Module 1

Definition of Robot:
The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines a robot as a re-programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through various
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
Simple words: Robotics is a multi-functional, re-programmable, automatic industrial machine.
Asimov’s laws of robotics: 1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first
or Second Laws.

Components of a Robot:
 Components of a Robot:

A mechanical platform or hardware base is a mechanical device, such as a wheeled platform,

arm, fixed frame, or other construction, capable of interacting with its environment and any other
mechanism involved with its capabilities and uses.
Sensor systems are a special feature that rests on or around the robot. This device would be able
to provide justice to the controller with relevant information about the environment and give useful
feedback to the robot.
Joints provide more versatility to the robot itself and are not just a point that connects two links or
parts that can flex, rotate, revolve and translate. Joints play a very crucial role in the ability of the
robot to move in different directions providing more degree of freedom.
Controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. Robots have controllers that are run by programs
- sets of instructions written in code. In other words, it is a computer used to command the robot’s
memory and logic. So it is able to work independently and automatically.
Power Source is the main source of energy to fulfill all the robot’s needs. It could be a source of
direct current as a battery, or alternate current from a power plant, solar energy, hydraulics, or gas.
Artificial intelligence represents the ability of computers to "think" in ways similar to human
beings. Present-day "AI" does allow machines to mimic certain simple human thought processes,
but cannot begin to match the quickness and complexity of the brain. On the other hand, not all
robots possess this type of capability. It requires a lot of programming and sophisticated controllers
and the sensorial ability of the robot to reach this level.
Actuators are the muscles of robots. An actuator is a mechanism for activating process control
equipment by the use of pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic signals. There are several types of
actuators in robotic arms namely synchronous actuator – brush and brushless DC servo, stepper
motor and asynchronous actuator – AC servo motor, traction motor, pneumatic, and hydraulic.

Robot Anatomy

Figure 1.1 Joint-link scheme for robot manipulator

Joints and Links: The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links.
Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator's physical construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of
the robot.
Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree of freedom (DOF) of motion. In most cases, only one
degree of freedom is associated with each joint. Therefore, the robot's complexity can be classified
according to the total number of degrees of freedom they possess.
Each joint is connected to two links, an input link, and an output link. Joint provides controlled
relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is the rigid component of
the robot manipulator.
Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor. From this base, a joint-
link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in Figure 1.1. The robotic base and its
connection to the first joint are termed link-0. The first joint in the sequence is joint-1. Link-0 is
the input link for joint-1, while the output link from joint-1 is link-1 which leads to joint-2. Thus
link 1 is, simultaneously, the output link for joint-1 and the input link for joint-2.
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into the following five
types as shown in Figure 1.2.

1. Linear joint (type L joint) The relative movement between the input link and the output
link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel
2. Orthogonal joint (type U joint) This is also a translational sliding motion, but the input
and output links are perpendicular to each other during the movement.
3. Rotational joint (type R joint) This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis
of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
4. Twisting joint (type T joint) This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis of rotation
is parallel to the axes of the two links.
5. Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving) In this type, the axis of the
input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. However, the axis of the output link
is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 Robot configuration

Cartesian Configuration Robot

• Arm movement of robot is designed to move parallel to x,y, z axis
• Capable of moving its arm to any point linearly within a rectangular workspace
• Since arm movement is linear, the robot is also called a rectilinear or gantry robot.
Advantages:
• Simple controls due to linear movements
• High degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy, and repeatability
• Can carry heavy loads
• Since movement can start and stop simultaneously along all three axes. The motion of the
wrist end is smoother
Disadvantage:
• The arm movement is limited to a small rectangular workspace
• Occupy large area (low ratio of robot size to operating volume)
Applications:
Assembly, welding, machine loading, unloading, inspection, etc

Cylindrical Configuration Robot

• Consists of a vertical column and a slide that can move up and down along the column.
• The column can rotate about a vertical axis, hence is capable of achieving a cylindrical
workspace.
Advantages:
• Larger work space than Cartesian configuration
• Relatively easy to program
Disadvantage:
• Overall mechanical rigidity is reduced (since rotating)
• Repeatability and accuracy is also reduced in the direction of rotary movement
• Requires more sophisticated control system than that of cartesian configuration.
Applications:
• Pick and place, machine loading and unloading, assembly and coating.

