Paleoclimatic Control Archaen Proterozoic

Precambrian Research 158 (2007) 177–197
Tectonic controls on atmospheric, climatic,

and biological evolution 3.5–2.4 Ga
Donald R. Lowe ∗ , Michael M. Tice 1
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University,
Stanford, CA 94305-2115, USA
Received 31 October 2006; received in revised form 30 March 2007; accepted 28 April 2007
Abstract
This paper presents a speculative scenario for the evolution of the earth’s surface environment and biological community 3.5–2.4 Ga
based on the geologic record and its interpretation. Available geologic evidence suggests that the earth’s climate before 3.2 Ga was
hot, probably 60–73 ◦ C, as a result of a CO2 and CH4 greenhouse. The early biological community was probably dominated by
anoxygenic photosynthetic thermophiles. Cyanobacteria, if they evolved before 3.1 Ga, would have struggled to survive at such
high temperatures. As a result, the atmosphere contained extremely low levels of O2 and Δ33 S shows wide departures from 0
indicating mass independent fractionation of S isotopes in the upper atmosphere. This hot early climate collapsed 3.1–3.0 Ga due
to growth of large new blocks of continental crust (cratons), the weathering of which resulted in the depletion of atmospheric CO2
and eventual drawdown of CH4 due to formation and rainout of methane aerosols. Cooling may have culminated in glaciation
about 3.0–2.9 Ga. This climatic catastrophe and attendant changes in atmospheric composition drove a major biological revolution
3.0–2.7 Ga characterized by the emergence of new low-temperature taxa, including cyanobacteria, and their spread throughout
surface environments at the expense of extreme thermophiles, including methanogens. During a period of general tectonic stability,
3.0–2.7 Ga, the earth’s surface was characterized by overall clement conditions with temperatures <60 ◦ C, abundant cyanobacteria
and the formation of associated three-dimensional stromatolites, and a mild oxygenation of the atmosphere and attendant reduction
in mass independent fractionation. As the cratons that had formed 3.1–3.0 Ga were eroded down and gradually covered by sediments,
tectonic recycling and a burst of new greenstone-belt volcanism began to increase atmospheric CO2 after 2.75 Ga and by 2.7 Ga
surface temperatures had returned to >60 ◦ C. Cyanobacteria were again suppressed, O2 production waned, and atmospheric mass
independent fractionation is again indicated by extreme variations in Δ33 S. These conditions persisted, perhaps intermittently, until
about 2.5–2.4 Ga, when weathering and erosion of vast new blocks of continental crust formed about 2.65–2.6 Ga caused the second,
and probably last collapse of a >60 ◦ C surface climate. Broad tectonic, climatic, and biological events 3.5–2.9 Ga are remarkably
parallel to those of the Late Archean and Paleoproterozoic 2.75–2.2 Ga and Neoproterozoic 1.0–0.50 Ga. These ∼500-myr long
cycles of greenstone volcanism and crustal generation; climatic and atmospheric instability; and biological innovation reflect the
long-term interaction of the tectonic, atmospheric, climatic, and biological components of the earth’s surface system. They suggest
that the evolution of the earth’s interior, expressed through its control on the formation of large blocks of continental crust, has
influenced atmospheric composition and climate which in turn have provided a fundamental control on the timing and directions of
biological evolution throughout earth history.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Archean; Continental crust; Atmosphere evolution; Stromatolites; Climate evolution; Evolution of life; Barberton; Greenstone
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 650 725 3040; fax: +1 650 725 0979.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.R. Lowe).
1 Current address: Department of Geology and Geophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
0301-9268/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.008
178 D.R. Lowe, M.M. Tice / Precambrian Research 158 (2007) 177–197
1. Introduction sequences, all of which are heavily deformed and meta-

somatically altered and most of which are sheared and
The 3.5–2.5 Ga geologic record has come under metamorphosed. These volcanic-sedimentary assem-
increasing scrutiny in recent years as it has become blages occur as remnants within younger craton
apparent that a number of major geological, biological, basement terrains and provide a record of volcanism,
and environmental events during this interval may have sedimentation, and associated tonalite-trondhjemite-
marked the beginning of the transition from a funda- granodiorite (TTG) plutonism that culminated in the
mentally different young Hadean and early Paleoarchean formation and stabilization of the cratons of which they
earth to a more modern Proterozoic and ultimately are a part. They record life and surface environments on
Phanerozoic world. These events appear to have included unstable volcanic surfaces subject to rapid subsidence,
the formation of the first large stable cratons, evolution magmatic inflation, burial beneath thick volcanic flows,
of several major biological groups, and global climate and blanketing by layers of pyroclastic debris. The cul-
and atmospheric changes, possibly including transitions minating stages in the evolution of these belts involved
from a hot young earth to a more temperate or even deformation, uplift, and sedimentation in and around
cold climate and the initial stages of oxygenation of the orogenic highlands. There are as yet no known lcra-
atmosphere. The objective of the present discussion is tons that formed before 3.1 Ga and no corresponding
to evaluate the geologic record of this interval in order unambiguous pre-3.1 Ga craton cover or craton mar-
to better understand these events and their possible rela- gin sedimentary sequences. After 3.0 Ga, however, the
tionships to one another. Kaapvaal and Pilbara Cratons, which formed at about
The discussion covers a broad spectrum of processes 3.1–3.0 Ga, provided long-lived stable surfaces that were
and events in the very distant, dimly viewed past from periodically flooded by shallow seas that hosted luxuri-
the generation of continental crust and formation of ant biological communities and accumulated sequences
cratons to atmospheric and climatic change to biolog- of terrestrial to shallow-marine sediments that contain a
ical evolution. The interpretation of these events, and still only slightly deformed and altered record of life and
in many cases the events themselves, are controversial environments on extensive, low-relief, largely stable cra-
and our analysis here is necessarily brief and speculative ton surfaces. Comparison of early life and environments
at many points. However, we feel that there is an inter- based on sediments deposited in these two vastly differ-
nally consistent set of observations and interpretations ent tectonic, magmatic, and depositional settings cannot
that help to link tectonic, atmospheric, climatic, and bio- be done without due consideration for the inherent dif-
logical events over this interval of time. We are not the ferences in the resulting sedimentary and biological
first to recognize these relationships. From early mod- records.
ern discussions of the relationships between crustal and
sedimentary evolution (Veizer and Jansen, 1979, 1985; 2. Archean environment and life 3.5–3.0 Ga
Taylor and McLennan, 1985) to early suggestions of
the more complex interrelationships among crust, atmo- Recent studies of the pre-3.0 Ga earth have outlined
sphere, and ocean evolution (Lowe, 1992, 1994b; Des a considerably different picture of early Archean life
Marais, 1994; Carver and Vardavas, 1994, 1995) to mod- and surface environments than had been suggested pre-
ern efforts to link the evolution of the crust, atmosphere, viously. For the purposes of this discussion, we divide
climate, ocean, and life (Schwartzman, 1999; Bekker et the history of the 3.5–2.4 Ga interval into three main
al., 2001; Lindsay and Brasier, 2002; Tice and Lowe, divisions: 3.5–3.0, 3.0–2.7, 2.7–2.4 Ga. Three principal
2004), there has been a continuing effort to develop syn- aspects of the earth’s surface system will be considered
thetic, integrated pictures of the evolution of the earth’s for each time division: (1) the nature and amount of con-
surface system. While we have sought to include as many tinental crust; (2) atmospheric composition and climate;
of the critical literature references as possible, the sheer (3) the nature of early life.
number has made it impossible to acknowledge all of the
significant contributions and we apologize in advance to 2.1. Continental crust before 3.0 Ga
any authors of key papers that we have inadvertently
missed or left out. There are currently two rather divergent pictures of
The preserved geologic record itself makes clarifi- the amount of continental crust in existence early in
cation and comparisons of events during this 1 billion earth’s history (Fig. 1). Armstrong (1968, 1981) has pre-
year long interval difficult. The record of geologic sented isotopic evidence that the inventory of continental
events before 3.0 Ga lies solely within greenstone belt crust grew rapidly before 4.0 Ga and that there was as
D.R. Lowe, M.M. Tice / Precambrian Research 158 (2007) 177–197 179
The preserved sedimentary record also provides no

evidence for the existence of large continental blocks
or cratons before 3.1 Ga. Such evidence could include
(1) geochemical signatures of chemical sediments indi-
cating that continental crust influenced the composition
of sea water, (2) the presence of abundant and persis-
tent detritus derived from differentiated igneous rocks,
mainly coarse quartz and potassium feldspar, and (3)
the formation of sedimentary basins on or around cra-
tons and filled with thick sequences of craton-derived
Fig. 1. Generalized models for the growth of cratonic blocks of conti- sediments. There are many small blocks of differenti-
nental crust over time. Present-day age distribution of cratonic blocks ated high-grade pre-3.1 Ga crust (Windley, 1995), but no
and the preserved sedimentary record suggest that surface inventory of evidence that these represent fragments of much larger
cratons has increased gradually but episodically over time, as shown
by the stepwise growth curve.
pre-3.1 Ga cratons or associated craton cover or craton
margin sedimentary sequences. The pre-3.1 Ga geologic
record is dominated by altered and deformed volcanic
much or more continental crust in existence 4.0–3.5 Ga and sedimentary “supracrustal” greenstone sequences.
as there is today. Similar results have been suggested by The best preserved and most studied include the Isua
other workers based on Nb/U ratios in volcanic rocks Supracrustal belt in west Greenland ∼3.8 Ga and the
(e.g., Sylvester et al., 1997; Campbell, 2003) and Hf iso- much better preserved Pilbara and Barberton greenstone
topic studies of pre-4.0 Ga recycled zircons (Harrison belts, 3.5–3.2 Ga, in Western Australia and South Africa,
et al., 2005; Hartlaub et al., 2005). However, Condie respectively. In the following discussion, the geologic
et al. (2005) note that while Hf isotope compositions of development of the BGB and Pilbara granite-greenstone
detrital zircons can be useful in identifying juvenile con- terrains are reviewed with an aim of evaluating their
tinental sources from which the zircons were derived, the implications for the evolution of the continental crust.
