑ pointing form negative charge to the positive charge.
Sol:
q 1 1 q p 2 cos θ sin θ
V (r ) = ( − )= ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) E = −∇V (r ) = (− rˆ + 2 θˆ + 0φˆ )
4πε 0 r− 2 z r+ 2 z
d ˆ d ˆ
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 3
r
r′ r′ d r′ =
p
(−2 cos θrˆ + r sin θθˆ )
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′) ≅ cos θ (if << 1, so θ ′ ≅ θ ) 4πε 0 r 3
r r r r
q
V (r ) = ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 )
4πε 0 r
q d 1 qd cos θ
= ( cos θ ) =
4πε 0 r r 4πε 0 r2

57 58

Some Important Properties of Dipole

Field due to a dipole:

Homework #6
p = Qd (- → + )
Problems: 19, 26, 37, 49

Torque in a uniform field:

τ = p×E

Potential energy:

U = −p ⋅ E
59 60
 Chapter 4 Electric Fields in Matter
4.1 Polarization: 4.1.1 Dielectrics Dielectrics

Most everyday objects belong to one of two large classes: Dielectrics : Microscopic displacements are not as
conductors and insulators (or dielectrics) dramatics as the wholesale rearrangement of charge in
conductor, but their cumulative effects account for the
characteristic behavior of dielectric materials.
Conductors : Substances contains an “unlimited” supply
of charges that are free to move about through the
material.
There are actually two principal mechanisms by which
electric fields can distort the charge distribution of a
Dielectrics : all charges are attached to specific atoms or dielectric atom or molecule: stretching and rotating.
molecules. All they can do is move a bit within the atom or
molecule.

1 2

4.1.2 Induced Dipoles 4.1.2 Induced Dipoles

What happens to a neutral atom when it is placed in an
electric field E ? The atom or molecule now has a tiny dipole moment p,
which points in the same direction as E and is proportional
Although the atom as a while is electrically neutral, there is to the field.
a positively charged core (the nucleus) and a negatively p = αE, α= atomic polarizability
charged electron cloud surrounding it.
Thus, the nucleus is pushed in the direction of the field, and
the electron the opposite way.
The electric fields pull the electron cloud and the nuclear
apart, their mutual attraction drawing them together - reach
balance, leaving the atom polarized.

3 4
 Sol.
Example 4.1 A primitive model for an atom consists of a point
nuclear (+q) surrounded by a uniformly charged spherical The electric field inside a uniform charged sphere of radius a
cloud (-q) of radius a. Calculate the atomic polarizability of 1 43 πρ r 3 1
Ee (r ) = rˆ = ρ rrˆ
such an atom. 4π r 2
ε0 3ε 0
Sol. The actual displacements involved are extremely small. 1 q
∴ Ee (a ) = rrˆ , where q = 43 πρ a 3
It is reason to assume that the electron cloud retains 4πε 0 a 3

its spherical shape. The electric field produces by two uniform charged spheres
The equilibrium occurs when the nucleus is displaced a separated by d
distance d from the center of the sphere.
1 q
The external field pushing the nucleus to the right exactly E(r )=Eq + (r+ ) + Eq − (r− ) = (r+ − r− )
4πε 0 a 3
balances the internal field pulling it to the left. How?
1 q 1 1 1 qd
1 qd = ((r − d) − (r + d))= −
Ee = p = qd = (4πε 0 a 3 ) E = α E 4πε 0 a 3
2 2 4πε 0 a 3
4πε 0 a 3
1
α = 4πε 0 a 3 = 3ε 0 v the atomic polarizability5 =− p ∴ α = 4πε 0 a 3
4πε 0 a 3 6
See Problem 2.18

Polarizability of Molecules Polarizability Tensor

CO2 is relatively simple, as molecules go, since the atoms
For molecules the situation is not quite so simple, because at least arrange themselves in a straight line.
frequently they polarize more readily in some directions
For a complete asymmetrical molecule, a more general
than others.
linear relation between E and p.
For instance, carbon dioxide CO2

