Introduction to

Limit State Design Concept

 Design Methods

Allowable Stress Design

Allowable Stress Design (ASD) is also referred to as the service load design or working
stress design (WSD) or Elastic Design Method (ASM). The basic conception (or design
philosophy) of this method is that the maximum stress in a structural member is always
smaller than a certain allowable stress .

The designer ensures that the stresses developed in a structure due to service loads do not
exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually determined by ensuring that stresses remain
within the limits through the use of factors of safety
Limit state design (LSD), ( LRFD )

Limit state design (LSD), also known as Load and Resistance Design (LRFD), refers to
a structural engineering design method.

A degree of loading or other actions imposed on a structure can result in a ‘limit state’, where
the structure’s condition no longer fulfils its design criteria, such as; fitness for
use, structural integrity, durability, and so on. Limit states are conditions of potential failure.

All actions likely to occur during a structure’s design life are considered during the LSD
method, to ensure that the structure remains fit for use with appropriate levels of reliability.

LSD involves estimating the subjected loads on a structure, choosing the sizes of members to
check, and selecting the appropriate design criteria. LSD requires two principal criteria to be
satisfied: the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS).
Rn/ W= ASD Capacity fRn = LRFD Capacity Rn = Nominal Capacity
BASIS FOR DESIGN

• The structure shall be designed to withstand safely all loads likely to act on it
throughout its life.
• It shall also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as limitations of deflection
and vibration.
• It shall not suffer total collapse under accidental loads such as from explosions or
impact or due to consequences of human error to an extent beyond the local
damages.

• The objective of design is to achieve a structure that will remain fit for use during its life
with an acceptable target reliability.
Limit State Method

A design philosophy is a set of assumptions and procedures which are used to meet the conditions of
serviceability, safety, economy and functionality of the structure. Design philosophies adopted in this class
This philosophy is an advancement over the traditional design philosophies. It considers the safety at the
ultimate load and serviceability at the working load.

Limit state is the state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform its intended
function satisfactorily, in terms of either safety or serviceability.” There are 2 types of limit states

1. Ultimate Limit States: are those catastrophic states, which require a larger reliability in order to
reduce the probability of its occurrence to a very low level. It considers strength, overturning,
fatigue, sliding etc.

2. Serviceability Limit State: refers to the limits on acceptable performance of the structure during
service. It considers crack width, deflection, vibration etc.
The design of a structure must satisfy three basic
requirements:

1) Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the

structure, or parts of it, under the action of loads,

2) Strength to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in

the various structural members; and

3) Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service

load conditions – which implies providing adequate stiffness and
reinforcements to contain deflections, crack-widths and vibrations
within acceptable limits, and also providing impermeability and
durability (including corrosion-resistance), etc.
Project Design Procedure
OEDWP: CSA

CSA Steelwork Costs

• Design & materials
25%
• Fabrication and erection Others
15% Material
60% 25%

Erection
25%

Fabrication
35%
Interfaces - Structural
Seismic Parameters

Equipment data Site plan

Mechanical Civil
Dimensions, loads, bolts

Structure,
FP
Buildings
foundations Structural
Plant Design Engineering Architectural

Equipment, Structure
piping,
supports

Electrical Equipment Soil data

-------------------- Geotechnical
- Control cable trays
Systems
 This viewgraph summarizes the Structural interfaces with other disciplines and gives an overview of the
coordination effort involved in performing the structural functions on project.
Plant design: general arrangement drawings define the layout of the facility and spatial requirements, routing
of above ground piping, loads, support requirements; define penetration requirements.
All disciplines check for interferences with plant elements and structural framing
Mechanical: provides layout of mechanical equipment, loads, and support requirements

Electrical: routing of cable trays and conduit, location, loading, support requirements
Control Systems: location, loading, and support requirements for panels

Civil: site plan, location of underground utilities

Architectural: architectural layout

Geotechnical: soils information ( i.e., maximum soil bearing pressure, active and passive soil pressure) for foundation design

Once again, the multidisciplinary effort and ongoing changes that occur during the development of a project
emphasize the need for coordination of information at all stages of design. Review of drawings, interference checks,
verification of final layout, loading, etc. must be performed to minimize problems during construction.
Introduction To Code of Design

• This class briefly explains the theoretical background for the design check of steel
members in accordance with BS 5950-1:2000

• Steel members are checked under ultimate and serviceability limit state .

• Under ultimate limit state (ULS) load combinations, each section is checked for the limit
state of strength and each potential buckling segment is checked for the stability limit
state.

• serviceability limit state (SLS) load combinations, each span is checked for deflection,
vibration and cracks.
 BS 5950 is part of a group of codes dealing with the design of structural steelwork:

• Part 1: Code of practice for design of rolled and welded sections

• Part 2: Specification for materials; fabrication and erection, rolled and welded sections
• Part 3 Design in composite construction
• Part 4 Code of practice for the design of composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting
• Part 5 Code of practice for the design of cold-formed thin guage sections
• Part 6 Code of practice for design of light gauge profiled steel sheeting
• Part 7 Specification for materials fabrication and erection of cold-formed
sections and sheeting.
• Part 8 Code of practice for fire resistant design
• Part 9 Code of practice for stressed skin design
 Scope of BS 5950-1

• It is intended primarily for building structures and other structures not

specifically covered by other standards.
• Design of structural steelwork using hot rolled sections, flats plates, hot finished
and cold rolled structural hollow sections
 Design methods
Within the overall concept of Limit state design three basic design (or analysis)
methods ( These are given in 2.1.2 of the code)

• Simple design: using elastic methods of analysis, in which the joints are generally assumed not
to transmit moments.