Polar Configuration (spherical) Robot

• Called spherical configuration (workspace is partial sphere)
• Consists of rotary base and a pivot that can be used to raise and lower a telescopic arm
 • Sliding arm can be extended or retracted to provide reach
Advantages:
• Generate large workspace (envelope) compared to cartesian and cylindrical
• simple in design and easy to program
Disadvantage:
• Reduced mechanical rigidity
• Limited vertical movement
• Requires a more sophisticated control system than that of cartesian and cylindrical
configuration.
Applications:
• Pick and place, machine loading and unloading, casting, injection molding etc.

Jointed Arm Configuration Robot

• Similar to a human arm, consists of two straight components corresponding to the human
forearm and upper arm mounted on a vertical pedestal that can be rotated about the base.
• Provides a quasi-spherical workspace.
Advantages:
• Most flexible configuration that enables the arm to move in all directions
• Large workspace
• Versatile configuration
Disadvantage:
• Requires complex programming
• Control actions are difficult, and require more sophisticated control system
• Less stable, as arm approaches maximum reach
Applications:
• Painting, welding, assembly, pick and place, etc.
•
Short notes on the Degree of freedom, accuracy, repeatability,
and resolution
Degree of Freedom (DOF)
A ‘Degree of Freedom’ (DoF) as it relates to robotic arms, is an independent joint that can provide
freedom of movement for the manipulator, either in a rotational or translational (linear) sense.
Every geometric axis that a joint can rotate around or extend along is counted as a Single Degree
of Freedom.

The position and orientation of a rigid body in space are defined by three components of translation
and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom.
 Six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship

Case study for the ship example:

Translation: Rotation:
Moving up and down (heaving); Tilts forward and backward (pitching);
Moving left and right (swaying); Swivels left and right (yawing);
Moving forward and backward (surging); Pivots side to side (rolling).

Robotic Wrist

Accuracy, Repeatability, and resolution

An industrial robot has many measurable characteristics, which will have a direct impact on the
effectiveness of the robot during the execution of its tasks. The main measurable characteristics
are repeatability and accuracy. The repeatability of a robot might be defined as its ability to achieve
repetition of the same task. On the other hand, accuracy is the difference (i.e. the error) between
the requested task and the obtained task (i.e. the task actually achieved by the robot).
So, repeatability is doing the same task over and over again, while accuracy is hitting your target
each time.

Geometrically, the position accuracy of the robot for a given position can be defined as being the
distance between the desired position and the centroid position (centroid is the mean position of
all the points in all of the coordinate directions) which is actually achieved after repetitive
movements of the end-effector toward the original desired position.
Repeatability can be defined as the closeness of agreement between several positions reached by
the robot’s end-effector for the same controlled position, repeated several times under the same
conditions. Geometrically, position repeatability can be defined as the radius of the smallest sphere
that encompasses all the positions reached for the same requested position.
 Module 2

Open Loop Control System (Non-servo Robots)

In this kind of control system, the output doesn’t change the action of the control system otherwise;
the working of the system which depends on time is also called the open-loop control system. It
doesn’t have any feedback. It is very simple, needs low maintenance, quick operation, and cost-
effective. The accuracy of this system is low and less dependable. The main advantages of the open-
loop control system are easy, needs less protection; operation of this system is fast & inexpensive
and the disadvantages are, it is reliable and has less accuracy
a. Limited Sequence Control (open): It is an elementary control type. It is used for simple motion
cycles, such as pick-and place operations. It is implemented by fixing limits or mechanical stops for
each joint and sequencing the movement of joints to accomplish operation. Feedback loops may be
used to inform the controller that the action has been performed, so that the program can move to the
next step. Precision of such control system is less. It is generally used in pneumatically driven robots.
b. Playback with Point-to-Point (closed): Control Playback control uses a controller with memory
to record motion sequences in a work cycle, as well as associated locations and other parameters, and
then plays back the work cycle during program execution. Point-to-point control means individual
robot positions are recorded in the memory. These positions include both mechanical stops for each
joint, and the set of values that represent locations in the range of each joint. Feedback control is used
to confirm that the individual joints achieve the specified locations in the program.