When the field is at some angle to the axis, you must resolve
it into parallel and perpendicular components, and multiply
each by the pertinent polarizability:
The set of nine constants αij constitute the polarizability
tensor for the molecular.
p = α⊥E ⊥ + α∥E∥
It is always possible to choose “principal” axies such that
In this case the induced dipple moment may not even be in the off-diagonal terms vanish, learning just three nonzero
the same direction as E. polarizabilities.
7 8
 4.1.3. Alignment of Polar Molecules Torque for a Permanent Dipole in Uniform Field
The neutral atom has no dipole moment to start with--- In a uniform field, the force on the positive end, F =qE,
p was induced by the applied field E. However, some exactly cancels the force on the negative end. However,
molecules have built-in, permanent dipole moment. there will be a torque:
N = (r+ x F+) + (r- x F-)
= [(d/2) x (qE) + (-d/2) x (-qE)]
= qd x E

This dipole p = qd in a uniform field experiences a torque

N=pxE
The dipole moment of water is usually large : 6.1*10-30 N is in such a direction as to line p up parallel to E, a polar
C*m, which accounts for its effectiveness as solvent. molecule that is free to rotate will swing around until it
What happens when polar molecules are placed in an points in the direction of the applied field.
electric field ? Rotating 9 10

Net Force due to Field Nonuniformity 4.1.4. Polarization

What happens to a piece of dielectric material when it is
If the field is nonuniform, so that F+ does not exactly
placed in an electric field?
balance F-; There will be a net force on the dipole.
•Neutral atoms : Inducing tiny dipole moment, pointing in
Of course, E must change rather abruptly for there to be the same direction as the field (stretching)
significant in the space of one molecule, so this is not
ordinarily a major consideration in discussing the behavior •Polar molecules : experiencing a torque, tending to line it
of dielectrics. up along the field direction (rotating).
The formula for the force on a dipole in a uniform field is of Results : A lot of little dipoles points along the direction of
some interest the field---the material becomes polarized.
@ different position
A convenient measure of this of this effect is
F = F+ + F- = q(E+ -E-) = q(∆E) = q((d．∇)E)
P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume, which is called the
F = (p．∇)E polarization.
11 12
Prob.4.2 According to quantum mechanics, the electron 4.2 The Field of a Polarized Object
cloud for a hydrogen atom in ground state has a charge 4.2.1 Bound Charges
density
q −2r / a Suppose we have a piece of polarized material with
ρ (r ) = e
πa 3 polarization P. What is the field produced by this object?
(It is easier to work with potential)
Where q is the charge of the electron and a is the Bohr 1 rˆ ⋅ p
radius. Find the atomic polarizability of such an atom. [Hint: For a single dipole p, the potential is V (r ) = 4πε r 2
0
First calculate the electric field of the electron cloud, Ee(r); where r is the vector form the dipole to the point at which
then expand the exponential, assume r<<a.
we are evaluating the potential.
Sol. For a more sophisticated approach, see W. A. Bowers,
Am. J. Phys. 54, 347 (1986).

13 14

Example 3.10 A electric dipole consists of

two equal and opposite charges separated 4.2.1 Bound Charges
by a distance d. Find the approximate
potential at points far from the dipole. For an infinitesimal dipole moment dp = Pdτ, the total
potential is
Sol:
q 1 1 q 1 rˆ ⋅ dp 1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
4πε 0 υ∫ r 2 4πε 0 υ∫ r 2
V (r ) = ( − )= ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) V (r ) = = dτ ′
4πε 0 r − 2 z r + 2 z
d ˆ d ˆ
4πε 0 r
r′ r′ d r′
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′) ≅ cos θ (if << 1, so θ ′ ≅ θ )
1 rˆ with respect to
q
r r r
q
r
d 1 qd cos θ
Note that ∇′( ) = 2 the source coordinate.
V (r ) = ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) = ( cos θ ) = r r
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r r 4πε 0 r2
1 1
4πε 0 ∫v
V = P ⋅∇ ′( ) dτ ′
1 qd cos θ 1 rˆ ⋅ p p cos θ r
V (r ) = = =
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where P = qd ↑ pointing form negative charge to the positive charge. commutative
15 16
 Bound Charges Bound Surface and Volume Charges
Integrating by parts, using product rule, gives
σ b = P ⋅ n̂
{ρ
1 σb 1 ρb
A
∇⋅( ) =
g (∇ ⋅ A) − A ⋅ ∇g
= - ∇′ ⋅ P
V =
4πε 0 v∫ r
da′ +
4πε 0 ∫
v r
dτ ′
g g2 b S

