UNSW MINE3310 Rock Mechanics
UNSW MINE3310 Rock Mechanics
UNSW MINE3310 Rock Mechanics
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2 2 MR S B SHOUSHA 1 -2.45
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6 6 MR G & MRS U KASSAR 1 0.00
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42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW
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9 9 MR & MRS MAHMOUD 1 404.80
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11 11 MESSRS T, A & J & MRS K JAKUS 1 0.00
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28/08/2009 18:49 Mark Gitman MG Strata and BMC Management Pty Ltd Page 1
Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
1
TOPIC 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
ROCK MECHANICS
TOPICS
The intact rock material is the solid part of the rock mass between the
geological structures (rock defects or discontinuities). The ‘intact’ parts
gives rise to the alternate name of ‘intact rock’.
In rock mechanics, the term discontinuity refers to all joints, faults, and
planes of weakness that bound blocks of intact rock material. A term
that is used in some texts is ‘fractures’.
Intact
A. An underground drive;
B. An open pit bench;
C. A large underground stope 60m high by 20m by 20m; and
D. A pit slope 60m high containing 10 benches.
We have already learnt that size and shape are generally considered
collectively. We have also learnt that, strictly speaking, shape is defined
by geometry. We will therefore use this and consider geometry in three-
dimensional space; namely length, breadth, depth and orientation.
1.2.2 Structure
For the purposes of the module, we will use this term to refer to the
major and minor discontinuities (fractures, etc.) that make up the rock
mass.
Joint
systems or
bedding
dipping out of
face
Joint
systems or
bedding
dipping
into face
volume of rock mass), persistence (how far they extend without a break;
that is, their length), and their shear strength.
1.2.3 Strength
The behaviour of slopes and underground spans is largely controlled by
the strength of the rock mass, which in turn depends upon the
geometrical nature and strength of the geological discontinuities and
intact rock material.
In this instance we are referring to the overall rock mass strength rather
than that of any one particular structure. We must question whether the
rock mass can sustain the design we are trying to implement; for how
long and what support it needs for the life of the structure.
1.2.4 Stress
In simple terms, stress refers to the forces that are applied to the rock
mass. The magnitude of the stress is related to a number of complex
interactions, including the depth in the rock mass below ground surface
we are concerned with (similar to water pressure) and tectonic activity
and other aspects of the geological history that the rock mass has
experienced to date.
When we create a mine, the excavations disturb the in situ stress field,
and the new stress field that is created is termed the induced stress
field. An analogue to induced stress around an excavation is the flow of
river water around a bridge post. The stresses build up (concentrate on
the sides of the excavation) parallel to the direction of the maximum
stress direction.
Ore source
It may be a stope, with well-defined, free-standing rockwalls forming the
geometric limits for the mined void, which increases in size with the
progress of ore extraction. Alternatively, the ore source may be a rubble-
filled space with fairly well-defined lower and lateral limits, usually
coincident with the orebody boundaries. The rubble is generated by
inducing disintegration of the rock above the crown of the orebody,
which fills the mined space as extraction proceeds. The lifetime of these
different types of ore source openings is defined by the duration of
active ore extraction.
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
References
Whilst there is no designated text book for this Module, the following
texts have been used extensively to develop this Module material and
are strongly recommended both for the purposes of this course and for
your future professional career. Throughout each Topic, additional
references have been given, but for clarity and readability, references to
the following source documents have been omitted.
rd
Brady, B H G and Brown, E T (2004). Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining. 3
Edition, Springer, Netherlands.
Goodman, R E (1980). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons,
Toronto, Canada.
Hudson, J A and Harrison, J P (1997). Engineering Rock Mechanics, An
Introduction to the Principles, Pergamon, Elsevier Science, UK.
Hoek, E and Brown, E T (1997). Underground Excavations in Hard Rock,
Chapman and Hall, UK.
Hoek, E and Bray, J W (1997). Rock Slope Engineering, Chapman and Hall,
London.
Weijermars, R (1997). Principles of Rock Mechanics, Alboran Science Publishing,
Amsterdam.
The following texts are also considered useful for specific areas of the
course and may give you an alternative perspective to the course
material:
Bieniawski, Z T (1984). Rock Mechanics Design in Mining and Tunnelling.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Bieniawski, Z T (1989). Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley, New York.
Hoek, E, Kaiser, P K and Bawden, W F (1995). Support of Underground
Excavations in Hard Rock. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Kirkaldie, L (Ed) (1988). Rock Classification for Engineering Purposes. American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia.
Lowrie, R L (Ed) (2002). SME Mining Reference Handbook, Society for Mining,
Metallurgy, and Exploration, Littleton, Co., USA
Singh, B and Goel, R K (1999). Rock Mass Classification- A Practical Approach
in Civil Engineering. Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
Acknowledgements
The course is supported by industry through the Minerals Council of
Australia (MCA), in collaboration with Mining Education Australia (MEA).
MEA is a four-way joint venture between Curtin University of
Technology, The University of Adelaide, The University of New South
Wales and The University of Queensland.
The original (2007) Reader was produced through the MEA and the
following authors’ contributions are acknowledged;
Dr Habib Alehossein
Professor Bruce Hebblewhite
Dr Shivakumar Karekal
Professor Peter Lilly,
Dr Hamid Nikraz
Dr Glenn Sharrock
Mr Simon Thomas
Dr Alan Thompson
Professor Ernesto Villaescusa
Dr John Watson
Mr Chris Windsor
Revision 2010
The revised Reader (2010) draws heavily from the 2007 document and
contains additional contributions from;
Mechanics
2
TOPIC 2: ROCK MASS
CLASSIFICATION
METHODS
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From these definitions you will note that the classification process is
driven by two questions:
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behaviour spans the first two levels of the general rock engineering
process. Rock classification is part of the second step of the general
process and the result generated from a classification analysis can be
used in the third process, that of initial design (BUT ideally only as an
adjunct, not a complete design).
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
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Common to both the RMR and NGI Q-system is the Rock Quality
Designation (RQD) and this is introduced first.
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35
RQD is intended to represent the rock mass quality in situ. When using
diamond drill core, care must be taken to ensure that fractures, which
have been caused by handling or the drilling process, are identified and
ignored when determining the value of RQD. Hence, in the above
figure, the section of core (L=35cm) the drilling break is ignored in
determining RQD and L=35cm terminates at a fracture.
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5
RMR Ai B
i 1
In applying this classification system, the rock masses are divided into a
number of structural regions AND EACH REGION CLASSIFIED
SEPARATELY. The boundaries of the structural regions usually
coincide with major structural features. However, from the practical
point of view, the rating is also related to length of the blasting round or
the recently excavated tunnel section.
Where several joint sets are identified, it is the joint set that influences
tunnel stability the most that should be used in the assessment of RMR.
For example, in a tunnel, a joint set whose strike is parallel to the tunnel
axis would exert the greatest influence on stability. The summed ratings
of the classification parameters for THIS discontinuity set will constitute
the overall RMR.
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100 RMR
Proof B r
100
Where B refers to the tunnel width (m) and ρr the rock density
(kg/m3).
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Fb
FOS 2
Proof xSb
Where Fb refers to the bolt (tension) capacity (kN) and Sb the bolt
spacing (m).
(NOTE: In the support table, wire mesh is more commonly replaced with steel
fibre reinforced shotcrete these days).
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2.5 Q System
As you are reading this section, refer to Appendix B for copies of the Q-
System tables.
The numerical value of the index Q is defined by six parameters and the
following equation:
RQD J r J
Q x x w
Jn J a SRF
where:
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The updated values for SRF (for Australian competent rocks with rock
stress problems) are reproduced in Appendix B.
The first two quotients RQD/Jn and Jr/Ja are often used in a stope design
method in the mining industry, but their representation of „relative block
size‟ and „inter-block shear resistance‟ are not sufficient descriptions of
the degree of instability. In cases where this approach is used (i.e. the
term Jw/SRF is omitted), then the classification is referred to as Q’.
Excavation
Description ESR
category
A Temporary mine openings. 3-5
Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for
B hydro power (excluding high penstocks), pilot 1.6
tunnels, drifts headings for large excavations.
Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor
C road and railway tunnels, surge chambers, 1.3
access tunnels.
Power stations, major road and railway
D tunnels, civil defence chambers portal 1.0
intersections
Underground nuclear power stations railway
E 0.8
stations, sports and public facilities, factories
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0.15B
L 2
ESR
Fb
FOS 2
Proof xSb
Where Fb refers to the bolt (tension) capacity (kN) and Sb the bolt
spacing (m).
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To cover the cases for vertical walls the following adjustments were
recommended:
Where Qw is the Q value for the wall, and Q is the original Q value.
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One of the practical issues with using the chart is to know what is the
scale of the block size. The recommended approach is to assess the
structure on the scale of the excavation or slope under consideration.
Also, material properties will exhibit distributions about the “mean” value,
and that the distributions can have a significant impact on the design
values. Therefore, a range of values rather than a single discrete value
and answer should be considered.