End effectors
Device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the general-purpose robot to perform a
specific task.
Types of End effectors
1. Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during the work cycle
2. Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting

Gripper:
End-effector that holds or grasps an object (in assembly, pick and place operation, and material
handling) to perform some tasks.
Four Major Types of Grippers
1. Mechanical
2. Suction or vacuum cups
3. Magnetized gripper
4. Adhesives
5. Hooks and scoops

1. Mechanical gripper

Mechanical Gripper:
• Holding the part is by friction between fingers and work part. The finger must apply force that is
sufficient for friction to retain the part against gravity

To resist the slippage, the gripper must be designed to exert a force that depends on the weight of the
part, coefficient of friction, and acceleration of part
Mechanical Gripper Actuation:
1. Linkage actuation
2. Gear and rack actuation
3. Cam actuation
4. Screw actuation

Mechanical Gripper Actuation:

1. Linkage actuation
2.Gear and rack actuation

3.Cam actuation
Screw actuation

Mechanical Grippers
Mechanical grippers are used to pick up, move, place, or hold parts in an automated system. They can
be used in harsh or dangerous
VACUUM GRIPPERS: for non-ferrous components with flat and smooth surfaces, grippers can be
built using standard vacuum cups or pads made of rubber-like materials. Not suitable for components
with curved surfaces or with holes.
Vacuum grippers
Vacuum-grippers become in suction cups, the suctions cups is made of rubber. The suction cups are
connected through tubes with under pressure devices for picking up items and for releasing items air
is pumped out into the suction cups. The under pressure can be created with the following devices:
The vacuum grippers use suction cups (vacuum cups) as pick up devices. There are different types of
suction cups and the cups are generally made of polyurethane or rubber and can be used at
temperatures between -50 and 200 °C. The suction cup can be categorized into four different types;
universal suction cups, flat suction cups with bars, suction cups with bellow and depth suction cups
Magnetic Grippers:
Magnetic Gripper: used to grip ferrous materials. Magnetic gripper uses a magnetic head to attract
ferrous materials like steel plates. The magnetic head is simply constructed with a ferromagnetic core
and conducting coils. Magnetic grippers are most commonly used in a robot as end effectors for
grasping the ferrous materials. It is another type of handling the work parts other than the mechanical
grippers and vacuum grippers. Types of magnetic grippers:
• Magnetic grippers work on magnetic objects and therefore are limited in working with certain
metals.
• For maximum effect the magnet needs to have complete contact with the surface of the metal to be
gripped. Any air gaps will reduce the strength of the magnetic force. In some cases, the shape of the
magnet matches the shape of the object
• Electromagnets can be used instead and are operated by a DC electric current and lose nearly all of
their magnetism when the power is turned off.
• Permanent magnets are also used in situations where there is an explosive atmosphere and sparks
from electrical equipment would cause a hazard. Permanent magnets tend to become demagnetized
because of the temperature
 MODULE 3 :Sensors and Sensing

What is a sensor? briefly explain different types of sensors

used in robotics?
Explain with a neat sketch non-contact type sensor.
Range

Proximity

Vision
Range sensor

Proximity sensor
Vision sensors
Explain with neat sketch any one type of contact type sensor
Explain any one type of internal sensor.
Potentiometer
List down the application of sensors in Industrial robots.
The major use of sensors in industrial robots are:

1) Safety monitoring
2) Interlock in work cell control
3) Part inspection for quality control
4) Determining position and related information about an object in the
work cell

a) Safety or Hazard monitoring: protection of human workers, who work in the

vicinity of the robot or other equipment.
b) Interlock in work cell: Interlocks are used to coordinate the sequence of
activity of different pieces of equipment in the work cell. (sensors are used to
verify, inspect, and process)
c) Party quality characteristics: conventional quality check is performed by
manual inspection, the use of a sensor permits the inspection operation to be
performed automatically with 100 % of the parts covered, in which every
part is inspected.
d) Position and related information about objects in the work cell: Object color
and shape orientation can be determined with the aid of sensors.