This means that the potential of a polarized object is the

1 P 1 same as that produced by a surface charge plus a volume
V = [ ∫ ∇′ ⋅ (
) dτ ′ - ∫ (∇′ ⋅ P ) dτ ′ ] charge density.
4πε 0 v r vr

1 P 1 1
= ∫
v
4πε 0 S r
⋅ da′ +
4πε 0 r∫v
(-∇′ ⋅ P ) dτ ′
Ex. 4.2 Find the electric field produced
by a uniformly polarized sphere of
σ b = P ⋅ n̂ ρ b = - ∇′ ⋅ P radius R.

surface charge volume charge

17 18

σ b = P ⋅ nˆ = Pcosθ ′ da′ = (Rdθ ′)( Rsinθ ′dφ ′) 1 π 1 ∞ R n

 ρ = -∇′ ⋅ P = 0
V (r , 0, 0) =
4πε 0 ∫0 r n =0 r
∑ ( ) Pn ( cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2sinθ ′dθ ′ r ≥ R
 b = R 2sinθ ′dθ ′dφ ′
1 11 ∞ R
V (r ) =
1
∫
π Pcosθ ′
2π R 2sinθ ′ ⋅ dθ ′
=
4πε 0 ∫ -1
∑ ( ) n Pn ( cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2 d cos θ ′
r n =0 r
4πε 0 0 r
1 1 PR 3 1 PR 3  orthogonality 
= ∫ θ ′ θ ′ =
2
1 1 ∞ R n cos d cos  only n =1 survive 
= ∑ ( ) Pn ( cos ϑ ) 2ε 0 3ε 0 r
2 2
r≥R -1 r  
r r n =0 r ϑ : angle between
1 π 1 ∞ r n
1 ∞ r
= ∑ ( ) n Pn (cos ϑ ) r≤R
r and r′ ⇒ cos ϑ = rˆ ⋅ rˆ ′ V (r , 0, 0) =
4πε 0 ∫0
∑ ( ) Pn (cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2sinθ ′dθ ′
R n =0 R
r≤R
R n =0 R 1 1 1 r

4πε 0 ∫-1 R R
= ( ) P1 (cos θ ′) Pcosθ ′2π R 2 d cos θ ′
It will be easier if we let r lie on the z axis, so that the angle
between them changes from ϑ to θ ′ P  orthogonality 
= r  only n =1 survive 
1 1 ∞ R n 3ε 0  
= ∑ ( ) Pn ( cos θ ′) r≥R  1 PR 3
r r n =0 r  cosθ (r > R )
 3ε 0 r 2
1 ∞ r Allow r a θ-dependence. V (r , 0, 0) = 
= ∑ ( ) n Pn (cos θ ′) r≤R  P rcosθ (r < R)
R n =0 R 19
 3ε 0
20
 Electric field of a Uniformly Polarized Sphere 4.2.2 Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
3
P R What is the physical meaning of the bound charge?
V(r) = cos θ (outside)
3ε0 r 2 Consider a long string of dipoles.
4
( πP ⋅ R 3 )
1 3
V (r ) = cosθ
4πε0 r2
The net charge at the ends is called the bound charge. The
1 p ⋅ rˆ 4
= 2
where p = πR 3 P bound charge is no different from any other kind.
4πε0 r 3
Consider a “tube” of dielectric with a given polarization P.
q q
p p σb = =P σb = = P cos θ = P ⋅ nˆ
V(r) = r cos θ = z (inside) Why are the field A Aend
3ε0 3ε0
lines not continuous?
P
E = -∇V = - zˆ uniformly
3ε0
21 22