GSI 9 ln Q' 44
Where;
RQD J r
Q x
Jn Ja
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SURFACE CONDITIONS
criterion should only be applied to
r oc k m as s es w her e t he s iz e of
individual blocks or pieces is small
coatings or fillings
c o m pa r e d w i t h t h e s i z e o f t h e
VERY GOOD
VERY POOR
e x c a v a t i o n u n de r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
When the individual block size is
more than about one quar ter of
GOOD
POOR
the excavation size, the failure will be
FAIR
structurally controlled and the Hoek-Brown
criterion should not be used.
STRUCTURE DECREASING SURFACE QUALITY
FOLIATED/LAMINATED - folded 10
and tectonically sheared. Lack
of blockiness due to schistosity N/A N/A
prevailing over other discontinuities
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Bieniawski
Emass 2RMR 100
Barton
Emass 25log10 Q for Q>1 and generally hard rocks
Barton
1
Q c 3
E mass 10 where c = UCS of intact rock material (MPa)
100
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15 log10 Q 40
E mass 10 40
from RMR 15log10 Q 50
2.8.1 Advantages
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2.8.2 Disadvantages
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References
Barton, N. (2002). Some new Q-value correlations to assist in site characterization
and tunnel design. Int. Jnl Rock Mech Min Sc, 39, pp185-216
Barton, N., Lien, R., Lunde, J., (1974). Engineering classification of rock masses
for the design of rock support. Rock Mech. 6, pp189-236.
Barton, N and Grimstad, E (1994). The Q-System following twenty years of
application in NMT support selection, in Felsbau 12(6):428-436.
Bieniawski, Z.T. (1988). The rock Mass Rating (RMR system (Geomechanics
classification in Engineering Practice), in Rock Classification for Engineering
Purposes, Kirkaldie L (Ed) American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), Philadelphia, pp 17-34
Hoek, E. Rock Engineering. Course Notes. www.rocscience.com
Palmstrom, A, Milne, D & Peck, W. (2000). The reliability of rock mass
classification used in underground excavation and support design. GeoEng
Workshop www.ausmin.com.au
Peck, W. (2000). Determining the Stress Reduction Factor in Highly Stressed
Jointed Rock. Australian Geomechanics, 35/2 pp57-60
www.ausmin.com.au
Stille H. & Palmstrom A. (2002). Classification as a tool for rock engineering,
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 18, pp331-345
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Appendix A –RMR System tables
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B Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro power (excluding high pressure 1.6 to 2.0
penstocks), pilot tunnels, drifts and headings for large excavations.
C Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway tunnels, surge chambers, 1.2 to 1.3
access tunnels.
D Power stations, major road and railway tunnels, civil defence chambers, portal intersections. 0.9 to 1.1
E Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, sports and public facilities, factories. 0.5 to 0.8
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Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
3
TOPIC 3: ROCK MASS
BEHAVIOUR – INTACT
ROCK STRENGTH
3.1 Introduction
A failure criterion for a rock is a mathematical expression that defines
the stress state at which the rock will fail, and is usually expressed in
terms of the stress tensor and the material properties of the rock. The
term „failure‟ implies that the rock has completely disintegrated. It is,
however, possible for the rock to become unserviceable, in an
engineering sense, if substantial plastic strains have developed. In this
context the term „yield criterion‟ is often adopted.
Which of the possible yield criterion options will apply in a given case will
depend on the size of the excavation relative to the discontinuity
spacing, the imposed stress level, and the orientations and strengths of
the discontinuities, as shown below.
In this topic, we will focus on two fundamental failure criteria for intact
rock, the Coulomb criterion and the Hoek-Brown criterion. Failure
criteria for discontinuities and the rock mass as a whole will be
discussed in Topics 4 and 5.
1. Explain the basis for the Coulomb and Hoek & Brown failure
criteria in predicting intact rock failure.
2. Calculate the strength of an intact rock mass following
Coulomb or Hoek-Brown failure criteria.
3. Analyse basic laboratory rock testing results to determine the
strength of an intact rock sample following Coulomb or Hoek-
Brown failure criteria.
4. Determine the equivalent Coulomb instantaneous shear
strength parameters Hoek-Brown criterion at specific effective
normal stress values.
The theory has already been developed in earlier Units and in Soil
Mechanics Topic 7. The following section has been imported, with
minor modifications, from Sections 1, 4 & 6 of the Deformable Materials
Module (Priest, 2010) in order to provide relevant theoretical
background, and are reproduced here with permission.
N
A
' u
1
Section 3.2 has already been covered in the „Deformable Materials‟ Module and are presented here
if you require them for revision and continuity between Modules.
The term „effective normal stress‟ is adopted because the stress carried
by water pressure plays no part in mobilising frictional shear strength on
the surface; it is only the effective stress developed by grain to grain
contacts that serves to mobilise frictional shear strength. Although the
effective stress principle is absolutely crucial in saturated and partially
saturated soils, which have an interconnected pore matrix, the principles
of effective stress are not applicable to all rock masses. Crystalline rock
materials are effectively impermeable and do not have an
interconnected pore matrix that allows water pressure to exert its effect.
Moreover, the presence of a fracture network, which is usually
responsible for transporting water through the rock mass, will apply a
further level of complexity to the problem. Throughout this document,
although the dash convention has been omitted for brevity, the stress
and strength parameters can be taken as effective stress parameters.
S
A
The normal and shear forces within rock masses vary from place to
place, so the assumption of a uniformly distributed force will only be
valid if the area A of the surface under consideration is very small.
Under these conditions the stress is referred to as infinitesimal stress
and can be considered to be uniform across the area under
consideration.
X horizontal north
Vx
Vy
a
b Y horizontal east
g
V
Vz
Z vertical down
The best way to remember it, is that the fingers of the right hand point
from the Vx axis to the Vy axis, and if the thumb of the right hand then
points in the positive direction of the Vz axis, then the system is right-
handed. If the Vz axis points in the opposite direction, then the system is
left-handed.
X
zz
zx
zy
Y
yz
yy
xy
yx
xz
xx
The three faces of the cube that each have a corner touching the origin
of the coordinate system are here referred to as „origin faces‟; the other
three faces are referred to as „obverse faces‟. Each face can be
identified by the coordinate axis that runs normal to it. So in the Figure
above, we can see the origin-x, origin-z and obverse-y faces.
On each face of the stress cube there are force components acting in
the X, Y and Z directions. Dividing these force components by the area
of the face produces three stress components on each face of the cube,
The stress components xx, yy and zz act along the normals to their
respective faces and are referred to as normal stresses. For brevity
the second subscript is sometimes omitted, so the normal stresses
become x, y and z.
The other stress components, such as xy yz etc. act parallel to their
respective faces and are referred to as shear stresses. To emphasise
the shearing nature of these stresses the Greek symbol „sigma‟ is often
replaced by the Greek symbol „tau‟ to give components xy yz etc.
Case (a) applies to the three origin faces of the stress cube; case (b)
applies to the three obverse faces of the stress cube.
xx,origin = xx,obverse
yy,origin = yy,obverse
zz,origin = zz,obverse
Each of the three groups of two normal stresses above can be regarded
as a single normal stress. The origin and obverse components are of
equal magnitude but act in opposite directions.
Also;
Each of the three groups of four shear stresses above can be regarded
as a single shear stress. The origin and obverse components are of
equal magnitude but act in opposite directions to ensure static
equilibrium against rotation of the stress cube.
These equalities mean that there are only six independent stress
components, which define the stress matrix, as follows
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zy zz
zx
If a shear stress xy is computed to have a value of, say, 2.73 MPa then
the actual directions of action of the four components (xy,origin = yx,origin =
xy,obverse = yx,obverse) are the same as the positive shear stress
directions drawn on the stress cube. If a shear stress xy is computed to
have a value of, say, 3.85 MPa then the actual directions of action of
the four components are in the opposite direction to the positive shear
stress directions drawn on the stress cube. This property of shear
stresses is one of the more confusing, and least understood, aspects of
stress analysis.
f n tan c
In terms of intact rock, the Coulomb theory postulates that a material will
fail when the shear stress on the failure surface (inclined at angle β) has
reached the shear strength of the material, which is dependent on the
normal stress acting on the surface. In tension, however, the material
will fail when the tensile or principal stress has reached a limiting value.
Thus failure of the rock may either occur by shear or tensile failure.
b
1 3 1 3
n cos2b
2 2
and
1 3
sin2b
2
At the point of failure the shear strength is balanced by the shear stress,
ie f = . Substituting for n and f gives;
2c 3 tan
1 3
tan
sin 2b 1
tan b
tan
1min sin 2b 1
tan b
bcritical 45
2
2c cos 3 1 sin
1
1 sin
Thus;
2c cos
c
1 sin
1 sin
tan tan 2 45
1 sin 2
2c cos
t
1 sin
1 2c tan 3 tan
c
tan
n
Compressive forces are positive so the Mohr circle for the UCS plots to
the right of the shear axis (beginning at the origin) and the UTS plots to
the left (also beginning) a the origin. The failure locus is defined from
the tangent to the two circles. In practice, extrapolating the line to the
left of the axis is fraught with difficulty. When it is satisfactorily
measured, it takes values that are generally lower than those predicted.
to join each of the stress pair intercepts on the normal stress axis by
assuming that the centre of each circle exists at a position = ½(σl + σ3)
and that each circle has a radius equivalent to ½(σl - σ3). The failure
locus is generated by drawing the best fit line tangent to all of the stress
circles which are plotted, as shown:
c
tan
n
The locus of rock failure follows a path which can be defined in terms of
biaxial principal failure stresses and the rock unconfined compressive
strength (i.e.- compression failure model). The generalized form of the
Hoek and Brown criterion is;
a
1 3 ci mb 3 s
ci
Where
For intact rock, values of mi (the Hoek-Brown constant m for intact rock
material), depends on the rock type and mineralogy. Typical values are
shown below after Marinos and Hoek (2000).