results do not necessarily easily translate into the vol-
ume of juvenile continental crust produced during the 2.1.1. Barberton granite-greenstone terrain
corresponding time interval. (BGGT)
In contrast, a great deal of evidence has also been The Barberton greenstone belt (BGB), South Africa
presented suggesting a more continuous increase in the and Swaziland (Fig. 2), provides a good example of
inventory of continental crust over time (Veizer and the development of these early greenstone sequences
Jansen, 1979; Allègre and Othman, 1980; McLennan and (Lowe and Byerly, in press). The BGB preserves a
Taylor, 1982; Taylor and McLennan, 1985, 1995; Nelson reasonably continuous record of volcanism and sed-
and DePaolo, 1985; McCulloch and Bennet, 1994; Lowe, imentation from at least 3547 ± 3 Ma (Kröner et al.,
1992; Godderis and Veizer, 2000; and many others). 1991) to about 3220 Ma (Lowe and Byerly, 1999, in
The age spectrum of preserved Precambrian continen- press). Xenocrystic zircons 3702 ± 1 Ma in one 3450 ± 3
tal crust suggests a more progressive, if episodic growth Ma TTG unit suggest the existence of even older
pattern. Although area versus age plots of continental differentiated intrusive or volcanic rocks in the area
crust have been interpreted as a power law distribution (Kröner et al., 1996). The greenstone record is domi-
reflecting the effects of the greater amount of recycling nated by rocks of the 10–12 km thick Onverwacht Group
of older crustal blocks (Veizer and Jansen, 1985), over deposited from 3547 to ∼3260 Ma and the lower Fig Tree
50% of the present-day preserved Precambrian continen- Group, ∼3260–3230 Ma. This sequence consists largely
tal crust formed during a very narrow window between of mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks, thinner felsic
about 2.75 and 2.6 Ga (Lowe, 1992; Rey et al., 2003) volcanic units, and mainly thin intervening sedimentary
and another 30% formed in the Paleoproterozoic, about layers, now mostly cherts, representing silicified pyro-
2.0–1.7 Ga (Lowe, 1992). This distribution suggests clastic, chemical, and biogenic sediments (Lowe and
that there is much more extant Archean and Paleo- Byerly, 1999). It formed through a series of mafic to
proterozoic continental crust than a simple recycling felsic cycles over an interval of 300+ myr. Each cycle
model would indicate and that preserved distributions included eruption of a thick mafic to ultramafic vol-
probably bear some general relationship to the relative canic succession that, toward the close of the cycle, was
amounts of crust formed during the major intervals of intruded at by TTG magmas and capped by comagmatic
Precambrian time. felsic volcanic rocks. The Barberton granite-greenstone
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of rocks in the southern part of the Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa.
terrain includes at least four such cycles with episodes bearing felsic volcanic units; of orogenic sediments
of TTG magmatism at ∼3509 Ma, ∼3445 Ma, probably derived from widespread uplift and erosion of underlying
∼3330 Ma, and ∼3260–3225 Ma (Lowe and Byerly, in parts of the greenstone belt itself; of major sedimentary
press). basins in which sediments accumulated; and of debris
There is a striking absence within BGB sediments derived by the erosion of rocks external to the green-
deposited 3547–3230 Ma of detrital units containing stone belt. There is no evidence that a substantially older,
abundant coarse quartz, other than local volcaniclastic thick cratonic basement lay beneath the developing mafic
layers derived from penecontemporaneous quartz- and ultramafic volcanic sequence, although it is clear
that younger parts of the sequence were erupted and canism (Van Kranendonk et al., 2002; Hickman, 2004).
deposited over deeply buried older TTG units. There is Predominantly TTG intrusive suites were intruded
an absence of sediments or basins indicating cratonic 3600–3420 Ma and more potassic suites at 3321–3303,
blocks served as sources of sediment to the greenstone 3252–3242, ∼2935, and ∼2850 Ma (Van Kranendonk et
belt or that large blocks of continental crust interacted al., 2004). Sedimentary sequences dominate after about
with the greenstone terrain through tectonic processes, 3310 Ma. There are no obvious equivalents in the Pil-
such as collision. bara of the predominantly ultramafic, <3334–3240 Ma
The first major episode of regional deformation, Mendon and Weltevreden Formations in the BGB. The
crustal thickening, and tectonic shortening occurred sedimentary sequences include thick clastic succes-
from about 3230 to 3225 Ma (de Ronde and Kamo, sions derived by erosion of the greenstone sequence
2000) during sedimentation of the upper part of the Fig and associated plutons. Tectonic events, including uplift
Tree Group (Fig. 2). Subsequent deformation accom- associated with diapiric emplacement of plutonic com-
panied and followed deposition of the Moodies Group plexes marked the interval from about 3315 to 3240 Ma.
after 3225 Ma. This activity culminated with the intru- Igneous and tectonic activity culminated with the intru-
sion of granitic sheets and plutons and formation of the sion of rocks of the GMS (granite-monzonite-syenite)
Kaapvaal Craton at about 3.1 Ga. The primary sources suite at ∼2935 and ∼2850.
of sediment to the Fig Tree and Moodies Groups were The West Pilbara terrane includes younger greenstone
the greenstone belt itself and TTG plutons emplaced and granitoid rocks than the East Pilbara. Mafic and
into the roots of the belt (Heubeck and Lowe, 1999; ultramafic volcanism occurred from >3270 Ma to about
Hessler, 2001). The Fig Tree and Moodies Groups also 3115 Ma and, in the Malina Basin separating the East
contain microcline and sparse clasts of microcline bear- and West Pilbara terranes, sporadic mafic and felsic vol-
ing granitic rocks, but some local tonalities contain canism to at least 2975 Ma (Smithies et al., 1999; Van
5–10% microcline and could have been the primary Kranendonk et al., 2002) with TTG and more felsic intru-
sources of this mineral. There is no unambiguous evi- sive activity from 3270 to 3260, 3160 to 3060, and 3015
dence for derivation of Fig Tree and Moodies sediments to 2940 Ma. Greenstone belt volcanism persisted in the
from cratonic blocks. This stands in stark contrast to Pilbara for at least 100 and perhaps 150 years beyond that
younger sedimentary sequences that widely include sub- in the BGB and the latest GMS plutons were emplaced
stantially older recycled components, including zircons, at about 2940–2935 Ma, some 150–170 myr later that
from Proterozoic and Archean continental blocks and comparable plutons in the eastern Kaapvaal Craton. The
show the characteristic deposition of craton-derived sed- earliest craton-cover sediments deposited on the newly
iments in and around the older continental blocks (Veizer formed, uplifted, and eroded Pilbara craton are ∼2.8 Ga
and Jansen, 1979, 1985; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; clastic units of the basal Fortescue Group.
McLennan and Taylor, 1982, 1991).
2.1.3. Crustal development before 3.0 Ga
2.1.2. Pilbara Craton None of the pre-3.1 Ga sequences studied to date
The Pilbara Craton is a much larger and more com- reflects sedimentation on, adjacent to, or clearly influ-
plex crustal unit than the BGGT, which forms a small enced by craton-sized blocks of continental crust. The
part of the overall Kaapvaal Craton, and represents an greenstone belts formed through the effusion of thick
amalgamation of at least three terranes that display com- units of mafic to ultramafic lavas punctuated by the
plex and independent histories (see reviews of Hickman, intrusion of TTG (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite)
2004; Van Kranendonk et al., 2002, 2004): the large, plutons and eruption of comagmatic felsic volcanic
3.72–2.85 Ga East Pilbara granite-greenstone terrane; rocks. Their development involved the formation of
the 3.27–2.92 West Pilbara granite-greenstone terrane; small, buoyant blocks of differentiated “continental”
and the small <3.29 Ga Kuranna terrane. These are crust as TTG intrusive complexes and felsic volcanic
separated by two late, dominantly clastic-filled sedi- units, which were locally exposed and onlapped by
mentary basins formed 3.01–2.93 Ga (Van Kranendonk younger greenstone volcanic and sedimentary units and
et al., 2002). The oldest components in the East Pil- locally yielded quartzose and feldspathic sandstones
bara terrane are xenocrystic zircons ∼3.72 Ga. Younger through weathering and erosion. However, these were
greenstone components from ∼3.51 to ∼3.31 Ga reflect locally derived sedimentary units that were rapidly
mafic- or ultramafic-to-felsic igneous cycles similar to buried beneath younger greenstone-belt volcanic rocks.
those in the BGGT involving initial mafic to ultramafic There is no evidence that they were amalgamated and
volcanism followed by TTG intrusion and felsic vol- thickened to form large cratonic blocks until about 3.1 Ga
in the BGB and 3.0–2.9 Ga in the Pilbara region of West- not amalgamated and incorporated into large cratonic
ern Australia. blocks until ∼3.1–2.95 Ga. Hence, large amounts of dif-
In contrast, after 3.1 Ga in the BGGT and 3.0–2.9 Ga ferentiated crustal components did form early in earth
in the Pilbara, the 3.0–2.9 Ga Pongola and 2.8–2.7 Ga history, and formed major components of thick, pre-
Fortescue Supergroups, respectively, were deposited 3.1 granite-greenstone terrains, but large, uplifted and
on the eroded granite-greenstone cratonic roots. exposed continents and cratons that could significantly
Both are only slightly deformed and reflect deposi- influence surface systems and the sedimentary record
tion of shallow-water to terrestrial, generally quartz- did not begin to form until about 3.1 Ga. Hence, it is felt
and potassium-feldspar-rich clastic sediments sourced that the stepwise growth curve best reflects the episodi-
largely by cratonic basement with interbedded stroma- cally increasing formation and influence of large cratonic
tolitic carbonates. These units unambiguously reflect blocks of continental crust on sedimentary and tectonic
sedimentation on thickened, stable cratonic blocks systems although smaller pieces of differentiated, con-
of continental crust. These and younger craton-cover tinental crust may have formed and accumulated more
sequences have provided the principal safe houses for the continuously over geologic time.