Nonuniform Polarization Another Way of Analyzing

Æ The Bound Volume Charge the Uniformly Polarized Sphere
If the polarization is nonuniform, we get accumulations of Example 4.3 Two spheres of charge: a positive
bound charge within the material as well as on the surface. sphere and a negative sphere. Without
polarization the two are superimposed and
The net bound charge in a given volume is equal and
cancel completely.
opposite to the amount that has been pushed out through
the surface. But when the material is uniformly polarized, all the plus
charges move slightly upward and all the minus charges
∫ ρ dτ = - ∫ P ⋅ da = ∫ (-∇ ⋅ P) dτ
v
b
S v
move slightly downward.
gauss’s laws The two spheres no longer overlap perfectly: at the top
there’s a “cap” of leftover positive charge and at the
This is true for any volume bottom a cap of negative charge.
bound charge.
This “leftover” charge is precisely the bound surface charge
ρb = −∇ ⋅ P σb.
23 24
 4.2.3 The Field Inside a Dielectric 4.2.3 The Field Inside a dielectric
What kind of dipole are we actually dealing with, “pure” The electric field inside matter must be very complicated,
dipole or “physical” dipole? on the microscopic level, which would be utterly
impossible to calculate, nor would it be of much interest.
Outside the dielectric there is no real problem, since we
are far away from the molecules.
Inside the dielectric, however, we can hardly pretend to be The macroscopic field is defined as the average field over
far from all the dipoles. regions large enough to contain many thousand of atoms.

The macroscopic field smoothes over the uninteresting

microscopic fluctuation and is what people mean when
they speak of “the” field inside matter.

25 26

The Macroscopic Field

The macroscopic field at r, consists the average field over Homework #7
the sphere due to all charge outside, plus the average due
to all charge inside.
E = E out + Ein Problems: 2, 9, 10, 16, 31
1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
Vout =
4πε0 ∫
outside r2
dτ ′

1 p 1 43 πR 3 P 1
Ein = − = − =− P
4πε0 R 3 4πε0 R 3 3ε0

1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
V (r ) =
4πε0 ∫
R →0 r2
dτ ′

where the integral runs over the entire volume of the

dielectric. 27 28
 4.3 The Electric Displacement Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectric
4.3.1 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectric
∇ ⋅ D = ρ f ⇒ ∫ D ⋅ da = Q f enc
The total free charge
The effect of polarization is to produce accumulation of bound enclosed in the volume
charge, ρb = −∇ ⋅ P within the dielectric and σ b = P ⋅ n̂ on the
surface.
In a typical problem , we know ρf , but not ρb. So this
Now we are going to treat the field caused by both bound equation allows us to deal with the information at hand.
charge and free charge. ρ = ρ + ρ
f b

= ρ f − ∇ ⋅ P = ε 0∇ ⋅ E
What is the contribution of the bound surface charge?
where E is now the total field, not just that portion generated
by polarization . ε 0∇ ⋅ E + ∇ ⋅ P = ρ f The bound surface charge σb can be considered as ρb
varies rapidly but smoothly within the “skin”.
∇ ⋅ (ε 0 E + P) = ρ f
Let D = ε 0 E + P the electric displacement So Gauss’s law can be applied elsewhere .
Gauss’s law reads ∇⋅D = ρ f
29 30