The range of minor principal stress values over which these tests are
carried out is critical in determining reliable values for the two constants.
A range of 0 < σ3 < 0.5σci should be used in any laboratory triaxial tests
on intact rock specimens. At least five well spaced data points should
be included in the analysis.
Characteristic rock stress versus strength curves for the Hoek and
Brown failure condition are developed using a plot of major principal
stress components along the vertical axis and minor principal stress
components along the horizontal axis, as illustrated below (after Hoek
and Brown 1980).
Once five or more triaxial test results have been obtained, they can be
analysed to determine the uniaxial compressive strength σci and the
Hoek-Brown constant mi. Ideally the values of the constants should be
determined by statistical analysis with a coefficient of determination (r2)
in excess of 90%:
y m ci x s ci
where
y 1 3 and x 3
2
1HB r ci c rmi 1
1MC ci r ci tan
r 1 rmi 1
2arctan
r 4
c 1 sini
c
2 cosi
The above method for calculating the equivalent angle of friction and
cohesion for a Hoek-Brown material preserves the „correct‟ value for the
Coulomb uniaxial compressive strength, so it can be referred to as the
„uniaxial compressive strength‟ strategy.
References
Priest S. D. (2010). Deformable Materials Module lecture notes, Mining
Geomechanics. The University of Adelaide.
Mechanics
4
TOPIC 4: ROCK MASS
BEHAVIOUR –
DISCONTINUITY
STRENGTH
4.1 Introduction
As we already know, the two main mechanical components of a rock
mass are:
The resulting behaviour is illustrated on the next page. Shear stress will
increase rapidly until the peak strength is reached, and as the
displacement continues, the shear stress will fall to some residual value
that will then remain constant.
Repeating the test at various normal stresses and plotting the peak and
residual shear strengths for these different normal stresses results in the
two lines illustrated below. For planar discontinuity surfaces the
experimental points will generally fall along straight lines. The peak
strength line has a slope of and an intercept of c on the shear strength
axis. The residual strength line has a slope of r.
The relationship between the peak shear strength Tf and the normal
stress σn can be represented by the Coulomb strength criterion:
f n tan c
In the peak strength plot above, the line extended back to the vertical
axis determines the cohesion. The extension of the locus to the vertical
axis is fictitious (as a clean defect would have no cohesion), so for clean
defects, consider this an „apparent friction‟, which is often the case for
„intact‟ or rock material as was discussed in the previous Topic.
Patton was the first researcher to relate the shear behaviour of joints to
normal load and roughness, based on his work of a model of a joint in
which roughness is represented by a series of constant-angle triangles
or saw-teeth, as shown below.
In his model, the dilatancy angle, i, is defined as the arc tangent of the
ratio between vertical and shear displacement of the sample during the
shearing. The model assumes the rock is rigid and the dilatancy angle
constant. Patton observed;
f n tan i
f n tan r c
This model takes into account the effect of the asperities, however, the
criteria are not satisfactory for describing the shear behaviour of irregular
rock surfaces. Patton explains the discrepancy with real joints by
suggesting that the failure envelope for rock surfaces reflects changes in
the intensities of different modes of failure occurring simultaneously
(Graselli, 2001).
4
(1 )1.5 1 tan i tan 0.232 1 (1 )1.5 (1 10 ) 0.5
J J J J J
J
1- (1 )5.5 tan i tan
J
where
JCS
p n tan b JRC Log10
n
where
n = normal stress
JCS
i JRC log10
n
0.01 0.3
j
This is also the range into which most slope stability problems fall, so
Barton‟s equations are applicable to slope stability.
Estimates of JCS
When the joint is “fresh,” JCS is equal to the compressive strength of the
rock (i.e. JCS= c). Where joint walls are weathered to a moderate
depth, methods of point load testing and Schmidt Hammer techniques
can be used as outlined in Hoek (2000) and shown below (using
uniaxial compressive strength values for JRC). Where no direct
measurements are available, a ratio of JCS/c = 0.25 may be used.
Estimates of JRC
The joint roughness coefficient JRC is a number that can be estimated
by;
arctan / n b
JRC
JCS
log10
n
b
JRC
JCS
log10
n
Note that very low normal stresses are usually involved in field tilt tests.
In a tilt test, two blocks (1 fixed to the bottom and one resting on top) are
placed on the apparatus. The blocks are tilted until top block begins to
slide. The angle at which this movement begins is read as angle
In the case of small scale laboratory specimens, the scale of the surface
roughness will be approximately the same as that of the profiles
illustrated. In the field the length of the joint surface may be much larger
and the JRC value must be estimated for the full scale sliding surface,
using the chart on the next page.
0 n JCS
and the peak shear strength curves should be truncated for design
purposes at a maximum allowable strength given by;
arctan 70 i.e r JRC log10 JCS 70
n n
Scale effects
Surface topography of joints varies widely and features can be
distinguished into;
Where
Important aspect is rock wall and infill interaction (if any) as rock-rock
strength is far greater than infill material strength . Published data can be
used to assist in quantifying this reduction in shear strength, by referring
to the shear strength parameters of typical rock with commonly found
filling materials as given on the next page.
For each test specimen graphs of shear stress (or shear force) vs shear
displacement are plotted. Values of peak and residual strength are
extracted from the graph.
250
a
P Peak strength
k 200
,
s
s
e
rt
s 150
r
a
e
h 100
S
50
Residual strength
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Shear displacement, mm
250
Peak strength
200
Shear stress, kPa
50
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Shear displacement, mm
Multistage tests refer to the case when several tests are undertaken at
different normal stresses. The same discontinuity is often used for
multistage testing, however testing should only be at low normal
stresses as high normal stresses may cause shearing and result in
unreliable results. Due to the variability in results, the International
Society for Rock Mechanics suggests at least 5 such tests to gain a
result.
After plotting the peak shear stress with the appropriate normal stress,
the Coulomb failure locus for the rock defect can be determined. Even
with a large set of results as in the figure below, selecting the line of best
fit is a difficult task. In this case a line straight line of best fit has been
used as well as a comparison to Barton‟s criteria. However close
inspection may find a bilinear approach (according to Patton); or a
second (and more conservative) alternative would be to use the lower
bound values (the line connecting the lower most values).
i arctan
n
and
ci f n tan i
f 2 f 1
i arctan
and ci f 1 n1 tan i
n 2 n1
Lot Unit Name and Main Contact Address Levy Address Notice Address Entitlement Balance
(-)prepaid
1 1 SAMIR BAHIG SHOUSHA 1 -1.46
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
2 2 MR S B SHOUSHA 1 -2.45
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
3 3 EDWARD ADHIKARI & DAISY BISWAS 1 0.00
3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
4 4 SEAN & CATHERINE O'DONOGHOE 1 0.00
4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
5 5 MR DAVID HENRY POPPLEWELL 1 0.00
5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
6 6 MR G & MRS U KASSAR 1 0.00
2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
7 7 MR J & MRS M REPETTO 1 0.00
42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW
2216 2216 2216
8 8 TRAM THI NGOG LE 1 0.00
8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
9 9 MR & MRS MAHMOUD 1 404.80
9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
10 10 YOHANES SOE & HANG LIN WIE 1 404.80
10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
11 11 MESSRS T, A & J & MRS K JAKUS 1 0.00
11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
12 12 MRS Y KASSAR 1 0.00
68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
28/08/2009 18:49 Mark Gitman MG Strata and BMC Management Pty Ltd Page 1
Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
5
TOPIC 5: ROCK MASS
STRENGTH
5.1 Introduction
Previously we have examined the behaviour of intact rock and rock
defects (which separated masses of intact rock) from the perspective of
yield criteria. A rock material (intact rock PLUS discontinuities) thus
would usually behave quite differently from rock defects or intact
masses alone.
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
Intact
Rock
Rock Mass
Single discontinuity
w n tan w cw
Where;
σ1
σ3
Slip on the plane of weakness will become occur when the shear stress
on the plane is just greater than the shear strength, τw. Referring to
Topic 3 for further development of the Coulomb yield criterion, but in this
case for a discontinuity or plane of weakness gives;
2cw 3 tan w
1w 3
tan w
sin 2 1
tan
For values of β approaching 90° and in the range 0° to Φw°, slip on the
plane of weakness cannot occur, and the peak strength is governed by
some other mechanism, probably shear fracture through the rock
material in a direction not controlled by the plane of weakness.
The variation of peak strength with the angle β predicted by this theory is
in reasonable agreement with actual tests illustrated above (RHS),
although showing pronounced minima, do not follow quite the same
shape. This suggests that the two-strength model developed here
provides an oversimplified representation of strength variation in
anisotropic rocks. More complex models, not discussed here, are
available to overcome this simplification. One example is the adaptation
of the Hoek - Brown failure criterion introduced in Topic 3.