long-term storage and preservation of sedimentary rocks,
including carbonates, and their records of climatic, atmo- 2.2. Atmospheric evolution and climate before
spheric, and biological events. 3.0 Ga
Lowe (1992) has argued that the tectonic styles
accompanying the major episodes of craton formation at A range of interpretation exists for pre-3.0 Ga sur-
3.1–3.0, 2.75–2.6, 2.0–1.7 Ga, and the Neoproterozoic face temperatures from very cold (Bada et al., 1994;
(1.0–0.6 Ga) show progressive changes that reflect the Valley et al., 2002) to very hot (Knauth and Lowe,
increasing activity and participation of large blocks of 1978, 2003; Schwartzman, 1999; Schwartzman and
continental crust in the formation of new crustal blocks, Lineweaver, 2004; Lowe and Tice, 2004). Knauth and
suggesting an increasing inventory of large, rigid cra- Lowe (2003) have argued that the δ18 O compositions
tonic blocks over time. Finally, the chemical record of of many cherts representing silicified sediments in the
seawater composition indicates that the major change 3.5–3.2 Ga Barberton greenstone belt (BGB), South
from a sea-floor/mantle to a continent buffered ocean did Africa, were set when disordered silica deposited from
not occur until about 2.5 Ga (Veizer et al., 1982; Kamber marine waters was converted to quartz at burial depths
and Webb, 2001). of <1 km. The isotopic composition of early diagenetic
We would suggest that the apparent conflict between chert is influenced by the surface temperature at the time
the two current pictures of early crustal evolution reflects of quartz formation and the isotopic composition of the
the contrasting data sets on which they are based. waters from which the quartz precipitated. In the least
Arguments for abundant pre-3.1 Ga continental crust altered parts of the BGB sequence, these compositions
are based mainly on geochemical evidence for either have not been substantially changed by later diagenetic
the early segregation of large amounts of differentiated and metamorphic events or by slow, long-term exchange
“continental” crust from the mantle or for early crustal with subsurface waters (Knauth and Lowe, 2003). While
thicknesses comparable to modern continental values. the possibility of an early ocean substantially depleted
Much of the evidence against abundant early continental in 18 O cannot currently be excluded (e.g., Kasting et al.,
crust derives from studies of the influence of continental 2006), results to date suggest that the 18 O composition
crust on sedimentary systems, which requires the exis- of sea water has been essentially constant for most of
tence of large, exposed cratons subject to weathering geologic time (Muehlenbachs and Clayton, 1976; Gre-
and erosion. Recent interpretations of the development gory and Taylor, 1981; Muehlenbachs, 1998; Lecuyer
of both the Pilbara Craton (Van Kranendonk et al., 2002) and Allemand, 1999). Taken at face value, the least
and the Barberton portion of the Kaapvaal Craton (Lowe altered cherts analyzed indicate surface temperatures of
and Byerly, in press) suggest that although TTG plutons, 70 ± 15 ◦ C at 3.5–3.2 Ga. High Archean surface temper-
felsic volcanic rocks, and even more highly differenti- atures are also suggested by studies of the silicon isotopic
ated rocks were present in abundance as far back as at composition of cherts (Robert and Chaussidon, 2006).
least 3.7 Ga, these rocks often lay buried beneath thick Such high temperatures point to the presence of an
carapaces of mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks and effective early greenhouse, which some recent authors
sediments, were not uplifted and exposed to weathering have suggested, based on geologic evidence, was con-
and erosion, other than locally and generally for short trolled by high levels of atmospheric CO2 (Lowe
intervals of time, until about 3,230–3220 Ma, and were and Tice, 2004; Ohmoto et al., 2004) and CH4 with
CH4 /CO2 1 (Lowe and Tice, 2004). The deposition of slow exhumation, such that chemical weathering could
nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 ) from marine proceed.” Even the depositional basin(s) in which the
waters 3.45–3.2 Ga (Lowe and Fisher-Worrell, 1999; sediments were accumulating were undergoing uplift
Sugitani et al., 2003) requires minimum atmospheric related to faulting along their margins (Heubeck and
CO2 levels of 1.4–15% at temperatures of 55–85 ◦ C Lowe, 1994a,b) and were clearly receiving sediments
(Lowe and Tice, 2004). Actual atmospheric CO2 lev- from rapidly rising mountain belts through the activities
els may have been substantially higher, perhaps as much of energetic, sand and gravel carrying rivers and streams.
as several bars. Siderite-rich weathering rinds on pebbles There would have been little opportunity for the deep
in the 3.2 Ga Moodies group also indicate higher levels weathering of such materials in the source area, within
of CO2 in the early atmosphere (Hessler et al., 2004). the transport system, or at the sites of deposition. The
Recently, Sleep and Hessler (2006) have argued model system developed by Sleep and Hessler (2006)
against a hot pre-3.2 Ga climate because predicted effects and clarified by Sleep and Hessler (2007) as not being
of the chemical weathering of chert and quartz at high aimed “to directly model the Moodies terrane,” is in
surface temperatures are not observed in preserved fact totally unlike the surface system that prevailed
Archean sedimentary units. Problems with this analy- during Moodies erosion, transport and sedimentation.
sis have been addressed by Lowe (2007) and will be Because Moodies sediments are the only ones discussed
reviewed only briefly here. The only Archean sedi- in this analysis, it is not clear which Archean sediments
mentary units considered by Sleep and Hessler (2006) examined by these authors were deposited under the
are conglomerates, sandstones, and rare shales of the model conditions but lack the weathering and disso-
∼3.2 Ga Moodies Group in the BGB. The 3000+ m lution effects predicted by the model at high surface
of quartz- and feldspar-rich sandstone of the Moodies temperatures.
Group reflect orogenic uplift (Lamb, 1984; Jackson et In fact, the Moodies Group shows three main
al., 1987; de Wit, 1991; Heubeck and Lowe, 1994a,b, characteristics suggesting formation in a highly aggres-
1999; Eriksson et al., 1994) and weathering, mainly sive weathering system: (1) Moodies conglomerates,
of coarse, TTG plutonic rocks and subordinate vol- although derived from a source terrain composed largely
canic and sedimentary rocks of the greenstone belt of TTG intrusive units and subordinate mafic and ultra-
sequence (Heubeck and Lowe, 1999; Hessler, 2001). mafic volcanic rocks, are composed mainly of clasts of
However, Sleep and Hessler (2006) restricted their anal- chert representing the most refractory but volumetrically
ysis “to sediments derived during periods of relatively minor components of the greenstone sequence (Heubeck
slow exhumation, such that chemical weathering could and Lowe, 1999). There has been the almost total
proceed.” They characterize the terrain as a “low-relief removal of more labile constituents, such as komatiitic
surface with granitic and chert outcrops. By assump- and basaltic volcanic rocks. (2) Sandstones in the Mood-
tion, the low-gradient streams in this terrain readily carry ies Group are composed largely of quartz (60–80%)
material in solution from the watershed, but are inef- and mostly monocrystalline quartz (40–60%), potassium
fective at removing solids, including clays.” Sleep and feldspar (0–20%), and lithic grains (10–30%) (Heubeck
Hessler (2007) subsequently suggest that this character- and Lowe, 1999). These quartz contents represent a 5 to
ization refers only to the site of sedimentation and that >10-fold increase in monocrystalline quartz over those
the weathering model and effects do not apply specif- of the potential source rocks. (3) Plagioclase, the major
ically to the Moodies Group. They conclude that, “At component of the TTG source rocks, comprises less than
low denudation rates, the quartz and chert that do not 2–3% of most Moodies sandstones. More labile source-
dissolve end up as clay and silt-sized fragments. We area components, including ferromagnesian minerals,
clearly do not see these features in the Archean,” and, mafic and komatiitic volcanic rocks, and non-silicified
hence, “field observations indicate that quartz in the sediments, representing perhaps 20% of the source rocks,
Archean mostly resisted chemical weathering, like it form a minor part (<1%) of Moodies sediments or are
does under modern clement conditions” and therefore absent altogether. Sediments of the Moodies Group dis-
“the Archean climate was not especially hot” (Sleep and play evidence of extreme weathering in spite of the
Hessler, 2006). fact they were derived from an orogenic source terrane
Lowe (2007) noted a number of problems with this that would have lacked vegetative cover and soils in
analysis. Most importantly, upper Fig Tree and Moodies which weathering could have progressed beyond sim-
sediments represent the major period of orogenesis, ple loosening of grains from their surrounding matrix.
deformation, and uplift of rocks within the Barberton We suggest that these weathering features are most con-
granite-greenstone terrain, not an interval of “relatively sistent with the type of aggressive weathering that would
result under a hot early climate beneath a CO2 -rich atmo- 2.3. Life before 3.1 Ga
sphere.
Sleep and Zahnle (2001) and Zahnle and Sleep (2002) The geologic record of life or putative life before
have argued based on theoretical calculations and mod- 3.1 Ga is widespread and abundant, but its interpretation,
els of the early plate tectonic system that an early CO2 like aspects of the early surface environment discussed
greenhouse would have rapidly dissipated as CO2 was above, is controversial. The putative biological origins of
deposited on oceanic crust in the form of carbonate and carbonaceous matter (graphite), apatites, carbonate, and
recycled back into the mantle. However, uncertainties iron formation in the oldest metasedimentary rocks, the
about the nature of pre-3.0 Ga tectonic and sedimentary ∼3.8 Isua and Akilia supracrustal units in west Green-
regimes, including the possibility that vertical rather than land, remain in doubt, and recent studies have shown that
horizontal tectonics dominated crustal development until some and perhaps all of these materials may have orig-
∼3.2–3.1 Ga (Van Kranendonk et al., 2004), make such inated through strictly abiotic metamorphic processes
calculations premature. (van Zuilen et al., 2002, 2003; Lepland et al., 2002).