Example 4.4 A long straight wire, carrying 4.3.2 A Deceptive Parallel

uniform line charge λ, is surrounded by “To solve problems involving dielectrics, you just forget
rubber insulation out to a radius a. Find all about the bound charge ─ calculate the field as you
the electric displacement . ordinarily would, only call the answer D instead of E”
⇑ This conclusion is false.
Sol : Drawing a cylindrical Gaussian surface, of radius s and
length L, and applying the new Gauss’s law , we find For the divergence along is insufficient to determine a
vector field; you need to know the curl as well.
λ λ ∇×D=ε0(∇×E) +∇×P = ∇×P ←not always zero
Inside D ( 2π sL ) = λ L ⇒ D= sˆ ∴ E = sˆ
2π s 2π sε r ε 0 Since the curl of D is not always zero, D cannot be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar.
λ λ
Outside D(2πsL ) = λL ⇒ D = sˆ ∴ E = sˆ Advice : If the problem exhibits spherical, cylindrical, or
2πs 2πsε 0 plane symmetry, then you can get D directly from the
generalized Gauss’s law.
31 32
 4.4 Linear Dielectric
4.3.3 Boundary Conditions
4.4.1 Susceptibility and Permittivity
The electrostatic boundary condition in terms of E
⊥ ⊥ σ ρ For many substances, the polarization is proportional to
E above − E below = ∇⋅E = the field, provided E is not too strong.
ε0 ε0
//
Eabove − Ebelow
//
=0 ∇×E = 0
P = ε0χeE χe :the electric susceptibility of the medium
The electrostatic boundary condition in terms of D
∇⋅D = ρf dimensionless
⊥
Dabovt ⊥
− Dbelow =σ f
materials that obey above equation is called linear dielectrics .
D //
above −D
//
below =P //
above −P//
below
∇×D = ∇×P
The total field E may be due in part to free charges and in
part to the polarization itself .
33 34

Permittivity and Dielectric Constant Linear Media & Dielectric Constant

In linear media ,
D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 E + ε 0 χ e E = ε 0 (1 + χ e )E = εE
We cannot compute P directly from this equation:

the external field ε

will polarize the where, ε = ε 0 (1 + χ ) εr = = 1 + χe
material this polarization will ↑ ε0
produce its own field and Permittivity of the material Relative permittivity
contributes to the total field. or dielectric constant
E 0 → P0
The new total
P0 → E 0 + ∆ E ′P field will polarize
the material.

E 0 + ∆ E ′P → P0 + ∆ P0′

Will this series converge? Depends.

35 36
Example 4.5 A metal shpere of radius a carries a charge Q. Cont’: Bound Charges in the Dielectric
It is surrounded, out to radius b , by linear dielectric material
of permittivity ε. Find the potential at the center (relative to
volume bound charge ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P = 0
infinity). surface bound charge  ε 0 χ eQ
Sol: Use the generalized Gauss’s law  at the outer surface
σ b = P ⋅ nˆ =  4πεb
2
Q
D= rˆ for all points r > a −ε χ Q
4πr 2  0 e2 at the inner surface
 Q ˆ  4πεa
 4πε r 2 r for a < r < b
E= Note that n̂ always points outward with respect to the dielectric ,
 Q 2 rˆ for r > b which is + r̂ at b but − r̂ at a .
 4πε 0 r
The surface bound charge at inner surface is negative. It is
The metal sphere is equalpotential this layer of negative charge that reduces the field, within
Q 1 1 1 
the dielectric by a factor of ε r .
a b Q a Q
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ dr − ∫ dr =  + − 
∞ ∞ 4πε 0 r 2 b 4πε 0ε r r 2
4πε 0  b ε r a ε r b 
ε 0 χ eQ Q  χe  In this respect a dielectric is rather like an imperfect conductor.
P = ε 0 χ eE = rˆ =  rˆ
4πεr 2
4πr 2  1 + χ e  37 38

Stokes’ Theorem for the Polarization Shielding Effect & Susceptibility Tensor
In general, linear dielectrics
cannot escape the defect that
∇×P ≠ 0 The polarization of the medium partially
“shields” the charge, by surrounding it
with bound charge of the opposite sign.
However, if the space is entirely filled with a homogenous
linear dielectric, then this objection is void. For some material, it is generally easier to polarize in some
∇⋅D = ρf 1 1
directions than in others .
E= D= E vac
∇×D = 0 ε εr P = ε 0 χ eE linear dielectric