The Hoek - Brown empirical rock mass failure criterion is the most
commonly used in practice. Details are presented in Topic 3, but for
review, the failure criterion for jointed rock masses is based on an
assessment of the interlocking rock blocks and the condition of the
surfaces between these blocks. The most general form of the Hoek-
Brown criterion for jointed rock masses is:
a
1 3 ci mb 3 s
ci
Where
For rock masses, as opposed to intact rock, the GSI can be used as an
alternate source for the variable mb where;
GSI 100
2814 D
mb mi e
For Underground
GSI 20
e 15
e 3
a 0.5
6
c ci s a
s ci
t
mb
For the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS, σc) of the rock mass given
above, failure initiates at the boundary of an excavation when UCS is
exceeded by the stress induced on that boundary. The failure
propagates from this initiation point into a biaxial stress field and it
eventually stabilizes when the local strength, defined Hoek and Brown
equation, is higher than the induced stresses around the excavation at
that point. Most numerical models can follow this process of fracture
propagation and this level of detailed analysis is very important when
considering the stability of excavations in rock and when designing
support systems.
This leads to the concept of a global “rock mass strength” (σcm) and
Hoek and Brown proposed that this could be estimated for the stress
range t < 3 < 0.25.ci as:
mb
a 1
cm 0.0034 mi 0.8 c 1.029 0.025 exp 0.1m i
GSI
This results in the following equations for the angle of friction Φi and
cohesive strength ci:
6amb s mb 3n
a 1
i sin 1 a 1
21 a 2 a 6 amb s m
b 3n
ci
1 2a s 1 a mb 3n s mb 3n a 1
ci
1 a 2 a
Where;
3 max
3n
ci
The results of the studies for both deep and shallow tunnels are used to
derive an expression for σ3max such that;
0.94
3 max 0.47 cm cm
h
Where;
Plots of the values of the ratio c‘/ci and the friction angle ', for different
combinations of GSI and mi are created as design charts (below and
next page) for estimating the cohesion and friction angles.
E, Young‟s Modulus
Poisson‟s ratio
K, Bulk modulus
G, Shear modulus
Strength, or peak strength, is the maximum stress that the rock can
sustain under a given set of conditions. In the uniaxial compression test
illustrated on the next page, it corresponds to the maximum load-bearing
capacity of the rock, referred to as UCS (uniaxial compressive strength,
or σc.)
After peak strength has been exceeded, the rock may still have some
load-carrying capacity or strength. The minimum or residual strength is
reached generally only after considerable post-peak deformation. The
shape of this post-peak curve is related to the type of post-peak failure
that occurs;
Tangent Modulus
Et is the slope at some fixed percentage, generally 50% of the peak
strength σc. (designated here by σc./2).
110
σc = 104MPa
100
90
80 Slope = Es
70
Stress (MPa)
60
50 σc/2 = 52MPa
40
30
20
10 Slope = Et, Eav
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Strain (dimensionless )
52
Et 44GPa
0.00168 0.0005
104
Et 32.5GPa
0.0032
Region B represents the linear portion of the curve. The rock behaviour
is more or less analogous to the ideal „elastic‟ rock. The stress/strain
behaviour follows an ideal elastic path. This condition is the general one
for confined rock materials, existing at depth, which have not undergone
destressing.
level around 50% of c. and continues until complete failure. This will be
considered in a later Topic.
100
90
80
70
Stress (MPa)
60
30
20
10
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Strain (dimensionless )
The rock material behaves in a ductile manner post peak when strain
hardening occurs. That is, the rock material continues to carry an
increased load albeit at a lower modulus.
Barton
Emass 25log10 Q for Q>1 and generally hard rocks
Barton
1
Q c 3
E mass 10 where c = UCS of intact rock mass
100
15 log10 Q 40
E mass 10 40
2 100
2
The graph below (from Hoek, 2004) illustrates the differences between
several of the relationships above:
5.5 Summary
In summary, the Hoek-Brown failure criterion should only be applied to
those rock masses in which there are a sufficient number of closely
spaced discontinuities, with similar surface characteristics, such that
isotropic behaviour involving failure on discontinuities can be assumed.
When the structure being analysed is large and the block size small in
comparison, the rock mass can be treated as a Hoek-Brown material.
APPLICABILITY
References
Hoek, E 1983, Strength of Jointed rock Masses, Geotechnique, 33, 3, pp187-223
Hoek E. & Brown, E.T. 1997 Practical Estimates of Rock Mass Strength, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci., Vol 34, No 8, pp1165-1186
Hoek, E. Rock Engineering. Course Notes. Available via www.rocscience.com
Marinos, P and Hoek, E. 2000. GSI – A geologically friendly tool for rock mass strength
estimation. Proc. GeoEng2000 Conference, Melbourne.
Lot Unit Name and Main Contact Address Levy Address Notice Address Entitlement Balance
(-)prepaid
1 1 SAMIR BAHIG SHOUSHA 1 -1.46
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
2 2 MR S B SHOUSHA 1 -2.45
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
3 3 EDWARD ADHIKARI & DAISY BISWAS 1 0.00
3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
4 4 SEAN & CATHERINE O'DONOGHOE 1 0.00
4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
5 5 MR DAVID HENRY POPPLEWELL 1 0.00
5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
6 6 MR G & MRS U KASSAR 1 0.00
2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
7 7 MR J & MRS M REPETTO 1 0.00
42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW
2216 2216 2216
8 8 TRAM THI NGOG LE 1 0.00
8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
9 9 MR & MRS MAHMOUD 1 404.80
9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
10 10 YOHANES SOE & HANG LIN WIE 1 404.80
10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
11 11 MESSRS T, A & J & MRS K JAKUS 1 0.00
11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
12 12 MRS Y KASSAR 1 0.00
68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
28/08/2009 18:49 Mark Gitman MG Strata and BMC Management Pty Ltd Page 1
Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
6
TOPIC 6: ROCK
TESTING
6.1 Introduction
When considering the design excavations in rock masses, it is important
to;
For a rock mechanics design, you not only need to be able to select the
required test for the required property, but you also need the knowledge
to question whether the result makes sense. To fulfil these outcomes, a
sound understanding of engineering properties and how these are
determined, is required.
CRITICALLY, when testing rock to obtain data for use in design, is that
the boundary conditions applied to the test specimen should simulate
those imposed on the rock in situ. Practically, this is difficult to achieve
and general practice is to study the behaviour of the rock under known
uniform applied stress systems.
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
Less common tests are the Brazilian Tensile Test and the Creep Tests.
Both of these are generally reserved for the domain of research.
There are even more tests than are presented in this list. However, this
Topic will focus on the tests that determine the following properties :
Shear strength tests have been dealt with previously and dynamic
elastic constants and associated tests will be introduced in a later Topic.
Why you are requesting tests, and what their purpose is?
What are the test conditions versus the in situ conditions?
Will you be able to extrapolate between the two conditions – sample
testing volume and rock (mass) volume?
the axial force has been divided by the initial cross-sectional area of
the specimen to give the average axial stress, σa,
axial strain, εa, is determined from the ratio of initial specimen length
to loaded length
Failure modes
Several modes of failure experienced during testing:
Shear failure is observed when single or multiple crack surfaces
propagate completely through the sample at some measured, and
The Figure above shows results from eight triaxial tests on the same
rock type, from 0 to 48.3MPa confining pressure. A number of important
features of the behaviour seen are that, with increasing confining
pressure;
varies with rock type. In general, the more siliceous igneous and
metamorphic rocks such as granite and quartzite remain brittle at room
temperature at confining pressures of up to 1000 MPa or more. In these
cases, ductile behaviour will not be of concern in practical mining
problems.
The Point Load Strength test is intended as an index test for the strength
classification of rock materials. It may also be used to predict other
strength parameters with which it is correlated, for example the
unconfined compressive and the tensile strength. It is measured in
accordance with the procedures recommended in AS4133.4.1 usually
with NX-size core samples. The testing machine consists of a loading
frame, which measures the force required to break the sample, and a
system for measuring the distance between the two platen contact
points. Rock specimens in the form of either core, cut blocks, or irregular
lumps are broken by application of concentrated load through a pair of
spherically truncated, conical platens.
In the following formulas, the Point Load Index strength (Is) is defined
as;
Diametral test
P
Is 2
De
Where;
The standardised strength value can be used to ESTIMATE UCS from
the following formula;
c k Is
Core diameter K
20mm 17.5
30mm 19
40mm 21
50mm 23
54mm 24
60mm 24.5
Note that the strength based on Point Load Index should only be stated
to nearest 5MPa.
The condition of the tested surface will have a significant effect on the
result, due to geometrical irregularities, or due to weathering of surface.
Thus the hammer should be used in various points in the immediate
vicinity of the measurement location. If surface irregularities are causing
The failure tensile stress applied is equivalent to the tensile strength (σt)
of the rock material. If the applied force (P) is measured in units of N
and test disc diameter (D) and thickness (t) in mm, then σt has units of
MPa.