Module 4
Robot Programming

According to the consistent performance by the robots in industries, the robot programming can be
divided in two common types such as:
1. Lead through Programming Method
2. Textual Robot Languages

1.Lead through Programming Method:

During this programming method, the traveling of robots is based on the desired movements, and
it is stored in the external controller memory. There are two modes of a control system in this
method such as a run mode and a teach mode. The program is taught in the teach mode, and it is
executed in the run mode.

The lead through programming method can be done by two methods namely:
Powered Leadthrough Method
Manual Leadthrough Method

a) Powered Lead through Method:

The powered lead-through is the common programming method in industries. A teach pendant is
incorporated in this method for controlling the motors available in the joints. The logic for the
program can be generated either using a menu-based system or simply using a text editor but the
main characteristic of this method is the means by which the robot is taught the positional data. A
teach pendant with controls to drive the robot in a number of different coordinate systems is used
to manually drive the robot to the desired locations. These locations are then stored with names
that can be used within the robot program.

b)Manual lead-through programming is convenient for programming playback robots with

continuous path control where the continuous path is an irregular motion pattern such as in spray
painting. • This programming method requires the operator to physically grasp the end of arm or
the tool that is attached to the arm and move it through the motion sequence, recording the path
into memory.

2)Textual Robot Languages:

The textual language is used to define the logic and sequence of the program. This can be done
offline or online programming method in the sense that program itself can be written off-line with
the textual language, while points must be defined online with the teach pendant.

In 1973, WAVE language was developed, and it is the first textual robot language as well. It is
used to interface the machine vision system with the robot.

Then AL language was introduced in 1974 for controlling multiple robot arms during arm
coordination.

VAL was invented in 1979, and it is the common textual robot language. Later, this language was
dated in 1984, and called as VAL II.

The IBM Corporation has established their two own languages such as AML and AUTOPASS,
which is used for the assembly operations.

Other important textual robot languages are:

- Manufacturing Control Language (MCL),
- RAIL, and
- Automatic Programmed Tooling (APT) languages.
Discuss the various programming languages used in robotics. (At least
five)
URBI: URBI stands for Universal Real-time Behavior Interface. It is a client/server based
interpreted language in which Robot works as a client and controller as a server. It makes us to
learn about the commands which we give to Robots and receive messages from them. The
interpreter and wrapped server are called as "URBI Engine".

PYTHON: Python is an object-oriented language which is used to access and control Robots.
Python is an interpreted language; this language has an application in working with mobile robots,
particularly those manufactured by different companies. With python it is possible to use a single
program for controlling many different robots.

ROBOTC: Other Languages which we use are C,C++ and C # etc. or their implementation, like
ROBOTC, ROBOTC is an implementation of C language. It is actually a text based programming
language. The commands which we want to give to our Robot, first written on the screen in the
form of simple text.

Although commands are given in text form (called as codes) but this language is very specific
about the commands which is provided as instruction.

ROBOTICS.NXT: ROBOTICS.NXT has a support for a simple message-based control. It direct

commands, nxt-upload is one of its programs which is used to upload any file. It works on Linux.

Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio

Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio is an environment given for simulation purpose of Robots.
It is based on a .net library concurrent implementation.
WAVE and AL: WAVE, developed at Stanford, demonstrated a robot hand—eye coordination.
Later a powerful language AL was developed to control robot arms. WAVE was incorporated with
path calculations through coordination of joint movements, end-effector positions and touch
sensing.

AML: A manufacturing language, AML was developed by IBM. AML is very useful for assembly
operations as different user—robot programming interfaces are possible. The programming
language AML is also used in other automated manufacturing systems.
The advantage of using AML is that integers, real numbers and strings can be specified in the same
aggregate which is said to be an ordered set of constants or variables.