O2 levels in the pre-3.0 Ga atmosphere have been In the younger and better preserved 3.5–3.2 Ga green-
explored based on mineral studies, paleosols, and redox- stone belts, the available record includes (1) abundant
sensitive sediments, although much of the data in fact carbonaceous matter preserved mainly in cherts and
derive\from post-3.0 Ga rocks. With notable exceptions shales, (2) putative stromatolites, and (3) possible micro-
(e.g., Ohmoto, 1997, 2004), the prevailing view has been fossils. Useful molecular biomarkers have not yet been
that Archean O2 levels were low, <10−4 bar, and that identified in pre-3.0 Ga sedimentary rocks. Carbona-
the surface environment was essentially anoxic (Walker ceous matter is abundant in many Archean cherts and
et al., 1983; Holland, 1984; Rye and Holland, 1998; most shows carbon isotopic fractionation consistent with
Rasmussen and Buick, 1999; Holland, 2002; and many fixation via autotrophic pathways, which has widely
others). Perhaps the most persuasive evidence for low been taken as indicting a biological origin (Schidlowski
O2 partial pressures before 3.0 Ga derives from sulfur et al., 1983; Schidlowski, 1988, 2000, 2001). How-
isotopic studies (Fig. 3). Wide fluctuations in the Δ33 S ever, recent studies have shown that simple organic
composition of pyrite, barite, and other sedimentary and compounds, including methane, ethane, and propane
early diagenetic sulfur-bearing minerals in pre-3.0 Ga (Foustoukos and Seyfried, 2004), are produced abioti-
sedimentary rocks result from mass-independent frac- cally in modern high-temperature sea floor hydrothermal
tionation of sulfur isotopes in the upper atmosphere, systems associated with the alteration of ultramafic rocks
reflecting extremely low-levels of atmospheric oxygen (Horita and Berndt, 1999; Holm and Charlou, 2001).
and the absence of an ozone layer in the Archean These compounds show isotopic fractionation of car-
(Farquhar et al., 2000; Ono et al., 2003; Farquhar and bon similar to that resulting from biological processes
Wing, 2003; Rumble, 2005). (Horita and Berndt, 1999). Brasier et al. (2002, 2004,
2005) have used these results to argue that most if not
all carbonaceous matter in Archean sediments should
be regarded as being of abiological hydrothermal origin
until “mutually supporting contextural, morphological
and geochemical evidence for a bacterial rather than
abiotic origin is forthcoming” (Brasier et al., 2004),
although Brasier et al. (2006) have subsequently dis-
cussed the possible biogenicity of some pre-3.0 Ga
structures. This argument ignores the fact that that there
is as yet no known mechanism that does not involve
organisms for transforming the simple volatile organic
compounds that can be produced within hydrothermal
systems into the more complex solid organic matter
and structures represented by the carbonaceous matter
Fig. 3. Top: age distribution of sulfur isotope anomalies. Data from in these ancient sequences (Fig. 2 and Tice and Lowe,
Bekker et al. (2004), Farquhar et al. (2000), Hu et al. (2003), Mojzsis 2006b). Until there is at least a potential abiotic pathway
et al. (2003), Ono et al. (2003), and Ohmoto et al. (2005, 2006) and
Watanabe et al. (2005). Bottom: inferred surface temperatures and
to produce the observed morphologies and ecological
tectonic regimes during 3.55–2.0 Ga interval. Periods of cool surface distribution of carbonaceous matter observed in these
climate correspond to intervals of low variations in Δ33 S. 3.5–3.2 Ga sequences, a biological origin provides the
water. An analysis of the distribution of the carbonaceous

matter and geochemistry of the associated cherts led
Tice and Lowe (2006a) to conclude that the organisms
were H2 -utilizing, anoxygenic photoautotrophs. These
studies provide the coupled “contextural, morphological
and geochemical evidence” alluded to by Brasier et al.
(2004).
Although there have been suggestions that cyanobac-
teria and oxygenic photosynthesis evolved before 3.2 Ga
based on the morphology of putative filamentous micro-
fossils (Schopf and Packer, 1987; Schopf, 1992) and
the presence of stromatolite-like structures (Lowe, 1980;
Walter et al., 1980; Hofmann et al., 1999), questions
have been raised about the biological origin of both
microfossils (Buick, 1984; Brasier et al., 2002) and
stromatolites (Lowe, 1994a). In pre-3.0 Ga rocks most
putative three-dimensional stromatolites (Lowe, 1980;
Walter et al., 1980; Byerly et al., 1986; and others) are
small, poorly developed, and of uncertain biological ori-
gin (Lowe, 1994a). Most are limited to small isolated
Fig. 4. Carbonaceous matter in the ∼3.4 Ga Buck Reef Chert, Barber- structures except for regionally developed small coni-
ton greenstone belt, South Africa. The structured carbonaceous matter
includes layers of fine detrital particles (bottom) and large composite
cal forms (Fig. 5) in the 3.43 Ga Strelley Pool Chert,
detrital grains (center). The large grains are draped by fine mat-like eastern Pilbara Craton, Western Australia (Lowe, 1980;
laminations. Modified from Tice and Lowe (2006b, Fig. 18). Hofmann et al., 1999; Allwood et al., 2006). Allwood et
al. (2006) present a systematic analysis of their mor-
best and most consistent interpretation of their formation phologies and environmental relationships that lends
(Tice and Lowe, 2006b). support to the proposed role of microbial communities in
Tice and Lowe (2004, 2006a,b) have shown that their formation. However, these structures developed in
carbonaceous matter in the ∼3.4 Ga Buck Reef Chert evaporitic settings, and evaporation-driven precipitation
in the Barberton belt shows morphologies like those may have exerted a significant control on their coni-
of a wide variety of younger microbial remains from cal shape (Lowe, 1994a), although the surfaces of the
shallow marine settings and that the distribution and structures may still have hosted microbial communities.
morphology of this carbonaceous matter is environ- Although these structures provide ambiguous evidence
mentally controlled (Fig. 4). The Buck Reef Chert was for microbial communities at 3.4 Ga, they represent what
deposited on a subsiding felsic volcanic edifice following are the most likely examples of pre-3.0 Ga biological
cessation of volcanic activity and shows an upward tran- stromatolites.
sition from terrestrial clastic sedimentary environments
through hypersaline coastal lagoons to shallow marine,
offshore, and ultimately deep-water settings. In situ mat-
like carbonaceous laminations (Fig. 4) were restricted
to water depths below the wave-active zone and above
storm wave base, which is today approximately coinci-
dent with the base of the photic zone. Based on their
environmental distribution, these mat-like laminations
can best be interpreted as the products of benthic photo-
synthetic microbial communities. In shallower waters,
carbonaceous matter is primarily detrital and appears
to represent mats that have been ripped up by waves
and storms. In deeper water, only fine, granular car-
Fig. 5. Small conical stromatolites from the 3.43 Ga Strelley Pool
bonaceous matter is present representing shallow-water Chert, East Pilbara terrane, Western Australia. During growth, lenses of
mats that were ripped up during storms and the detritus loose sediment accumulated in the troughs between the cones forming
transported as fine suspended particles to settle in deeper the lighter vertical columns in this slab.
Carbonaceous coccoidal and filamentous microfos-

sils have been reported from a number of localities
(Schopf and Barghoorn, 1967; Knoll and Barghoorn,
1977; Byerly et al., 1986; Walsh, 1992; Walsh and Lowe,
1985, 1999; Schopf and Packer, 1987) but it has been
difficult, when dealing with what are basically simple
shapes, to distinguish between what might be abiotic
artefacts and true biological remains. Recently, Brasier et
al. (2002, 2004, 2005) have suggested that most or all of
the carbonaceous matter in these ancient sequences could
Fig. 6. Schematic model of fluctuations in CO2 and CH4 , the develop-
be of abiotic hydrothermal origin. While studies of Tice
ment of cratonic blocks, and climatic history between 3.5 and 2.1 Ga.
and Lowe (2004, 2006a,b) have provided reasonably The CO2 level serves as a proxy for surface temperature. Modified
solid environmental, geochemical, and morphological from Lowe and Tice (2004).
evidence for the biological origins of carbonaceous mat-
ter in these sequences, the actual origins of specific These large, initially high-standing blocks of juvenile
microfossil-like structures remain controversial. crust were subject to long-term weathering and erosion
between 3.2 and 2.8 Ga, gradually lowering atmospheric
3. Archean environment and life 3.0–2.7 Ga CO2 (Carver and Vardavas, 1994, 1995; Lowe, 1994b;
Lowe and Tice, 2004). The culmination of climate col-
3.1. Continental crust 3.0–2.7 Ga lapse may have been a period of glaciation recorded in
the ∼2.9 Ga Mozaan Group of the Pongola Supergroup
Based on an inventory of existing Precambrian con- and correlative strata in the Witwatersrand Supergroup
tinental crust, Lowe (1992) estimated that about 10% of in South Africa (Wiebols, 1955; von Brunn and Gold,
the present-day Precambrian continental crust formed 1993; Young et al., 1998; Nhleko, 2004). Similar but
3.2–3.0 Ga (Fig. 1). This estimate is generally consis- somewhat older diamictites are present in the 3.0 Ga
tent with similar estimates of continental growth rates Nsuze Group of the Pongola Supergroup. These units
by Veizer and Jansen (1979, 1985) and others. The prob- may represent even older glacial deposits, although they
able loss of early crust during later recycling events have not been studied in any detail. While these puta-
makes this a minimum estimate. This early crust, includ- tive glacial deposits have yet to be fully explored, the
ing the present-day Kaapvaal Craton, formed 3.2–3.1 Ga 2.9 Ga units represent a widespread, correlative event of
by the tectonic amalgamation and thickening of the diamictite formation within otherwise shallow marine
3.55–3.2 Ga greenstone terranes and thickening and sta- and alluvial settings. The diamictites are thick, in the case
bilization by intra-crustal melting and intrusion of large of the upper part of the Pongola Supergroup up to 100 m,
volumes of granitic magmas at about 3.1 Ga. The Pilbara continuous over wide areas, and generally not associated
Craton shows a generally similar geologic development, with other features that might indicate a debris-flow ori-
although greenstone activity continued to about 3.0 Ga gin. Young et al. (1998) report varves associated with
and crustal formation was not complete until 3.0–2.9 Ga. the upper Pongola diamictites. Based on examination of
Subsequent erosion of the upper ∼5 km of these newly both Pongola and Witwatersrand diamictites and associ-
formed crustal blocks produced surfaces upon which ini- ated units in the field and core, the authors concur that
tial alluvial and shallow-marine, craton-cover sediments these deposits most likely record an interval of glacia-
were deposited, including sediments of the 3.0–2.8 Ga tion and cold-climate conditions. Like many other major
Pongola Supergroup in South Africa and the 2.8–2.7 Ga glaciations, these early Late Archean glaciations may
Fortescue Supergroup, Western Australia. These are the have been episodic and separated by intervals of less
oldest known craton cover sediments. extreme climatic conditions.
The deposition of organic carbon with δ13 C values of
3.2. Atmospheric evolution and climate 3.0–2.7 Ga −40‰ to −60‰ at 2.8–2.7 Ga (Schidlowski et al., 1983;
Rye and Holland, 1998) has been interpreted to reflect
Collapse of the pre-3.2 Ga greenhouse and the end a gradual rise in the atmospheric CH4 /CO2 ratio until at
of what may have been a prolonged early phase of bio- ∼2.9–2.8 Ga it reached ∼1 (Pavlov et al., 2001). Pavlov
logical evolution at high temperatures appears to have et al. (2001) have also suggested that this increase in the
been brought about by the formation of the first cratons CH4 /CO2 ratio resulted from a positive feedback mech-
between 3.1 and 2.9 Ga (Lowe and Tice, 2004) (Fig. 6). anism: rising pCH4 triggered increasing greenhouse
temperatures that in turn resulted in increased methane

production by methanogens. They also suggested that
increases in CH4 /CO2 ratios would have been enhanced
by concurrent CO2 depletion because of rock weather-
ing resulting from the increasing surface temperatures.