0.636P
t
D.t
Slake durability test is an index test for rock durability. The apparatus
consists of a drum of 140mm diameter and 100mm length with sieve
mesh forming the cylindrical walls (2mm opening). A 500g sample of
rock is broken into 10 lumps and loaded inside the drum, which is turned
Upon strength testing, such unjointed core samples will exhibit much
higher strength capabilities than will specimens which are much larger
and which will include joints or fractures (zones of weakness). In
general, as the size or volume of samples to be tested increases, the
strength of samples will exhibit a steady decrease, as indicated by the
diagram and relationship below. In this case, the relationship uses a
base case of a 50mm diameter core and is used to estimate the UCS
(σcd)of a larger sample (diameter d (mm)) such that;
c d 50 0.18
c 50 d
Across the ends this usually results in high side stresses and lower
stresses developed through the mid-spans. Across the centre line of
each specimen (in the horizontal plane) low stress conditions exist at the
sample edges and higher axial stresses within the centre. The typical
horizontal plane stress development is illustrated on the next page.
When an axial load is applied, both the rock and the platens will deform
axially and laterally in accordance to the Poisson ratio. The mismatch in
elastic moduli, means that the rock be able to deform to a much grater
degree than the metal platens. The less deformable platens will act to
resist lateral rock strains, creating a shear resistance at the rock/metal
interface and “clamping” the specimen ends rigidly.
from each plane of contact between the rock and steel end platens. The
triaxial confinement increases the effective strength the sample ends, so
samples will tend to fail at a higher indicated stress level than the true
unconfined strength. In order to achieve true unconfined behaviour,
therefore, specimens must be sized to have (L/D) ratios of at least 2.5:1.
Confining Pressure
A factor in altering the shape of the complete stress-strain curve in
compression is the effect of the confining pressure applied during the
test.
Confining pressures vary with rock type and can be low in some cases.
The transition represents the boundary between instability with
increasing strain (brittle behaviour) and stability with increasing strain
(ductile behaviour).
u (MPa)
The effective stress concept can apply well for materials such as
sandstone, but be inappropriate for less permeable rocks such as
granite.
30
25
20
Number
15
10
0
10
00
0
91 0
00
<5
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-1
6-
>1
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
References
Brady B H G, and Brown E T (1999) Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining 2nd
Ed, Chapman & Hall.
Brown, E.T., 1981 Rock Characterization Testing and Monitoring, ISRM Suggested
Methods, Pergamon, Oxford
Hoek, E. & Bray, J.W. 1997, Rock Slope Engineering, Chapman and Hall, London
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T., 1997, Underground Excavations in Hard Rock, Chapman
and Hall, London
Hudson, J.A & Harrison, J.P. 1997 Engineering Rock Mechanics, Pergamon
Press, Oxford
Lama, R.D, & Vutukuri, V.S. 1978 Handbook on Mechanical Properties of Rocks,
Volume 2, Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal
Lot Unit Name and Main Contact Address Levy Address Notice Address Entitlement Balance
(-)prepaid
1 1 SAMIR BAHIG SHOUSHA 1 -1.46
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
2 2 MR S B SHOUSHA 1 -2.45
2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
3 3 EDWARD ADHIKARI & DAISY BISWAS 1 0.00
3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 3/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
4 4 SEAN & CATHERINE O'DONOGHOE 1 0.00
4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 4/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
5 5 MR DAVID HENRY POPPLEWELL 1 0.00
5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 5/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
6 6 MR G & MRS U KASSAR 1 0.00
2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 2 KYOGLE STREET, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
7 7 MR J & MRS M REPETTO 1 0.00
42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW 42 HIGHCLERE AVENUE, ROCKDALE NSW
2216 2216 2216
8 8 TRAM THI NGOG LE 1 0.00
8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 8/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
9 9 MR & MRS MAHMOUD 1 404.80
9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018 9/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 2018
10 10 YOHANES SOE & HANG LIN WIE 1 404.80
10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 10/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
11 11 MESSRS T, A & J & MRS K JAKUS 1 0.00
11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
12 12 MRS Y KASSAR 1 0.00
68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
28/08/2009 18:49 Mark Gitman MG Strata and BMC Management Pty Ltd Page 1
Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
7
TOPIC 7:RESPONSE OF
ROCK MASS TO
UNDERGROUND
EXCAVATION
7.1 Introduction
“Knowledge of the in situ state of stress in a rock mass is essential for
the proper planning and design of mine layouts to optimise stability and
safety of mining operations. The in situ stresses are essential boundary
conditions for all design and analysis” (Stacey and Wesseloo, 2002).
Why is this? When designing surface structures, the geometry of the
structure and its operating duty define the loads imposed on the system.
For an underground rock structure, the loads imposed on the system
are generated from;
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
Remember:
The engineering properties determined from a section of a mine may
only be considered “precise” for the location (point) of collection or
measurement. All other locations must be assumed.
“Infinite” Extent
the elemental cube model upon which ground stresses are presumed to
act lies within an infinitely large host rock matrix.
“Elastic” Material
the rock mass behaves as a purely elastic material, exhibiting elastic
stress/strain response.
The term in situ stress covers both natural and induced stresses caused
by the interaction of the excavation and the natural stress. The natural
stresses come in three forms:
Gravitational
Tectonic
Active
Remnant
Residual.
In situ stresses
Natural Induced
stresses stresses
Gravitational Tectonic Residual
Active Remnant
Tectonic Tectonic
Stress Stress
z r z
where γr is the rock unit weight (MN/m3), and z is the depth below
ground surface m).
z v 0.027z (MPa)
h v
1
Where v is Poisson‟s ratio for the rock mass. However, this condition is
RARELY satisfied. Horizontal stress is more difficult to estimate than
h
k
v
Hoek and Brown analysed horizontal stress data from mining and civil
engineering sites around the world and proposed:
100 1500
0.3 k 0.5
z z
as illustrated below.
In Western Australia
As will be seen later, the stress gradient and in particular the direction of
the major and minor principal stresses can significantly influence the
mining induced stresses generated around an excavation, and
ultimately effect it‟s stability.
7.4.1 Topography
The effect of topography on vertical stress depends on the height of the
hill or valley in relation to its width. Mountains can increase the vertical
stress component due to the increase in overburden. Conversely
valleys will create a decrease in vertical stress but may have high
horizontal stresses. This is due to the fact that erosion causes a
decrease in depth of cover leading to a decrease in v but high k
coefficient.
h v
1
However, this state of stress is generally not found. The reason is that
Earth is not and has not been an inert planet. Conceptually there are:
of Chile and the relative high stress in the Yilgarn craton in Western
Australia.
7.4.4 Discontinuities
Principal stresses will re-align themselves parallel and perpendicular to
an excavation surface such that there is zero stress perpendicular to the
excavation surface. In a similar fashion, the properties of both the
discontinuity and its infill material (the material contained within the
structures) affects both the strength of the structure and influences the
direction of stress. If we examine the issue in two dimensions and the
effect on the major and minor principal stress (consider the diagram
below)….
Before the tunnel is excavated, the in situ stresses σv , σh1 and σh2 are
uniformly distributed in the slice of rock. After removal of the rock from
within the tunnel, the stresses in the immediate vicinity of the tunnel are
changed and new stresses are induced. Three principal stresses σ1, σ2
and σ3 acting on a typical element of rock are shown above. The
convention used in rock engineering is that compressive stresses are
always positive and the three principal stresses are numbered such that
σ1 is the largest compressive stress and σ3 is the smallest compressive
stress or the largest tensile stress of the three.
The three principal stresses are mutually perpendicular but they may be
inclined to the direction of the applied in situ stress. This is evident in the
figure below which shows the directions of the stresses in the rock
surrounding a horizontal tunnel subjected to a horizontal in situ stress
σh1 equal to three times the vertical in situ stress σv (k = 3).
The longer bars in this figure represent the directions of the maximum
principal stress σ1, while the shorter bars give the directions of the
minimum principal stress σ3 at each element considered. In this
particular case, σ2 is coaxial with the in situ stress σh2 ,but the other
principal stresses σ1 and σ3 are inclined to σh1 and σv in the immediate
vicinity of the tunnel.
The following section has been imported, with minor modifications, from
Sections 4 & 7 of the Deformable Materials Module (Priest, 2010) in
order to provide relevant theoretical background, and are reproduced
here with permission.