Remark : When all the space is filled with a homogenous

linear dielectric, the field everywhere is simply reduced by general case
a factor of one over the dielectric constant . the susceptibility tensor

39 40
Prob. 4.18 The space between the planes of a parallel-plate
capacitor is filled with two slabs of linear dielectric material. Each 4.4.2 Boundary Value Problems with Linear Dielectrics
slab has thickness a, so the total distance between the plates is 2a.
Slab 1 has a dielectric constant of 2, and slab 2 has a dielectric Relation between bound charge and free charge
constant of 1.5 the free charge density on the top plate is σ and on  D χ
ρb = −∇ ⋅ P = −∇ ⋅  ε 0 χ e  = − e ρ f ← in a homogenous
the bottom plate -σ.
 ε 1+ χe
(a) Find the electric displacement D in each slab. linear dielectric
(b) Find the electric field E in each slab. shielding effect
(c) Find the polarization P in each slab.
(d) Find the potential difference between the plates. The boundary conditions that makes reference only to the
(e) Find the location and amount of all bound charge. free charge .
(f) Now that you know all the charge (free and bound), recalculate
the field in each slab, and confirm your answer to (d).
⊥
Dabovt ⊥
− Dbelow = σ f ⇒ ε above Eabove
⊥
− ε below Ebelow
⊥
=σ f

(ε above∇Vabove − ε below ∇Vbelow ) = −σ f nˆ

∂Vabove ∂V ∂Vabove
or (ε above − ε below below ) = −σ f where = ∇V ⋅ nˆ .
∂n ∂n ∂n
41 42

∞
Homogeneous Linear Dielectric Sphere V (r , θ ) = ∑ ( AA r A + BA r −( A +1) ) PA (cosθ )
A =0
Example 4.7 A sphere of homogeneous linear dielectric
 ∞
material is placed in a uniform electric field E. Find the
resulant electric field.
 Vin ( r , θ ) = ∑
A =0
AA r A PA (cosθ ) r≤R
 ∞
Sol: Look at Ex. 3.8 an uncharged conducting sphere. In Vout (r ,θ ) = − E0 r cos θ + ∑ BA r −( A +1) PA (cosθ ) r ≥ R
 A =0
that case the field of the induced charge completely
canceled E within the sphere; However, in a dielectric the B.C. (iii)
cancellation is only partial.
B.C. (i) : AA R A PA = − E0 R cos θ + BA R − ( A +1) PA
The boundary conditions  A R = − E0 R + B1 R − 2 A = 1
⇒ 1
 AA R = BA R
A − ( A +1)
A ≠1
no free charge B.C. (ii) : ε r AAA R PA = − E0 cos θ − (A + 1) BA R −( A + 2) PA
A −1

at the surface
 ε r A1 = − E0 − 2 B1 R −3 A =1
⇒
ε r AAA R = −(A + 1) BA R A ≠1
A −1 −( A + 2)
43 44
 Partial Image Charge
 A1 R = − E0 R + B1 R −2 A = 1  ε r A1 = − E0 − 2 B1 R −3 A =1
Example 4.8 Suppose the entire region below the plane z=0 is
 
A ≠1 ε r AAA R = −(A + 1) BA R A ≠1
− ( A +1) A −1 −( A + 2 )
 AA R = BA R
A
filled with uniform linear dielectric material of susceptibility χ e .
Calculate the force on a point charge q situated at distant d
ε −1 3 above the origin.
 3E0
 A1 = − ; B1 = r R A =1 Sol: The surface bound charge on the xy plane is of opposite
⇒ εr + 2 εr + 2
 AA = BA = 0 sign to q , so the force will be attractive. 
A ≠1 1  q qb
z>0 V= + 
4πε 0  x2 + y2 + ( z − d ) 2 2 2 2 
x + y +(z +d) 