• Continuous design: using elastic or plastic methods of analysis in which the joints are designed
to transmit moments.

• Semi-continuous design:using both elastic or plastic methods of anaysis using joints which do
not have sufficient strength and stiffness for full continuity.
 Properties of Steel
The strength of steel used in design (py) is based on the the minimum guaranteed yield strength
of steel as quoted in a variety of British Standards quoted in Tables 4 and 5 of the code.
Design is usually carried out using the yield strength of the steel as shown in Table
9 of the code and Table 1of these notes:
Application of load factors
When the structure reaches a limit state of strength or stability it is on the point of being
unsafe or about to collapse. It is necessary to verify that there is an adequate factor of
safety against this limiting condition.
For steel design the load factors γ f given in BS 5950-1 Table 2 .
In buildings not subject to loads from travelling cranes, the following load combinations should
be checked:

• Load combination 1: Dead load and imposed load (gravity loads) plus notional horizontal
forces (see Section 1.6.3) •

Load combination 2: Dead load and wind load • Load combination 3: Dead load, imposed load
and wind load.

For buildings that are subject to loads from travelling cranes, the load combinations are given
in BS 5950-1.
Loads and Load combinations
Effect of forces
Summary of load factors
The following load combinations should be
checked:

Gravity
Load combination 1: 1.4 Dead load + 1.6 Imposed load

Load combination 2 1.2 Dead Load + 1.2 Imposed Load +

1.2 Wind load

Load combination 3 1.4 Dead load + 1.4 Wind load

Uplift
Load combination 1: 1.0 Dead Load + 1.4Wind load

Load combination 2: 1.0 Dead Load + 1.2 Imposed Load +

1.2 Wind load
Example 1 Consider the simple case of a beam spanning between two supports as show
in Figure 5: Using load combination 1.(Dead load + Imposed Load)

Load on Simply supported beam

The maximum reaction will be = (25 x 1.6 + 20 x 1.4) x 5 /2= 170kN
Example 2
Consider uplift on the roof of a single storey building as shown in Figure 6. In this common
situation load combination (Dead load + wind load) will be used. A factor of 1.0 will be
used on the dead load and a factor of 1.4 used on the wind uplift to find the net uplift on
the roof for design purposes. This will often result in a reversal of force in the members.
Example 3
A gantry structure, subjected to wind loads as shown
Loading data
Platform dead load (including self weight) = 3.0 kN
Platform imposed load (people) = 3.5 kN
Self weight of each gantry column = 2.0 kN
Wind load (with people) = 5.0 kN
Wind load (without people) = 4.0 kN

A number of load combinations should be considered:

Gravity
Load combination 1a : 1.4Dead load + 1.6 Imposed load
Load combination 2a : 1.4 Dead Load + 1.4 Wind load [without people]
Load combination 3a: 1.2Dead Load + 1.2Imposed Load + 1.2 Wind load

Uplift
Load combination 1b: 1.0 Dead Load + 1.4Wind load [with people]

Load combination 3b:

1.0Dead Load + 1.2 Imposed Load + 1.2Wind load [with people]
Load combination 1a: Dead load + Imposed load

Ultimate load = 1.4 Dead load + 1.6 Imposed load

= 1.4 (3 + 2 + 2) + 1.6 (3.5) = 15.4 kN

Thus the reaction at A, RA = 15.4 / 2 = 7.7 kN

and the reaction at B, RB = 15.4 / 2 = 7.7 kN
Load combination 2a: Dead Load + Wind load [without people]
Ultimate load = 1.4 Dead load + 1.4 Wind load
Dead load not restraining uplift, γ DL = 1.4
Take moments about A:

(1.4 × 2 × 4) + (1.4 × 3 × 2) + … … (1.4× 4 × 7) – (RB × 4) = 0

Thus RB = 14.7 kN
Load combination 3a: Dead Load + Imposed Load + Wind load
Ultimate load = 1.2 Dead Load + 1.2 Imposed Load + 1.2 Wind load
Take moments about A:
(1.2 × 2 × 4) + (1.2 × 3 × 2) +(1.2 × 3.5 × 2) + … … (1.2 × 5 × 7) – (RB × 4) = 0
Thus RB = 16.8 kN
Load combination 1b: 1.0 Dead Load + 1.4Wind load [without people] Ultimate load
Dead load restraining uplift, γ DL factor = 1.0 WL factor =1.4
Take moments about B:
(RA × 4) − (1.0 × 2 × 4) – (1.0 × 3 × 2) + (1.4 × 4 × 7) = 0
Thus RA = − 6.3 kN (uplift)
Load combination 2 b: Dead Load + Imposed Load + Wind load [with people]

Ultimate load = 1.0 Dead Load + 1.2 Imposed Load + 1.2 Wind load
Dead load restraining uplift, γ DL = 1.0

Take moments about B:

(RA × 4) − (1.0 × 2 × 4) – (1.0 × 3 × 2) −
(1.2 × 3.5 × 2) + (1.2 × 5 × 7) = 0
Thus RA = − 4.9 kN (uplift)

Take moments about A

(RA × 4) − (1.0 × 2 × 4) – (1.0 × 3 × 2) − (1.2 × 3.5 × 2) –
(1.2 × 5 × 7) = 0 T hus RB = 16.1 kN
The maximum reaction at B (and compression in the column above) equals 16.8 kN (load
combination 3a)
And the minimum reaction (and tension in the column above) at A = – 6. 3 kN (load combination
1b).