1 These highlighted sections have already been covered in the „Deformable Materials‟ Module and are
presented here if you require them for revision and continuity between Modules
X horizontal north
Vx
Vy
Y horizontal east
V
Vz
Z vertical down
The components of V along each of the Cartesian axes are given by;
Vx = |V| cos
Vz = |V| cos
vx = cos
vy = cos
vz = cos
hence
Vx = |V| vx
Vy = |V| vy
Vz = |V| vz
Coordinate axis X Y Z
L lx ly lz
M mx my mz
N nx ny nz
Vl = Vx lx + Vy ly + Vz lz
Similarly
Vm = Vx mx + Vy my + Vz mz
Vn = Vx nx + Vy ny + Vz nz
V x y z Vx
V m
m z Vy
m x my
Vn n x ny n z Vz
x y z
R m x my mz
n ny n z
x
Vx = Vl lx + Vm mx + Vn nx
Similarly;
Vy = Vl ly + Vm my + Vn ny
Vz = Vl lz + Vm mz + Vn nz
or
Vx x mx n x V
V my n y Vm
y y
Vz z mz n z Vn
The fact that the inverse of [R] is given simply by its transpose is a
special property of the rotation matrix.
m n
* m mm mn
n nm nn
In order to understand the relation between [] and [*] we must first
appreciate that in transforming stress from one set of axes to another
we are changing two things simultaneously:
Y
R
Q X
ay
O ax
Area A
P
az S
OP
cos but OP = 1 and OQ = ax
OQ
Let the areas of the right-angled triangles ORS, OQS and OQR be
respectively Ax, Ay and Az
Thus a ya z 1 a xa z 1 and
Ax Ay
2 2 y z 2 2 xz
a xa y 1
Az
2 2 xy
The volume V of the tetrahedron OQRS is given by the area of the base
multiplied by one third of the vertical height, hence;
Axa x 1
V
3 6 x y z
But A 1
V
3
so 1
A
2 x y z
Ax = A x Ay = A y and Az = A z
Y
R
Q X
Az zx
A Sx
O
Ax xx
Ay yx
S x xx xy xz x
S
y yx yy yz y
S z zx zy zz z
Or [S] = [][]
We now consider the same stress state, but expressed relative to the
LMN Cartesian coordinate axes, reproduced below;
m n
* m mm mn
n nm nn
We can envisage the cutting plane QRS with the same global
orientation as in the previous, but now cutting through the stress cube
expressed relative to the LMN axes. Proceeding in the same way as
before, we can derive the equivalent stress vector relation, as follows;
S m n
S mm mn m
m m
Sn n nm nn n
The vectors [S] [] [S*] and [*] like any other vectors can be
transformed from one set of Cartesian axes to another, as explained
earlier. Specifically, we define the rotation matrix [R] and adopt the
same sets of axes XYZ and LMN, so
From which;
x y z xx xy xz m n
R m x my mz
yx yy yz
* m mm mn
n ny n z zy zz n nm nn
x zx
xx xy 0
yx yy 0
0 0 0
M
Y
L
+α
X
If a set of reference axes, X,Y,Z, is established with the long axis of the
excavation parallel to the z axis, as shown above, the state of stress at
any point in the rock, for plane problems in the X Y plane, are functions
of (X, Y) only. Often, especially when considering the interactive effects
of nearby excavations or discontinuities, it is necessary express the
state of stress relative to a different set of reference axes, such as the
L,M,Z axes shown above. The direction cosines of new (L, M), relative
to the old (X, Y) axes are thus;
sin2
1
1 cos2 , cos 2
1
1 cos2
2 2
ll
xx yy
xx yy cos 2
xy sin 2
2 2
mm
xx yy
xx yy cos 2
xy sin 2
2 2
lm xy cos 2
xx yy sin 2
2
Note that;
xx yy ll mm
2 xy
lm 0 when tan 2
xx yy
When there are three normal stresses there will be three principal
stresses, as follows:
In the case of plane geometry or biaxial stress, there are two normal
stresses so there will be two principal stresses, as follows
It can be shown that for the case of plane geometry or biaxial stresses;
1, 2
xx yy
yy 4 xy
2 2
xx
2
Note that
xx yy ll mm 1 2
1 2 xy
1, 2 tan 1
2
xx yy
max
1 2 xx yy
2 2 xy
2 2
In two dimensions the normal stress components are rr (radial stress)
and (tangential or circumferential stress) with the associated
shear stress r. Two-dimensional polar coordinates can be extended to
three-dimensional cylindrical coordinates by defining the Z axis to
correspond to the axis of the axially symmetrical structure. In this case
the additional normal stress component is zz (axial stress) and the
associated shear stresses are rz and z. Two-dimensional and three-
dimensional strains can be specified in the same way.
ur u
rr
yy
r
r
a
xx = K yy X
yy a2 3a 4 4a 2
rr 1 K
1
2
1 K 1 4 2 cos 2
2 r r r
yy a2 3a 4
1 K 1 2 1 K 1 4 cos 2
2 r r
yy 2a 2 3a 4
r 1 K 1 2 4 sin 2
2 r r
i.e;
For the case where σxx=σyy, i.e. K = 1 (hydrostatic stress conditions), σrθ
= 0 and;
a2
rr yy 1
r 2
a2
yy 1
r 2
pi a 2
rr i
r2
pi a 2
i
r2
If we let the radial and tangential shear stresses predicted by the Kirsch
equations be respectively rrk and r we can add these stresses to
those generated by internal support pressure pi by simple superposition
as follows:
rr rrk rri
k i
r rk ri
yy
σθθB
σθθA
r
a
xx = Kyy X
For K<1.0
For K = 0;
At point A; A A 3 yy
At point B; B B yy
For K = 1;
The Coulomb (strength) criterion shows that the yield strength of rock is
substantially increased by the effect of confining pressure. For example,
a rock with a cohesion of 1.4 MPa and an angle of friction of 35 has a
theoretical uniaxial compressive strength of only 5.379 MPa. A
confining pressure of 0.12 MPa, generated by a support pressure on the
boundary of the excavation, can be represented by setting 3 to 0.12
MPa in the Coulomb criterion, giving a yield strength of 5.822 MPa,
which is an increase of some 0.443 MPa or nearly four times the
confining stress.
This simple analysis demonstrates that the action of rock support is, in
reality one of generating a small confining pressure which dramatically
increases the strength of the rock, allowing it better to withstand the
stress concentrations adjacent to the excavation boundary. If we accept
this model then it is more appropriate to call rock bolts and shotcrete
„rock reinforcement‟ rather than „rock support‟ because they strengthen
the rock rather than supporting it like columns in a building.
There are a number of yield criteria that take each of the three principal
stresses into account when calculating rock strength. Consideration of
these three-dimensional yield criteria is beyond the scope of this course.
rr a2
1 2
yy r
a2
1 2
yy r
The radial stress perturbation ratio is –(a2/r2) and the tangential stress
perturbation ratio is +(a2/r2). For example, when a/r is 0.5 then r = 2a, so
we are looking at a point one excavation radius beyond the excavation
wall. At this point the stress perturbation will be (0.5)2 or 25%. When a/r
is 0.2 we are looking at a point four excavation radii beyond the
excavation wall; at this point the stress perturbation is only 4%. This
point of 4% stress perturbation, two excavation diameters from the
excavation wall, is generally regarded as the limit of influence of the
stress concentration induced by a circular, or approximately circular,
excavation.
Clearly, the actual size of the zone of stress influence will depend on the
size of the excavation. The zone of stress influence of a 30 m „diameter‟
stope will extend to some 60 m beyond the wall of the stope. A 5 m
diameter development drive located 20 m from the stope will therefore
be driven through rock subjected to stress concentration effects of the
stope, rather than the „pristine‟ in situ stress field. The stope will,
however, be outside the zone of stress influence of the development
drive. This development drive will create its own additional stress
concentration within this distorted stress field, which could lead to
substantial rock yield. This situation will be exacerbated if the stope is
extended and backfilled. The zone of stress influence may well expand
yy = 30 MPa
30 m 80 m 30 m
xx = 40 MPa
zz = 35 MPa
Stope A Stope B
The important point to note is that, since we are considering the stress
state along a line drawn between the centres of the two „circular‟ stopes,
their radial stresses will be horizontal and parallel to the X Cartesian
coordinate axis, and their tangential stresses will be vertical and parallel
to the Y Cartesian coordinate axis. This property would not apply along
any other direction. The coincidence of the radial and horizontal
stresses, and the tangential and vertical stresses allows us to add and
subtract stress increments directly. This process, which is known as
superposition, can only be done when the component stresses are
parallel. In order to consider stress increments along some other axis
we would need to undertake a two-dimensional stress transformation to
calculate the xx and yy stress components from {rr r} for each
stope.
rr
x yy
X
r
d
r
a
xx = yy X
σn
τ
Y
n
rr rr cos 2 a2
yy 1 2 cos 2
2 2 r
r
sin 2
cos 2 rr
yy a 2 sin 2
2 r2
B
H = 2b A Kp
W = 2a
b2 a2 a
A B q
a b b
2w
At point A A A p1 K 2q p1 K
A
2K 2H
B B p K 1 p K 1 K
q
At point B
B
References
Amadei, B and Stephanssom, O. 1997 Rock Stress and its Measurement,
Chapman and Hall, Cambridge
Brady B H G, and Brown E T (1999) Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining 2nd
Ed, Chapman & Hall.
Goodman R E (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics, Ed, John Wiley & Sons.
Hudson J A & Harrison J P (1997) Engineering Rock Mechanics, An Introduction to
the principles, Pergamon.
Priest S. D. (2010). Deformable Materials Module lecture notes, Mining
Geomechanics. The University of Adelaide.
Mechanics
8
TOPIC 8: METHODS OF
IN-SITU STRESS
MEASUREMENT
8.1 Introduction
In the previous Topic, the importance of determining the pre-mining or
concurrent with mining state of stress was emphasized, leading as it
does into excavation design, analysis of excavation stability and
ultimately support design.
Observational techniques
Measurement techniques – of which the latter has three types:
Destressing Techniques
Destressing – Restressing Techniques
Overstressing Techniques
In-situ
stress
De- De-
stressing stressing
methods re-
stressing
methods
Borehole breakout
Borehole breakout refers to the stress induced failure that occurs in the
walls of a borehole. The locations of the breakout (on diagonally
opposite sides of the borehole) are usually aligned with the intermediate
principal stress acting in the plane normal to the borehole axis. They
can provide a reliable indication of the orientation of the in situ stress
fields.