As an alternative model, Lowe and Tice (2004) suggested
that the 2.8–2.7 Ga isotopic excursion was triggered
by collapse of the pre-3.2 Ga CO2 -dominated green-
house because of weathering associated with formation
of large tracts of new continental crust, not from increas-
ing temperatures and rising levels of CH4 . As pCO2
declined, CH4 /CO2 ratios would have increased until
CH4 /CO2 reached ∼1, when isotopically light organic
aerosols would have formed. Aerosol formation would
have driven temperatures even lower through removal of
CH4 from the atmosphere and an antigreenhouse effect.
The atmospheric organic particles would have settled out
to be incorporated into sedimentary deposits as isotopi-
cally light carbon. These events may have commenced
even before 2.9 Ga, but no clear record has yet been
identified and much isotopically light carbon could have
been deposited 3.0–2.8 Ga but simply diluted by normal
background organic carbon.
Although mass-independent fractionation of sulfur in
pre-3.0 Ga sediments is characterized by wide fluctua-
tions in Δ33 S (Farquhar et al., 2000; Ono et al., 2003),
consistent with extremely low-levels of atmospheric
oxygen, similarly large variations in Δ33 S have not been
reported in sediments deposited between 3.0 and 2.75 Ga
(Fig. 3) and recently, Watanabe et al. (2005) and Ohmoto
et al. (2005) have reported an absence of mass indepen-
dent fractionation significantly different from that seen in
Phanerozoic time in 2.92 Ga Mosquito Creek shales and
2.76 Ga shales of the Hardey Formation in the Pilbara
region. While the data are not yet robust, these results
suggest the possibility of one or more atmospheric oxy-
genation events 3.0–2.75 Ga, roughly coincident with
Fig. 7. Earliest probable cyanobacterial stromatolites. (A) Columnar
deposition of the putative glacial deposits. stromatolites in carbonate member of the 3.0 Ga Nsuze Group, Pon-
gola Supergroup, described by Beukes and Lowe (1989). These may be
3.3. Life 3.0–2.7 Ga the oldest known cyanobacterial stromatolites. (B) Small domal stro-
matolite 2.75 Ga, Fortescue Supergroup, Western Australia. (C) Large
Sediments deposited 3.0–2.7 Ga show a number of elongate domal stromatolite, 2.75 Ga, Fortescue Supergroup, Western
Australia.
biological features that contrast strongly with those
deposited before 3.2 Ga. Stromatolites showing com-
plex morphologies consistent with those of Proterozoic, Steep Rock Group, Southern Canada; the 2.8–2.6 Ga
Phanerozoic, and modern cyanobacterial stromatolites, Masvingo, Bulawayo, and Belingwe greenstone belts,
including well-developed and often large domal, colum- Zimbabwe (Kamber et al., 2004); the 2.75 Ga Fortescue
nar, and pseudocolumnar forms, are first recorded in Group, W. Australia; the 2.7 Ga Yellowknife Super-
3.0-Ga shallow marine carbonate units in the Nsuze group, northern Canada; and the 2.7 Ga Ventersdorp
Group, South Africa (Beukes and Lowe, 1989) and are Supergroup, South Africa (Fig. 7). In addition, molecular
widespread in only slightly younger Late Archean rocks fossils recently reported from ∼2.7 Ga rocks in West-
(Walter, 1983), including carbonate units in the 2.9 Ga ern Australia point to the possible existence of both
cyanobacteria and eukaryotes at this time (Summons et or post-2.4 Ga intervals. After 2.4 Ga, perhaps the most
al., 1999; Brocks et al., 1999). Collectively, these fea- striking sedimentary sequences are widespread glacio-
tures, although subject to problems of small numbers genic units deposited on the newly formed continental
and a still poorly explored and sparse geologic record, blocks (Young, 1991; Bekker et al., 2001). This inter-
suggest that major biological innovations and/or shifts in val of climatic instability and glaciation between about
community composition accompanied or immediately 2.45 and 2.2 Ga, has been interpreted to reflect removal
followed collapse of the pre-3.2 Ga high-temperature of CO2 from the atmosphere as a consequence of
greenhouse and the establishment of a cooler climate Neoarchean continental growth and dynamics (Carver
3.0–2.9 Ga. Similar arguments for surface tempera- and Vardavas, 1994, 1995; Bekker et al., 2001; Lindsay
ture constraints on early microbial evolution have been and Brasier, 2002).
voiced by Schwartzman et al. (1993) and Schwartzman The climatic regime 2.7–2.5 is more problematic.
(1999). The anomalously light δ13 C values of organic carbon
It cannot yet be determined whether cyanobac- disappear at about 2.7 Ga and do not persist into the
teria and oxygenic photosynthesis actually evolved latest Neoarchean, suggesting either that atmospheric
3.0–2.7 Ga, as suggested by some (e.g., Hayes, 1983), or CH4 /CO2 ratio returned to <1 and aerosol produc-
whether decreasing climatic temperatures allowed pre- tion ceased or that isotopically light methane aerosols
viously struggling cyanobacterial groups that evolved were overwhelmed by isotopically “normal” biolog-
before 3.0 Ga to bloom and expand as the climate became ical organic carbon. However, high magnitude Δ33 S
more hospitable. The Cambrian explosion of metazoan values, between −2.7‰ and +8.7‰, return in post-
groups was probably preceded by a prolonged interval of 2.7 Ga rocks (Farquhar et al., 2000; Ono et al., 2003).
metazoan evolution in which the major taxa evolved and These results suggest that once again O2 levels in the
differentiated and their appearance in the fossil record atmosphere were extremely low and remained so until
more reflects an adaptation to environmental conditions past the end of the Archean (Farquhar et al., 2000;
and the evolution of hard parts than the actual point Farquhar and Wing, 2003; Ono et al., 2003; Rumble,
in time at which the taxa evolved (Knoll and Carroll, 2005).
1999). A similarly long evolutionary history may have We would suggest that as relief on the continen-
characterized cyanobacteria before their earliest known tal blocks that formed 3.2–2.9 Ga was reduced by
appearance in the geologic record at 3.0 Ga as stromato- erosion and the basement surfaces covered by sedi-
lites or 2.7 Ga as molecular biomarkers. ments, recycling of CO2 via tectonic processes may
have eventually outstripped CO2 removal by weather-
4. Archean environment and life 2.7–2.4 Ga ing and atmospheric CO2 levels began to rise. This
could have both decreased the CH4 /CO2 ratio to the
4.1. Continental crust 2.7–2.4 Ga point that CH4 /CO2 1, which would have turned off
the generation of methane haze at about 2.7 Ga. In
The period from about 2.75 to 2.65 Ga represents addition, widespread volcanism 2.75–2.65 Ga associ-
perhaps the most significant episode of new continen- ated with the Neoarchean greenstone belt activity may
tal crust formation and reworking of older continental have been accompanied by the release of large amounts
crust in earth history (Taylor and McLennan, 1985, 1995; of new and recycled CO2 . We suggest that by about
McLennan and Taylor, 1991; Lowe, 1994b; Condie, 2.7 Ga, surface temperatures had again increased to
1995; Rey et al., 2003; and many others). The forma- >60 ◦ C due to re-establishment of an effective CO2 and
tion and amalgamation of greenstone belts through the CH4 greenhouse (Fig. 6). CH4 would have increased in
development and collapse of magmatic arcs during this abundance as O2 production by cyanobacteria declined
period led to the generation of at least 50% of the Pre- as temperatures rose >60 ◦ C. These warm temper-
cambrian continental crust that exists today (Fig. 1). atures apparently persisted, perhaps with significant
Between about 2.6 and 2.4 Ga, this new crust was deeply fluctuations, until ∼2.5 Ga, when erosion of the newly
eroded and after about 2.4 Ga, it became the site for the formed Neoarchean cratons began to strip CO2 from the
deposition of new craton cover sediments. atmosphere.
4.2. Atmospheric evolution and climate 2.7–2.4 Ga 4.3. Life 2.7–2.5 Ga
Less attention has focused specifically on the cli- Biological trends established 3.0–2.7 Ga may not
mate of the 2.7–2.4 Ga interval than on either the pre-2.7 have persisted until the close of the Archean. If ris-
tiated crust, especially TTG intrusive complexes

and a few microcontinental remnants of still older
crust, all were apparently small and most lay buried
beneath thick sections of greenstone belt volcanic
rocks until about 3.3–3.2 Ga. Most of the greenstone
sequences show evidence for submarine deposition
and only local uplift and significant elevation of the
rock surfaces above sea level. As a result of the
absence of large, high-standing continental blocks,
weathering was a minor sink for CO2 and surface
temperatures were hot, maintained between 73 and
60 ◦ C by a CO2 and CH4 greenhouse within which
CH4 /CO2 1. Within this temperature range, pho-
tosynthesis is possible but all modern photosynthetic
organisms living at these temperatures are poorly
motile. Microbial mats are widely preserved within
sediments deposited within the photic zone dur-
ing this time, probably representing anoxygenic
photoautotrophs (Tice and Lowe, 2004, 2006a,b).
Large three-dimensional stromatolites are absent.
Cyanobacteria, if they had evolved, were minor play-
ers in the biological community and any oxygen they
may have produced was consumed locally and did
not accumulate in the atmosphere. Extremely low
Fig. 8. Typical cyanobacterial stromatolites growing on shallow sub- atmospheric O2 levels were associated with mass-
merged surfaces of stable cratonic blocks during the Neoarchean.
independent fractionation of sulfur, characterized by
(A) Large stromatolites developed on thickened continental crust,
2.6–2.5 Ga, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. (B) Small columnar wide fluctuations in Δ33 S of sedimentary barite and
stromatolites, 2.6–2.5 Ga, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. pyrite.