MCL: US Air force ICAM project led to the development of another manufacturing control
language known as MCL by McDonnel—Douglas. This is a modification of the popular APT
(Automatically Programmed Tooling) language used in CNC machine tools as many similar
commands are used to control.

RAIL: It was developed by Automatic for robotic assembly, inspection, arc Welding and machine
vision. A variety of data types as used in PASCAL can be used. It uses Motorola 68000 type
microcomputer system; It supports many commands and control of the vision system.
HELP: HELP was developed by General Electric Company. It acts more or less like RAIL. It has
the capability to control two robot arms at the same time. The structure of the language is like
PASCAL.

JARS: JARS was developed by NASA JPL. The base of the language is PASCAL. JARS can be
interfaced with PUMA 6000 robot for running robotic programs.

RPL: RPL was developed at SRI International. A compiler is used to convert a program into the
codes that can be interpreted by an interpreter. Unimation PUMA 500 can be controlled with the
help of RPL. The basic ideas of LISP (an Al language) have been organized into a FORTRAN-like
syntax in RPL. It is modular and flexible.

Discuss the various capabilities and limitations of lead through methods.

Capabilities:

i) During this programming method, the traveling of robots is based on the desired
movements, and it is stored in the external controller memory.
ii) There are two modes of a control system in this method such as a run mode and teach
mode. The program is taught in the teach mode, and it is executed in the run mode.
iii) In powered lead through the method, a teach pendant is incorporated and used to operate
the robot’s wrist and arm through a sequence of points. This method is good for point-
to-point movements. Some of the key applications are spot welding, machine loading
& unloading, and part transfer process.
iv) In manual lead through method, the robot has end effectors with desired movements.
This method is also known as Walk Through method. It is mainly used to perform
continuous path movements. This method is best for spray painting and arc welding
operations.
Limitations:
• The robot cannot be used in production while it is being programmed.
• As the complexity of the program increases, it becomes more difficult to accomplish lead
through programming using the currently available methods.
• Lead through programming is not readily compatible with modern computer-based
technologies such as CAD/CAM,data communications networking and integrated
manufacturing information systems.
Module 5
Robot Applications

Material Transfer Pick and Place Operation These applications are ones in which the primary purpose of
the robot is to move parts from one location to another. The basic application in this category is called a
pick-and-place operation, in which the robot picks up a part and deposits it at a new location.
Transferring parts from one conveyor to another is an example. Only two or three joints are required for
many of the applications, and pneumatically powered robots are often used.
Palletizing and related operation A more complex example of material transfer is palletizing, in which the
robot retrieves parts, cartons, or other objects from one location and deposits them onto a pallet or
other container at multiple positions on the pallet. Other applications similar to palletizing include
depalletizing, which consists of removing parts from an ordered arrangement in a pallet and placing
them at another location (e.g., onto a moving conveyor); stacking operations, which involve placing flat
parts on top of each other; and insertion operations, in which the robot inserts parts into the
compartments of a divided carton.
(2) Arc welding Industrial robots can also be used to automate the arc welding process. The cell consists
of the robot, the welding apparatus (power unit, controller, welding tool, and wire feed mechanism), and
a fixture that positions the components for the robot. The fixture might be mechanized with one or two
axes so that it can present different portions of the work to the robot for welding (the term positioner is
used for this type of fixture). The robot used in arc welding must be capable of continuous path control.
Jointed arm robots consisting of six joints are frequently used
(3) Spray Painting The unhealthy and unpleasant environment of the painting booth in industry made this
process an ideal candidate for the application of robots. The solvent materials that are used in spray
painting are toxic, and therefore the operators must be protected by masks and be provided with fresh-
air ventilation. The painting area must be dust-free and temperature-controlled, and consequently the
painting booth is small in size and inconvenient for the operators. Furthermore, the noise arising from the
air discharge through the painting nozzles can cause irreversible damage to the ears. For all these reasons,
spray painting became one of the first applications of robots. The requirement for robots in spray painting
are different from those of other robot applications, and therefore many robot manufacturers offer a
robot dedicated to this one application. The spray painting robots are of CP capability and have the
following characteristics: (a) High level of manipulator dexterity, (b) Large working volume for small-base
manipulator, (c) Compact writs, (d) Small payload, and (e) Low accuracy and repeatability. The painting
robot must be able to carry any type of spray gun. Spray guns, however, are light in weight and therefore
painting robots are designed for small payloads (e.g., 1 kg). Finally, the requirements for repeatability and
resolution are the least severe in painting robots. The exact location of end points is not critical, and in
many jobs can be even outside the painted surface. Therefore, a repeatability of 2 mm throughout the
working volume is regarded as sufficient for spray-painting robots
(4) Assembly Assembly involves the combining of two or more parts to form a new entity, called a
subassembly or assembly. The most appealing application of industrial robots for assembly involves
situations in which a mix of similar models are produced in the same work cell or assembly line. Examples
of these kinds of products include electric motors, small appliances, and various other small mechanical
and electrical products.