Core discing
Core discing appears to be closely associated with the formation of
borehole breakouts. In brittle rock, discing and breakouts occur over the
corresponding lengths of core and borehole. The thinner the discs the
higher the stress level.
Stress relief in the vicinity of the strain cell induces strains in the gauges
of the strain rosettes, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to those
originally existing in the borehole wall. The state of strain in the wall of
the borehole prior to stress relief can then be established.
The first and third requirements virtually eliminate the use of a test site
excavated by conventional drilling and blasting, which will cause
extensive disturbance of the elastic stress distribution in the rock and
may give rise to non-elastic displacements in the rock during the
h ps
Where ps = pressure to equilibrate fracture-normal stress, h in a
direction normal to fracture (shut-in pressure).
H t 3 h pb
Where t = tensile strength of rock and pb = breakdown pressure (crack
re-opening).
Its main advantages are that the borehole does not have to be assumed
to be drilled in a principal stress direction and it requires no assumptions
regarding the in situ stress conditions or rock mass deformation and
strength properties. Neither is it necessary to determine the tensile
strength of the rock. However, identifying the 6 non-parallel existing
fractures is difficult and the resulting calculations are complex.
On a plot of the applied stress vs. the acoustic emissions, the Kaiser
effect change point is at the position on the curve where the slope of the
plot noticeably increases. As the Kaiser effect changes in acoustic
emission rate, the stress corresponds with the previous maximum stress
to which the rock had been subjected.
References
Amadei, B and Stephanssom, O. (1997) Rock Stress and its Measurement,
Chapman and Hall, Cambridge
Brady B H G, and Brown E T (1999) Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining 2nd
Ed, Chapman & Hall.
Goodman R E (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics, Ed, John Wiley & Sons.
Villaescusa, E., Windsor, C.R., Li, J., Baird, G., Seto, M, (2003). Stress
Measurement from Cored Rock, Project M329, Minerals and Energy Research
Institute of Western Australia,
Villaescusa, E., Seto, M, Baird, G., (2002). Stress Measurement from oriented
cored, Int Jnl Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 39, 603-615
Hudson J A, Cornet, F.H & Christiansson, R.(2003) ISRM Suggested Methods for
rock stress determination – Part 1: Strategy for rock stress estimation, Int Jnl Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 40, pp 991-998
Sjoberg, J., Christiansson, R & Hudson J A, & Cornet, F.H., (2003) ISRM
Suggested Methods for rock stress determination – Part 2: Overcoring Methods,
Int Jnl Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 40, pp 999-1010
Haimson, B.C., & Cornet, F.H. (2003). ISRM Suggested Methods for rock stress
determination – Part 3: Hydraulic fracturing and/or hydraulic testing of pre-existing
fractures, Int Jnl Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 40, pp 1011-1020
Mechanics
9
TOPIC 9: TIME
DEPENDANT AND
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR
OF ROCK
9.1 Introduction
Previously we have examined elastic and inelastic behaviour and
mentioned that time is one of the parameters that influence
performance. Time-dependent (TD) behaviour of a rock occurs
whenever any one of the state variables, like stress, strain, deformation,
heat, flow, etc., changes with time. Earthquake loading, blasting,
transient water and heat flow, consolidation (dissipation of pore water
pressure through a loaded rock) are examples of time-dependent
problems.
Creep can initiate from the intact rock or discontinuities (fissures/ flaws/
joints). Rock creep is temperature sensitive which may imply that rock
creep is basically a thermally activated process. It means a change in
temperature causes thermal strains leading to more deformation,
fractures or fracture-enlargements and finally rock failure.
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
In this Topic, content has been developed from Malan (1988, 2006)and
Dusseault & Fordham (1993).
Excavation in a rock mass changes the stability of the rock mass and
the subsequent readjustment of the rock mass towards a new
equilibrium does not occur instantaneously but as a gradual process
over time. The readjustment process can include two forms of inelastic
deformation;
d
dt
Creep rates are measured in strains or millistrains per second (m m-1 s-1
or mm m-1 s-1.
For the hard rocks of the South African gold mining industry, the steady-
state creep rate is typically of the order of 200x10-9 mm m-1 s-1 if the rock
is loaded to 90 % of its failure strength.
indicated by the slope of the curve, is high but decreases as the material
deforms during the primary (transient) creep stage.
total (t ) 0 p (t ) sst T (t )
Where;
t is time
Elastic creep and part of the transient creep curve may be recoverable if
the load is removed. The time dependent behaviour beyond this point is
termed “relaxation”. When time dependent shear behaviour occurs on
rock defects there may also be recoverable strain.
Hysteresis in load-
displacement testing
The engineering models and laws that define creep can be subdivided
into three areas:
1. Empirical laws
2. Rheological models
3. Fundamental physical mechanisms
Empirical laws are developed from observation and may not necessarily
be based on fundamental material behaviour or property relationships.
Rheology is a general term for the time-dependent behaviour of
Confining Pressure,
Temperature,
Cohesive Bond,
Porosity, ...
The higher the cohesion and the lower the porosity, the more brittle is a
rock. However, ductile behaviour becomes more dominant with
confining pressure. Temperature and strain and loading rate have
influences on the behaviour. In general, stress in a deep natural rock is
strain-rate dependent:
Q
ss A 1 3 e
n RT
Where;
ss A1 3 n
In the table below, some of the commonly used visco-elastic models are
shown. All are based on various combinations of the two basic
elements, Hookean and Newtonian models. The time-dependant strain
EK t
t 2 (1 )
(t ) 1 e K
Em 21 m EK
where EK and EM and ηK and ηM are the Young's moduli and viscosity
coefficients for the Kelvin and Maxwell units respectively, ν is Poisson's
ratio, and t is time.
When a sample of rock is loaded at various strain rates (ε s-1), the log-
time behaviour can be determined. The stress function can also be
plotted as a stress difference (σ1 – σ3); and plotting log stress vs log
strain, n is slope of line.
3
Log (ss ) nLog 1 LogA
0
40
n
35 ss A 1 3
0
30
25 n=5
Log (εss)
20
n=6
15
10
n=3
log5A
n=1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Log [(σ1-σ3)/σ0]
These equations represent steady state creep (straight lines). They can
be used in combination to model other behaviour.
Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing generally takes 3 forms, as illustrated on the next
page;
Separate plastic/elastic and steady state onto one graph and transient
behaviour on the other.
3
Log (ss ) nLog 1 LogA
0
and to transient (t) creep fit an exponential law similar in form to that of
a Kelvin model;
tr t 1 e at
Or
0
E
t
tr 1 e EK
E
where EK is the Young's modulus for the Kelvin model and t is time.
Coal
Time dependent components are related to mineral creep; gas
dissipation, strong fabric & weak pores. Pillar & high wall behaviour is
dependent on narrow clay (smectite) or thin coal seams. Coal pillars
progressively weaken due to internal fissuring and cleat fracturing. The
diagram shows how swelling clays can cause creep strain if defects are
dipping out of the slope (highwall) face, or cause a reduction in
confinement leading to pillar widening and extensional strain zones.
Ultramafics
Ultramafics, especially those containing talcs and chlorites have a low
stiffness and thus begin to strain at lower stress magnitudes that stiffer
harder rock. They can also be subject to swelling.
The shear creep rate of a joint is governed by the ratio of applied shear
stress to peak strength. The lower graph gives an example of this
behaviour. The ratio (horizontal axis) of shear stress/peak shear
strength varies from approximately 0.55 to 0.95 whilst the shear rate
varies from 0.00003 mm/hr to 0.00012 mm.hr representing a 3-fold
increase in shear creep rate.
n
D ss A
p
where
Obtaining the coefficient value for n is obtained from the slope of the line
on log-log graph. The coefficient Log A is obtained from the intercept.
9.5.1 Introduction
Dynamic behaviour of rock describes the rock response to the rapid
strain rate induced by explosives and/or mine seismicity. When the rock
mass is subjected to a sudden change of the equilibrium conditions the
particle closest to the disturbance is moved from its state of equilibrium
and affects the neighbouring particles; the disturbance propagates
through the rock mass and transports energy but no material.
Implementation
Retrospective Analysis
Two other types of stress wave which are important are Rayleigh and
Love waves. Both of these waves occur near interfaces and free
surfaces and have elliptical particle motion which is polarized and
perpendicular to the free surface:
Rayleigh waves are the most destructive wave, as they occur during
earthquakes. In general, if a P-wave reaches a boundary, which is not
parallel to the wave front, four waves are generated. Two of these are
reflected waves, moving back into the medium from which the original
wave came, a P-wave and a S-wave; the other two waves, also a P-
wave and a S-wave, are transmitted into the new medium.
1
E 1 2
Vs
2(1 )
1
Vp 2(1 ) 2
Vs 1 2
Where
3.5
2.5
2
Vp/Vs
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
From the waves‟ velocities and the sample bulk density, the dynamic
elastic modulus and dynamic Poisson‟s ratio are then calculated.