(2) The interval 3.2–3.0 or 2.9 Ga is poorly represented
ing surface temperatures in the Late Archean saw the by sedimentary units, but was an interval of conti-
return of surface temperatures > 60 ◦ C, cyanobacteria nental crust formation: at least 10% of the preserved
may have again been largely replaced in marine micro- Precambrian continental crust formed at this time,
bial communities by higher-temperature thermophiles, including the Kaapvaal and Pilbara Cratons (Lowe,
slowing O2 production, leading to stronger MIF and 1992). This new crust was high standing and sub-
a resulting wider range of Δ33 S values, and delaying jected to deep, long-term weathering and erosion,
the point in time when free O2 was able to accumulate which resulted in the stripping of CO2 from the
in abundance in the atmosphere. The sporadic presence atmosphere.
of well-developed stromatolites between 2.7 and 2.5 Ga (3) From 3.0 to 2.7 Ga CO2 loss through weathering,
(Fig. 8) suggests that this may have been an interval CH4 loss through the formation of methane haze
of atmospheric, climatic, and biological instability, with as CO2 /CH4 dropped to ∼1, and possibly anti-
intervals of high >60 ◦ C temperatures alternating with greenhouse cooling due to methane haze formation
intervals during which surface temperatures were below collectively resulted in climate collapse and glacia-
60 ◦ C (Fig. 6). tion by 2.9 Ga and perhaps as early as 3.0 Ga.
Cyanobacteria, whether they had evolved at this time
5. Discussion or under the earlier hot climate, displaced high-
temperature anoxygenic photoautotrophs within
5.1. Archean evolutionary scenario microbial communities. Their remains are repre-
sented by the first large, morphologically modern
(1) From >3.5 to 3.2 Ga, the available rock record sug- stromatolites in rocks about 3.0 Ga in the Nsuze
gests that the earth’s surface was dominated by a Group of the Pongola Supergroup. The oxy-
basaltic and komatiitic crust. Although there were gen produced by cyanobacteria probably scrubbed
probably many blocks of more buoyant differen- remaining methane from the atmosphere and eventu-
ally accumulated to levels sufficient to reduce mass 5.2. CO2 versus CH4 as the principal greenhouse
independent fractionation. Δ33 S values show only gas
narrow departures from 0 to 3.0–2.8 Ga. These levels
may have been substantially below those necessary It has been suggested that the Archean atmosphere
for depletion of the reservoir of reduced iron in the may have had methane as the principal greenhouse gas
deep ocean, oxidation of surface mineral grains, and (Kasting, 2004, 2005). If so, the collapse of an early
the formation of red beds, effects that appear dur- methane-mediated greenhouse could have been driven
ing more widespread atmospheric oxygenation in after 3.0 Ga by the rise in atmospheric oxygen due to
Proterozoic time. the evolution or expansion of cyanobacteria, as has been
(4) 2.7–2.4 Ga. As the continental blocks that had proposed for the Paleoproterozoic glaciations (Kasting
formed 3.2–2.9 Ga were reduced by erosion and et al., 1983, 2001; Pavlov et al., 2000; Kopp et al.,
increasingly covered with sediments after about 2005). While a possible alternative to the scenario pre-
2.8 Ga, removal of atmospheric CO2 by weathering sented here, the methane-dominant scenario provides
slowed and atmospheric gain through recycling may no clear explanation of the apparent coupling of con-
have resulted in rising CO2 levels. Additional large tinental crust formation and atmospheric evolution that
influxes of CO2 may also have accompanied massive occurred not only 3.2–2.9 Ga, but also following the
greenstone belt volcanism 2.75–2.65 Ga. At about major crust-forming events in the Neoarchean and Neo-
2.7 Ga, rising atmospheric CO2 provided sufficient proterozoic (Bekker et al., 2001). The three known
greenhouse warming that the surface temperature major glaciations of the Precambrian each follow a
again surpassed 60 ◦ C, suppressing cyanobacterial major phase of continental crust formation (Lowe, 1992,
growth and reducing the flux of O2 to the atmo- 1994b), suggesting a direct relationship. It is not clear
sphere, perhaps allowing methane levels to rise how continental crust formation would have consistently
through the increased activities of methanogens impacted methane abundance, which does not partici-
under the higher temperature surface regime. MIF pate directly in rock weathering, but weathering of large,
resumed in the upper atmosphere. These conditions high-standing, newly formed blocks of continental crust
persisted to about 2.45 Ga by which time weathering would clearly have severely reduced atmospheric CO2 .
of the newly formed Neoarchean continental crust In addition, it is difficult to account for the return of
triggered a second major greenhouse collapse result- MIF and implied decline in atmospheric oxygen in the
ing in glaciation, the re-emergence of cyanobacteria, Neoarchean at about 2.7 Ga just through fluctuations in
and eventual permanent oxygenation of the earth’s atmospheric methane. In the absence of major surface
atmosphere. temperature variations unrelated to methane abundance,
once cyanobacteria had evolved and populated marine
While this series of events is plausible given our cur- environments 3.0–2.7 Ga, low methane levels should
rent knowledge of the Archean geologic record, more have been maintained simply through continuing oxy-
speculative series of events may also be permissible. genic photosynthesis. However, if CO2 was in fact the
For instance, if 2-methylhopanes and steranes in 2.7 Ga major greenhouse gas at this time, gradual lowering
sediments do not reflect the presence of cyanobacte- of the 3.1-Ga continental blocks by weathering and
ria and oxygen-dependent eukaryotes, respectively, then erosion and progressive burial of these blocks beneath
geological signals in the period 3.0–2.7 Ga may reflect craton-cover sediments would have been resulted in
only the effects of a hydrocarbon haze and associated reduced rates of CO2 removal. Eventually, the output
antigreenhouse cooling. In this scenario, decreased sul- of CO2 through tectonic recycling and new greenstone
fur mass-independent fractionation might reflect UV belt volcanism would have surpassed the loss through
shielding of volcanogenic SO2 by a hydrocarbon haze weathering and CO2 levels in the atmosphere and surface
generated in a low CO2 /CH4 atmosphere. Associated temperatures could have returned to high, pre-3.0 Ga
cooling might have increased the motility of anoxy- levels.
genic photosynthetic organisms, potentially allowing We therefore suggest that high levels of CO2 could
these microbes rather than cyanobacteria to construct have provided the greenhouse effects implied by early
preserved 3.0–2.7 Ga three-dimensional stromatolites. hot temperatures, the enhanced weathering rates at
Subsequent tectonic return of sequestered CO2 would 3.2 Ga suggested by sandstone compositions, and ele-
have reversed these trends. At present, however, we con- vated CO2 levels required for nahcolite sedimentation
sider that this scenario is less likely than that proposed on the pre-3.2 Ga earth. CO2 also responds directly to
here. weathering, and atmospheric CO2 depletion in response
to weathering of newly formed blocks of continental cus. Other than Synechococcus, all known modern
crust offers a plausible means of rapidly and dramatically cyanobacteria live at temperatures <∼60 ◦ C and Chlo-
altering surface climates 3.0–2.7 Ga following crust for- roflexus is the only known anoxygenic photosynthetic
mation at 3.1–2.9 Ga. Finally increases in atmospheric organism to grow at temperatures >60 ◦ C (Castenholz
CO2 at about 2.7 Ga due to tectonic recycling, reduced and Pierson, 1995). Thick microbial mats are largely
rates of atmospheric depletion due to weathering, and absent in modern hot spring and outflow systems >73 ◦ C:
voluminous greenstone-belt volcanism offer a potential instead thin biofilms of non-photosynthetic microbes,
explanation for Neoarchean changes that led to the return usually <1 mm thick, coat virtually every available sur-
of high surface temperatures, decline of cyanobacteria, face (Lowe and Braunstein, 2003). Between 73 and
reduction in atmospheric oxygen, and return of mass 60 ◦ C, thin Synechococcus-Chloroflexus mats or biofilms
independent fractionation from 2.7 to after 2.5 Ga. are developed, but these are slow growing and rarely
leave a significant record in the accumulating sinter
5.3. Hot spring analog deposits (Lowe et al., 2001; Braunstein and Lowe, 2001;
Lowe and Braunstein, 2003). Below 60 ◦ C, surfaces are
The temporal scenario proposed here for evolution dominated by thick, fast-growing mats composed largely
of Archean climate and life is closely mirrored today of motile filamentous cyanobacteria (Walter et al., 1976;
by spatial changes in temperature and microbial com- Lowe et al., 2001). These cynaobacterial mats locally
munities in pools and outflow systems around thermal include well-developed three-dimensional stromatolites
springs, such as in Yellowstone National Park (Fig. 9) (Walter et al., 1976).
(Walter et al., 1976; Lowe et al., 2001). This mod- We suggest that the 3.5–3.2 Ga earth may be rep-
ern system may also offer an explanation for the link resented by the 73–60 ◦ C zone of modern hot springs
between Archean climatic and biological events and (Fig. 9), where cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic
help to place some constraints on early temperature microbes occur but are stressed and not living under
regimes at key points in early earth history. In mod- optimal growth conditions (Castenholz and Pierson,
ern hot springs, photosynthetic microbes are absent in 1995). The rarity of well-developed microbial mats and
pools and outflow systems where water temperature is larger, well-formed three-dimensional stromatolites in
>73 ◦ C due to thermal denaturing of chlorophyll. From rocks older than 3.0 Ga may reflect the dominance of
∼73 to 60 ◦ C (Fig. 9), benthic microbial communities thin biofilms composed of anoxygenic photosynthetic
are dominated by the green filamentous anoxygenic pho- microbes on submarine surfaces within the euphotic
tosynthetic bacterium Chloroflexus and the coccoidal zone, as interpreted by Tice and Lowe (2006a). These
oxygenic photosynthetic cyanobacterium Synechococ- organisms were poorly motile and not able under most
circumstances to construct complex or large three-
dimensional stromatolites.
Climatic collapse 3.0–2.9 Ga would have taken
surface temperatures below 60 ◦ C providing surface
environments favorable to the growth of thick microbial
mats constructed by highly motile filamentous oxygenic
photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Lower temperatures and
broad expanses of eroded craton surfaces covered by
shallow seas at this time would have provided the first
long-lived surface environments within which known
filamentous cyanobacteria could have thrived. Devel-
opment of communities dominated by these microbes,
either by their evolution and first appearance or by the
Fig. 9. Octopus Spring, Yellowstone National Park. Temperature zona-
tion along spring margin corresponds to main temperature intervals spread of habitats in which they could out-compete other
during evolution of the Archean climate and life. The 73–60 ◦ C zone, microbes 3.0–2.7 Ga, would have allowed construction
characterized by a thin biofilm of Chloroflexus and Synechococcus, of the first morphologically modern stromatolites, which
corresponds to the earth’s surface conditions before 3.0 Ga and sporad- in fact appear in the geologic record at 3.0 Ga. The result-
ically between 2.7 and 2.5 Ga, when the sea floor within the photic zone
ing output of O2 would have eventually depleted methane
was probably covered by thin biofilms of hyperthermophilic anoxy-
genic photosynthetic microbes. The zone < 60 ◦ C, populated by thick, as an atmospheric gas (Fig. 6), allowing the accumula-
luxuriant oxygenic photosynthetic cyanobacterial mats, corresponds tion of atmospheric O2 and decreased MIF 3.0–2.7 Ga
to the earth’s surface environment 3.0–2.7 Ga and post-2.5 Ga. (Fig. 3).