 3E0 1  ( q + qb ) 
 Vin (r , θ ) = − r cos θ z<o V=  2  ← why ?
4πε 0  x + y 2 + ( z − d ) 
2
εr + 2
 ε − 1 3 −2  ∂V ∂V  1  χe  qd
Vout (r , θ ) = − E0 r cos θ + ( r ) R E0 r cos θ B.C. −ε0  −  =−   = σb
 εr + 2  ∂z z=0+ ∂z z=0−  2π  χe + 2  ( x2 + y2 + d2 ) 2
3

3E0 ∞ 1  χe  qd 1 ∞ χe qd  χ 
Ein = −∇Vin = − zˆ ← uniform qb = 2π ∫ −   rdr = − ∫ dr2 = − e  q
εr + 2 r =0 2π  χe + 2  r2 + d 2 2
( )
3
2 χe + 2 r2 + d 2 2
0
( )
3
 χe + 246
45

4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric systems Which Formula is Correct?

1
2∫
How to express the energy for a dielectric filled capacitor? W= (ε 0 E ⋅ E)dτ derived in Chap. 2
Suppose we bring in the free charge, a bit at a time. As ρ f is speak to somewhat
increased by an amount ∆ρ f , the polarization will charge and 1 different question
W = ∫ (E ⋅ D)dτ derived in Chap. 4
with it the bound charge distribution. 2
The work done on the incremental free charge is :
What do we mean by “the energy of a system“?
∆W = ∫ (∆ρ f )Vdτ
It is the work required to assemble the system.
∇ ⋅ D = ρ f ⇒ ∆ρ f = ∇ ⋅ (∆D) the resulting change in D
0 (1) Bring in all the charges (free and bound ), one by one,
∆W = ∫ (∇ ⋅ ∆D)Vdτ = ∫ (∇ ⋅ ∆DV − ∇V ⋅ ∆D)dτ with tweezers, and glue each one down in its proper final
surface integral vanish if we position (Chap. 2).
integral will over all of pace. (2) Bring in the free charges, with the unpolarized dielectric in
1 1 place, one by one, allowing the dielectric to respond as it see
∆W = ∫ E ⋅ ∆Ddτ = ∫ 2∫
∆(εE 2 )dτ ∴W = (E ⋅ D)dτ fit (Chap. 4).
2 47 48
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectric The Fringing Field Effect
In reality a fringing field around the edges
The dielectric is attracted into an electric field, just like is responsible for the whole effect.
conductor: the bound charge tends to accumulate near the It is this nonuniform fringing field that pulls
free charge of the opposite sign. the dielectric into the capacitor.
How to calculate the forces on dielectrics? Fringing field are difficult to calculate, so we
Consider the case of a slab of linear adapt the following ingenious method.
1 Q2
The energy stored in the capacitor is: W = CV =
2
dielectric material, partially inserted
between the plates of a parallel-plate 2 2C
dW
capacitor. The electric force on the slab is: F = −
dx
ε 0ω x ε 0ε r ω (A − x ) ε 0ω
If the field is perpendicular to the C = C1 + C 2 = + = (ε r A − χ e x )
d d d
plates, no force would exert on the Fixed charge
dielectric. Is that true? dW 1 Q 2 dC 1 dC ε χ ω
F =− = = V 2
=− 0 e V 2

49
dx 2 C 2 dx 2 dx 2d 50

ε 0 χ eω
F =− V 2 < 0 indicates that the force is in the negative
2d Homework #8
x direction; the dielectric is pulled into the capacitor.

1 dC
Fixed voltage F = + V 2 pushed out. why? Problems: 21, 27, 28, 33, 36.
2 dx

To maintain a constant voltage, the battery must do work.

why? work done by the battery
dW = Fme dx + VdQ
Fme : the force I must exert. (Fme = − F )

dW dQ 1 dC dC 1 2 dC
F =− +V =− V2 +V 2 = V
dx dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
51 52