3VP2VS2 4VS4
E
VP2 VS2
VP2 2VS2
2(VP2 VS2 )
G VS2
where
Impedance Matching
Explosives with high brisance (or high shock energy) are well suited for
blasting in hard competent rock. A low brisance explosive such as
ANFO (which produces a lower shock wave but relative high gas or
heave loading) is better suited for soft porous, or heavily fractured rock.
The best matching for optimum shock wave to the rock occurs when the
detonation impedance D equals the impedance of the rock material,
Vp.
Impedance μ explosive
Detonation Velocity, D
P-wave velocity, Vp
Density ρ (kg/m )
3
-2 -1
10 kgm s
or rock
(m/s)
(m/s)
6
Explosive
Rock Material
1 1c1
1 PPV1
1 1 PPV1 1
E1 c1
References
Brady B.H.G, & Brown, E.T., 1999, Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining 2nd.
Ed. Chapman and Hall, Oxford
Hudson J A & Harrison J P (1997) Engineering Rock Mechanics, An Introduction to
the principles, Pergamon.
Potvin Y, & Nedin, P, 2003, Management of Rockfall Risks in Underground
Metalliferous Mines, A reference manual, Minerals Council of Australia,
Kingston
Weijermars, R. 1997. Principles of Rock Mechanics, Alboran Science Publishing,
Amsterdam
Malan, D.F. (1999) Time-dependent behaviour of deep level tabular excavations in
hard rock, Rock Mech. Rock Engng, Springer-Verlag, Austria, Vol. 32, No.2,
pp. 123-155. Pande, G.N., Beer, G. and Williams, J.R. (1990) Numerical
Methods in Rock Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester.
Dusseault, M.B. and Fordham, C.J. (1993) Time-dependent behaviour of rocks, In:
Comprehensive Rock Engineering, Vol. 3 (edited by JA Hudson), Pergamon
Press, Oxford, England, pp. 119-149.
Lot Unit Name and Main Contact Address Levy Address Notice Address Entitlement Balance
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11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW 11/62 MASCOT DRIVE, EASTLAKES NSW
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12 12 MRS Y KASSAR 1 0.00
68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW 68 FLORENCE AVENUE, EASTLAKES NSW
2018 2018 2018
28/08/2009 18:49 Mark Gitman MG Strata and BMC Management Pty Ltd Page 1
Rock
MINING GEOMECHANICS
Mechanics
10
TOPIC 10: SLOPE
STABILITY
10.1 Introduction
A fairly common engineering failure is that of embankments, cuttings or
slopes (natural or man-made). The causes of these failures are very
often water-related, either through shear strength reduction, and /or
additional lateral loading as a result of tension-cracks, etc.
In most cases there will not be existing slope failures to analyse, so the
shear strength parameters must be determined from appropriate
laboratory tests, field tests and on-site measurements. The geometry of
the failure profile will be unknown, so it is necessary to identify the failure
profile that gives the very lowest factor of safety. This profile, which will
dictate the stability of the slope, is called the critical failure surface.
the ratio of the total force available to resist sliding to the total force
tending to induce (mobilise) sliding.
N
S W sin
N W cos
Thus;
S W sin
tan
N W cos
If > tan then we say that not all of the frictional resistance to sliding is
mobilised. If = tan, we have a state of limiting equilibrium.
FOS
tan
Especially in mining, a flatter slope (and often therefore more stable) will
require a larger stripping ratio to mine it and thus profitability of the mine
is adversely influenced. In the end, a cost-benefit-risk analysis can be
undertaken to investigate the cost penalties associated with flatter
slopes, compared to the cost penalties associated with clearing-up
failed. In using this approach - you are effectively putting a finite value
on people’s lives (mine worker - the public, etc.) and this may not be
ethically defensible.
For example, a FOS of 1,3 (or 30% more resistive than mobilising shear
force), would be typical for most short term mining benches. It must be
remembered that depending on the sensitivity of the slope AND the type
of analysis conducted, some destabilising factors may not be included in
the simple limit equilibrium approach and therefore it is good practice to
adjust the FOS required, bearing in mind the quality of the data used in
the analysis and how rigorous the analytical procedure is.
CIRCULAR SLIDES
Observed failures in relatively homogeneous or heavily fractured and
weak material often occur along curved failure surfaces. A circular slip
surface, like that shown in the Figure above (a), is often used because it
is convenient to sum moments about the center of the circle, and
because using a circle simplifies the calculations. A circular slip surface
must be used in the Simplified Bishop Method.
The shape of the known, or assumed, failure profile can be divided into
a number of distinct linear elements. There will be three unknown
values for each element:
Clearly if the mass has been divided into more than one element there
will be more unknowns than there are equations, and the problem will be
statically indeterminate. To make the problem soluble it is necessary to
generate more equations to solve for the unknowns. These equations
can be generated by dividing the mass into a number of slices, which
R
i
slice 1
slice i
bi
slice n
Top of slope
Crest of slope
Tension crack
Typical slice
Toe of slope
Slip surface
1. The shear strength of the material at the base of each slice in the
slope is governed by the Coulomb or Hoek-Brown yield criterion.
If the Hoek-Brown criterion is adopted then it will be necessary to
calculate the equivalent instantaneous values of cohesion and
angle of friction c'i and 'i for the base of each slice (refer to Topic
5). Each slice can have different shear strength parameters c'
and tan '. The ‘dash’ means that the values of cohesion and
friction are the effective strength parameters, recognising the
important influence of water pressure in controlling slope failure.
2. It is implicit in this assumption that all of the slices have the same
factor of safety, even though their shear strength parameters
may be different.
3. The slices are long in the direction normal to the plane of the
cross-section and the forces on the ‘out-of-plane’ boundaries of
each slice are negligible.
4. The normal and shear reactions on the left side and right side of
each slice are assumed to cancel each other out.
5. The profile of the slope surface, the phreatic (water) surface and
the location of the tension crack (if any) are known.
Water table
hw hr ER
XL
XR
EL
Typical slice
W
S
N’
For a slice of unit breadth normal to the plane of the cross-section, the
following parameters are defined:
All slices are assumed to have the same width b. The height of
rock (or soil) in a typical slice is hr and the vertical height of the
water table above the base of the slice is hw
The unit weights of rock (or soil) and water are respectively r and
w.
The normal and shear reactions on the base, left side and right
side of the slice are respectively N, S, EL, XL and ER, XR, as
shown in the diagram. The reactions EL, XL and ER, XR are
assumed to cancel each other out, and will be ignored.
The inclination of the base of the slice is . The diagram shows
the positive sense for ; a slice with a base that slopes
downwards from left to right (the mirror image of the slice shown
above)would have a negative value for .
W hb r
The area A of the shear surface at the base of the slice is given by
b
A
cos
u hw w
W S sin N cos 0
The effective normal force N' on the base of the slice is given by
N N uA
W ub
N S tan
cos
Substituting for A and N' in the Coulomb criterion, the shear strength (as
a force)is;
S f N tan cA
So
cb W ub
Sf S tan tan
cos cos
S
c b W ub tan sec
tan tan
FOS 1
FOS
The shear reaction S on the base of the slice, and the factor of safety of
the slope FOS are unknown. In order to determine the value of S it is
necessary to make further assumptions about how the rock/soil mass
moves. The simplest of these mechanisms is to assume that the mass
fails by rotation along the arc of a circular slip surface of radius R, as
shown below.
Centre of slip
circle of radius R R z
H = horizontal
R hydraulic thrust
in tension crack
W
S
N'
IF a tension crack is included at the top of the slope (which is typical for
this failure geometry), moments are;
n n
Wi R sin i Hz Si R
i 1 i 1
1 n
cb tan W ub
Hz
FOS n
tan
W sin
R
i 1
1
tan
i 1
F
1 n
cibi tan i Wi ui bi
Hz
FOS j n
tan i tan i
Wi sin i i 1
1
i 1 R F j 1
Sources of error
Many circles must be considered to ensure the slip circle with the
lowest (critical) FOS is found – this is where failure will occur.
Horizontal and moment equilibrium of a slice are not assured,
and the interslice forces are ignored in vertical equilibrium.
No allowance is made for resistance to slip at the ends of the
slide (the slip surface is spoon shaped when considered in 3-D).
Soil is not an elastic – perfectly plastic material, so peak strength
is not mobilised simultaneously at every point of the slip surface.
It is supposed that the given c’ and tan Φ’ will be operative
simultaneously at all points of the slip surface. In fact the failure
There are several slice-based analyses that cater for non-circular slip
surfaces, of them, the Morgenstern-Price analysis is the most accurate
for general (non-circular) slip surfaces. The Spencer or Spencer-Wright
analysis (e.g. GALENA) is essentially the same as Morgenstern-Price.
The Sarma and multiple wedge analyses are simpler versions of
Morgenstern-Price, probably less accurate.
NOTE that in the two wedge case shown below, it can be expected that
the friction angle of the sliding mass and the core (on which the active
wedge slides) are NOT the same.
Active
wedge
Passive
wedge
S1
S1 N1
Z1
W1
N1
Z2
W1
S2 Z1=Z2 N2
W2 N2
W2
S2
References
Priest S. D. (2010). Slope Stability in Heavily Fractured Weak Rock. Lecture
Notes, Mining Geomechanics. The University of Adelaide.
Watson, J (2007). Soil Slope Stability. Lecture Notes, Mining Geomechanics,
University of New South Wales.