Subsequent rising CO2 levels at about 2.7 Ga would ably reflects the loading of the world’s oceans with
have returned the earth’s surface to conditions like those calcium and bicarbonate produced by weathering of
prevailing in hot springs and their run-out systems above this newly created crust. This carbonate sedimenta-
60 ◦ C. However, the presence of sporadic stromatolites tion coupled with deep-ocean accumulation of organic
within the 2.7–2.5 Ga interval suggests that temperatures carbon would have provided means of long-term seques-
may have fluctuated about 60 ◦ C, with a more perma- tration of atmospheric CO2 , leading to a permanent
nent drop to below 60 ◦ C occurring only during the latest reduction of post-Archean atmospheric CO2 levels. The
Archean or early Paleoproterozoic (Fig. 6). initial stage of the Paleoproterozoic cycle of atmo-
spheric oxygenation is recorded in sediments perhaps
6. Later Precambrian events as old as 2.4 Ga (Farquhar et al., 2000) and certainly
by 2.2–2.1 Ga (Karhu and Holland, 1996). This suggests
Tectonic, climatic, and biological events 3.2–2.7 Ga that the final ascendance of more moderate-temperature
are remarkably comparable to those of the Neoarchean oxygenic photosynthetic microbes, probably cyanobac-
and earliest Proterozoic, 2.7–2.2 Ga (Fig. 10). As noted teria, within marine microbial communities may have
above a greater area/volume of continental crust was accompanied cooling and climate collapse during the
formed in the Neoarchean, between about 2.75 and latest Archean and earliest Paleoproterozoic.
2.60 Ga, than during any other interval of earth his- The 3.2–2.7 Ga and 2.7–2.2 Ga tectonic, environmen-
tory. This interval of crust formation was followed tal, and biological cycles are also similar to events
by weathering and erosion of this newly formed crust of the Neoproterozoic, 1.0–0.5 Ga (Fig. 10). Bekker
that culminated in climatic instability and glaciation et al. (2001) have compared climatic, environmental,
between about 2.45 and 2.2 Ga. This interval of climatic and isotopic events of the early Paleopropterozoic and
instability and glaciation probably reflected removal Neoproterozoic, both of which saw major intervals of
of CO2 from the atmosphere (Carver and Vardavas, climatic instability and C-isotopic variability. Lindsay
1994, 1995; Bekker et al., 2001). The deposition of and Brasier (2002) have further related carbon sequestra-
thick sequences of carbonate sediments on the older, tion, isotopic excursions, oxygenation of the atmosphere,
3.2–3.0 Ga blocks of continental crust 2.5–2.4 Ga prob- and biospheric evolution in the Paleoproterozoic and
Fig. 10. General comparison of tectonic, climatic, and biological events of the 3.5–3.1 Ga interval (left), Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic (middle),
and Neoproterozoic and earliest Paleozoic (right). The similar succession and timing of major events, even when the specific character of tectonic
and biological events show considerable variation, suggests the existence of a grand cycle in which major tectonic events trigger global climatic and
environmental changes that serve to influence biological evolution.
Neoproterozoic to tectonic events reflecting possible photosynthetic microbes, probably cyanobacteria, could
superplume activity and supercontinent fragmentation. survive and prosper at the expense of more extreme
The Neoproterozoic interval ∼1.0–0.6 Ga was a time thermophiles, including methanogens, which had dom-
of widespread tectonic activity, including the forma- inated surface systems before 3.0 Ga. Little long-term
tion and fragmentation of one or more supercontinents carbonate sequestration through sedimentation occurred
(Hoffman, 1991; also see summary in Windley, 1995) at this time because of the small overall surface area
and the formation of significant amounts of new con- of stable cratonic blocks formed 3.1–3.0 Ga. As erosion
tinental crust (Lowe, 1992; Stein, 2003). This activity of the early continents slowed, tectonic recycling, and
led into an interval of climatic instability with multi- renewed greenstone volcanism, perhaps related to con-
ple global glaciations between about 750 and 575 Ma. tinental breakup and superplume events, returned most
There is general agreement that Neoproterozoic climatic CO2 to the atmosphere and temperatures began to rise.
instability was a result of fluctuations in atmospheric During the early Neoarchean ∼2.7 Ga, surface temper-
CO2 levels, probably attributable to either high organic atures may have fluctuated but commonly lay above
productivity and carbon burial (Kaufman et al., 1997) 60 ◦ C. The formation of new large blocks of continental
or intense weathering (Hoffman et al., 1998; Hoffman crust in the Neoarchean ∼2.6 Ga and ensuing weath-
and Schrag, 2000). These climatic events were accom- ering of this new crust once again drove atmospheric
panied and followed by an interval of biologic change CO2 decline, culminating in glaciation 2.45–2.2 Ga. The
and innovation that included appearance and disappear- return of cooler climates <2.5 Ga would have allowed
ance of the oldest known metazoan fauna, the Ediacaran the final ascendancy of the cyanobacteria as the domi-
Fauna, from 570 to 543 Ma and culminated in the nant marine microbes, reflected in the saturation of early
great Cambrian Explosion of metazoan groups 543 to O2 sinks and oxygenation of the atmosphere perhaps as
about 500 Ma (Knoll and Carroll, 1999; Hoffman et al., early as 2.4 Ga but certainly by ∼2.2–2.1 Ga. Perma-
1998). The duration of Neoproterozoic and early Pale- nent sequestration of CO2 as carbonate deposits on the
ozoic glacial and biological events (∼750–500 Ma) is older 3.2–3.0 Ga crustal blocks ∼2.6–2.4 Ga insured that
not dissimilar to that of the corresponding Paleoprotero- atmospheric CO2 levels and surface temperatures never
zoic (∼2.45–2.2 Ga) and Late Archean (∼3.0–2.7 Ga) returned to earlier high levels.
events. The last is more poorly constrained because Tectonic, climatic, and biological events 3.5–2.7 and
of the sparseness of the available geologic record and 2.75–2.2 Ga are remarkably parallel to Neoproterozoic
comparatively less detailed study of rocks that are events 1.0–0.5 Ga, which culminated in the emergence
preserved. of the metazoans. These ∼500 myr-long cycles of crust
formation and weathering, atmospheric and climatic
7. Conclusions instability, and biological innovation suggest that evo-
lution of the earth’s interior has exerted a fundamental
The present study suggests a close link between control on environmental and biological evolution at
crustal, atmospheric, climatic, and biological evolution the earth’s surface. The present study suggests that this
3.5–2.4 Ga. Previous studies have emphasized such a control is exerted mainly through crustal influence on
relationship between Precambrian tectonics, climatic atmospheric CO2 level, which influences surface tem-
excursions, and sedimentation and more specifically perature and thence biological evolution.
between Proterozoic tectonics, isotopic excursions, and
instability in the surface carbon cycle (Des Marais, Acknowledgments
1994; Bekker et al., 2001) and biological evolution
(Lindsay and Brasier, 2002). We argue here that sim- This work was supported by NASA Exobiology Pro-
ilar cycles of tectonic, climatic, and biological change gram grants NAG5-13442 and NNG04GM43G and the
extend back to at least 3.2 Ga. The earliest geo- UCLA Center for Astrobiology to DRL MT was also
logic record appears to document a hot young earth, supported by a William R. and Sara Hart Kimball Stan-
70 ± 15 ◦ C at 3.5–3.2 Ga. Initial crust-forming events ford Graduate Fellowship and by a Harvey Fellowship.
3.2–2.9 Ga led to increased subaerial weathering, declin-
ing atmospheric levels of CO2 and CH4 , and, as a
References
result, decreasing surface temperatures and eventually
glaciation ∼3.0–2.9 Ga. Decreased surface temperatures Allègre, C.J., Othman, D.B., 1980. Nd–Sr isotopic relationship in gran-
influenced long-term biological evolution 3.0–2.7 Ga itoid rocks and continental crust development: a chemical approach
by providing a surface environment in which oxygenic to orogenesis. Nature 286, 335–342.
Allwood, A.C., Walter, M.R., Kamber, B.S., Marshall, C.P., Burch, Condie, K., 1995. Episodic ages of greenstones: a key to mantle dynam-
I.W., 2006. Stromatolite reef from the Early Archaean era of Aus- ics? Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 2215–2218.
tralia. Nature 441, 714–718. Condie, K.C., Beyer, E., Belousova, E., Griffin, W.L., O’Reilly, S.Y.,
Armstrong, R.L., 1968. A model for Sr and Pb isotope evolution in a 2005. U–Pb isotopic ages and Hf isotopic composition of sin-
dynamic. Earth Rev. Geophys. 6, 175–199. gle zircons: the search for juvenile Precambrian continental crust.
Armstrong, R.L., 1981. Radiogenic isotopes: the case for crustal recy- Precambrian Res. 139, 42–100.
cling on a near-steady-state no-continental-growth. Earth Philos. Des Marais, D.J., 1994. Tectonic control of the crustal organic car-
Trans. R. Soc. A 301, 443–472. bon reservoir during the Precambrian. Chem. Geol. 114, 303–
Bada, J.L., Bigham, C., Miller, S.L., 1994. Impact melting of frozen 314.
oceans on the early earth: implications for the origin of life. Proc. de Ronde, C.E.J., Kamo, S.L., 2000. An Archaean arc-arc collisional
Natl. Acad. Sci. 91, 1248–1250. event: a short-lived (ca 3 myr) episode, Weltevreden area, Bar-
Bekker, A., Holland, H.D., Wang, P.-L., Rumble III, D., Stein, H.J., berton greenstone belt, South Africa. J. African Earth Sci. 30,
Hannah, J.L., Coetzee, L.L., Beukes, N.J., 2004. Dating the rise of 219–248.
atmospheric oxygen. Nature 427, 117–120. de Wit, M.J., 1991. Archaean greenstone belt tectonism and basin
Bekker, A., Kaufman, A.J., Karhu, J.A., Beukes, N.J., Swart, Q.D., development: some insights from the Barberton and Pietersburg
Coetzee, L.L., Eriksson, K.A., 2001. Chemostratigraphy of the greenstone belts, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci.