(5) Inspection Inspection accomplish the following functions: • making sure that a given process has been
completed, • ensuring that parts have been assembled as specified, and • identifying flaws in raw
materials and finished parts. Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided into the following two
cases: • The robot performs loading and unloading to support an inspection or testing machine. • The
robot manipulates an inspection device, such as a mechanical probe or vision sensor, to inspect the
product. Other Processing operations • Drilling, routing, and other machining processes • Grinding, wire
brushing, and similar operations • Water jet cutting • Laser cutting
(5) Manufacturing and maintenance These robots are the most widely used because industries have to
use robots for hazardous work. Applications of Micro robots  Medical Applications Such as cleaning of
Blood vessels with micro-robots  Military application in spying  Surface defect detection  Building
intelligent surfaces with controllable ( Programmable) structures  Tool for Research and Education
Excellent prospects with micro-robots involve dangerous, painful, repetitive, or impossible tasks for
humans (in small spaces, in a vacuum) or more accessible functions. Still, robots can perform them better
than humans. They can also be used as industrial and technical robots (capable, for example, of making
tiny parts or mechanisms, diagnosing or repairing the inside of a machine without disassembling it,
inspecting piping from the inside, etc.). They are able to work in a vacuum or an environment with no air,
etc. Nowadays, micro-robots have already been developed and applied in the domestic sphere (service
robots), for example, robots for vacuum cleaners and games or training robots for programming

Future of Robotics We can theorize a likely profile of the future robot based on the various research
activities that are currently being performed. The features and capabilities of the future robot will include
the following (it is unlikely that all future robots will possess all of the features listed). •Intelligence: The
future robot will be an intelligent robot, capable of making decisions about the task it performs based on
high-level programming commands and feedback data from itsenvironment. •Sensor capabilities: the
robot will have a wide array of sensor capabilities including vision, tactile sensing, and others. Progress is
being made in the field of feedback and tactile sensors, which allow a robot to sense their actions and
adjust their behavior accordingly. This is vital to enable robots to perform complex physical tasks that
require some active control in response to the situation. Robotic manipulators can be very precise, but
only when a task can be fully described. •Telepresence and Related Technologies: it will possess a
telepresence capability, the ability to communicate information about its environment (which may be
unsafe for humans) back to a remote” safe” location where humans will be able to make judgments and
decisions about actions that should be taken by the robots. •Mechanical design Features: the basic design
of the robot manipulator will be mechanically more efficient, more reliable, and with improved power and
actuation systems compared to present day robots. Some robots will have multiple arms with advanced
control systems to coordinate the actions of the arms working together. The design of robot is also likely
to be modularized, so that robots for different purposes can be constructed out of components that are
fairly standard. •Mobility, Locomotion and navigation: future robots will be mobile, able to move under
their own power and navigation systems. •Universal hand (gripper): robot gripper design will be more
sophisticated, and universal hands capable of multiple tasks will be available. •Systems integration and
networking: robots of the future will be “user friendly” and capable of being interfaced and networked
with other systems in the factory to achieve a very high level of integratio