Paleoproterozoic Duitschland Formation, South Africa: implica- 13, 45–63.
tions for coupled climate change and carbon cycling. Am. J. Sci. Eriksson, K.A., Krapez, B., Fralick, P.W., 1994. Sedimentology of
301, 261–285. Archean greenstone belts: signatures of tectonic evolution. Earth-
Beukes, N.J., Lowe, D.R., 1989. Environmental controls on diverse Sci. Rev. 37, 1–88.
stromatolite morphologies in the 3,000 Myr-old Pongola Super- Farquhar, J., Wing, B.A., 2003. Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evo-
group, South Africa. Sedimentology 36, 383–397. lution of the atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 1–13.
Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., Van Kra- Farquhar, J., Bao, H., Thiemens, M., 2000. Atmospheric influence of
nendonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A., Grassineau, N.V., 2002. earth’s earliest sulfur cycle. Science 289, 756–758.
Questioning the evidence for earth’s oldest fossils. Nature 416, Foustoukos, D.I., Seyfried Jr., W.E., 2004. Hydrocarbons in hydrother-
76–81. mal vent fluids: the role of chrome-bearing catalysts. Science 304,
Brasier, M., Green, O., Lindsay, J., McLoughlin, N., Steele, A., 1002–1005.
Stoakes, C., 2005. Critical testing of earth’s oldest putative fos- Godderis, Y., Veizer, J., 2000. Tectonic control of chemical and isotopic
sil assemblage from the ∼3.5 Ga Apex chert, Chinaman Creek, composition of ancient oceans: the impact of continental growth.
Western Australia. Precambrian Res. 140, 55–102. Am. J. Sci. 300, 434–461.
Brasier, M., Green, O., Lindsay, J., Steele, A., 2004. Earth’s oldest Harrison, T.M., Blichert-Toft, J., Muller, W., Albarede, F., Holden, P.,
(∼3.5 Ga) fossils and the ‘early Eden hypothesis’: questioning the Mojzsis, S.J., 2005. Heterogeneous Hadean Hafnium: evidence of
evidence. Origins Life Evol. Biosphere 34, 257–269. continental crust at 4.4–4.5 Ga. Science 310, 1947–1950.
Brasier, M., McLoughlin, N., Green, O., Wacey, D., 2006. A fresh look Hartlaub, R.P., Heaman, L.M., Simonetti, A., Bohm, C.O., 2005. Was
at the fossil evidence for Archaean cellular life. Philos. Trans. R. there voluminous ancient (>4.0 Ga) sialic crust? Implications from
Soc. B 361, 887–902. the Hf composition of detrital zircons. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
Braunstein, D., Lowe, D.R., 2001. Relationship between spring and 69, A394.
geyser activity and the deposition and morphology of high tem- Hayes, J.M., 1983. Chemical evidence bearing on the origin of aer-
perature (>73 ◦ C) siliceous sinter, Yellowstone National Park, obiosis: a speculative hypothesis. In: Schopf, J.W. (Ed.), Earth’s
Wyoming, USA. J. Sed. Res. 71, 747–763. Earliest Biosphere. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp.
Brocks, J.J., Logan, G.A., Buick, R., Summons, R.E., 1999. Archean 291–301.
molecular fossils and the early rise of eukaryotes. Science 285, Hessler, A.M., 2001, Evidence for climate and weathering in silici-
1033–1036. clastic sedimentary rocks of the 3.2 Ga Moodies Group, Barberton
Buick, R., 1984. Carbonaceous filaments from North Pole, Western Greenstone Belt, South Africa. PhD Thesis. Stanford University,
Australia: are they fossil bacteria in Archaean stromatolites. Pre- 258 pp.
cambrian Res. 24, 157–172. Hessler, A.M., Lowe, D.R., Jones, R.L., Bird, D.K., 2004. A lower
Byerly, G.R., Lowe, D.R., Walsh, M.M., 1986. Stromatolites from limit for atmospheric carbon dioxide levels 3.2 billion years ago.
the 3,300–3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Nature 428, 736–738.
Land, South Africa. Nature 319, 489–491. Heubeck, C., Lowe, D.R., 1994a. Depositional and tectonic setting of
Campbell, I.H., 2003. Constraints on continental growth models from the Archean Moodies Group, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South
Nb/U ratios in the 3.5 Ga Barberton and other Archaean basalt- Africa. Precambrian Res. 68, 257–290.
komatiite suites. Am. J. Sci. 303, 319–351. Heubeck, C., Lowe, D.R., 1994b. Late syndepositional deformation
Carver, J.H., Vardavas, I.M., 1994. Precambrian glaciations and and detachment tectonics in the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South
the evolution of the atmosphere. Ann. Geophys. 12, 674– Africa. Tectonics 13, 1514–1536.
682. Heubeck, C., Lowe, D.R., 1999. Sedimentary petrography and prove-
Carver, J.H., Vardavas, I.M., 1995. Atmospheric carbon dioxide and nance of the Archean Moodies Group, Barberton Greenstone Belt.
the long-term control of the earth’s climate. Ann. Geophys. 13, In: Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R. (Eds.), Geologic Evolution of the
782–790. Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec.
Castenholz, R.W., Pierson, B.K., 1995. Ecology of thermophilic Pap. 329, pp. 259–286.
anoxygenic phototrophs. In: Blankenship, R., Madigan, M., Bauer, Hickman, A.H., 2004. Two contrasting granite-greenstone terranes in
C. (Eds.), Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria. Kluwer, Dor- the Pilbara Craton, Australia: evidence for vertical and horizontal
drecht, pp. 87–103. regimes prior to 2900 Ma. Precambrian Res. 131, 153–172.
Hoffman, P.F., 1991. Did the breakout of Laurentia turn Gondwanaland Knoll, A.H., Barghoorn, E.S., 1977. Archean microfossils showing cell
inside-out? Science 252, 1409–1412. division from the Swaziland System of South Africa. Science 198,
Hoffman, P.F., Kaufman, A.J., Halverson, G.P., 1998. Comings and 396–398.
goings of global glaciations on a Neoproterozoic tropical platform Knoll, A.H., Carroll, S.B., 1999. Early animal evolution: emerg-
in Namibia. GSA Today 8 (5), 1–9. ing views from comparative biology and geology. Science 284,
Hoffman, P.F., Schrag, D.P., 2000. Snowball earth. Sci. Am. 282 (1), 2129–2137.
68–75. Kopp, E.P., Kirschvink, J.L., Hilburn, I.A., Nash, C.Z., 2005. The Pale-
Hofmann, H.J., Grey, K., Hickman, A.H., Thorpe, R.I., 1999. Origin oproterozoic snowball earth: a climate disaster triggered by the
of 3.45 Ga coniform stromatolites in Warrawoona Group, Western evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102,
Australia. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 111, 1256–1262. 11131–11136.
Holland, H.D., 1984. The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Kröner, A., Byerly, G.R., Lowe, D.R., 1991. Chronology of early
Oceans. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 582 pp. Archaean granite-greenstone evolution in the Barberton Moun-
Holland, H.D., 2002. Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the Great tain land, South Africa, based on precise dating by single zircon
Oxygenation Event. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66, 3811– evaporation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 103, 41–54.
3826. Kröner, A., Hegner, E., Wendt, J.I., Byerly, G.R., 1996. The oldest
Holm, N.G., Charlou, J.L., 2001. Initial indications of abiotic formation part of the Barberton granitoid-greenstone terrain, South Africa,
of hydrocarbons in the Rainbow ultramafic hydrothermal system, evidence for crust formation between 3.5 and 3.7 Ga. Precambrian
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 191, 1–8. Res. 78, 105–124.
Horita, J., Berndt, M.E., 1999. Abiogenic methane formation and iso- Lamb, S.H., 1984. Structures on the eastern margin of the Archaean
topic fractionation under hydrothermal conditions. Science 285, Barberton greenstone belt, northwest Swaziland. In: Kröner,
1055–1057. A., Greiling, A. (Eds.), Precambrian Tectonics Illustrated. E.
Hu, G., Rumble III, D., Wang, P.-L., 2003. An ultraviolet laser micro- Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, pp. 19–39.
probe for the in situ analysis of multi-sulfur isotopes and its use Lecuyer, C., Allemand, P., 1999. Modeling of the oxygen isotope evo-
in measuring Archean sulfur isotope mass-independent anomalies. lution of seawater: implications for the climate interpretation of
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67, 3101–3118. the δ18 O of marine sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 63,
Jackson, M.P.A., Eriksson, K.A., Harris, C.W., 1987. Early Archean 351–361.
foredeep sedimentation related to crustal shortening: a reinterpre- Lepland, A., Arrhenius, G., Cornell, D., 2002. Apatite in early Archean
tation of the Barberton sequence, southern Africa. Tectonophysics Isua Supracrustal rocks, southern West Greenland: its origin, asso-
136, 197–221. ciation with graphite and potential as a biomarker. Precambrian
Kamber, B.S., Webb, G.E., 2001. The geochemistry of late Archaean Res. 118, 221–241.
microbial carbonate: implications for ocean chemistry and conti- Lindsay, J.F., Brasier, M.D., 2002. Did global tectonics drive early
nental erosion history. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65, 2509–2525. biological evolution? Carbon isotopic record from 2.6 to 1.9 Ga
Kamber, B.S., Bolhar, R., Webb, G.E., 2004. Geochemistry of late carbonates of Western Australian basins. Precambrian Res. 114,
Archean stromatolites from Zimbabwe: evidence for microbial life 1–34.
in restricted epicontinental seas. Precambrian Res. 132, 379–399. Lowe, D.R., 1980. Stromatolites 3,400-Myr old from the Archean of
Karhu, J.A., Holland, D.D., 1996. Carbon isotopes and the rise of Western Australia. Nature 284, 441–443.
atmospheric oxygen. Geology 24, 867–870. Lowe, D.R., 1992. Major events in the geological development of the
Kasting, J.F., 2004. When methane made climate. Sci. Am. 291 (1), Precambrian earth. In: Schopf, J.W., Klein, C. (Eds.), The Pro-
78–85. terozoic Biosphere. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.
Kasting, J.F., 2005. Methane and climate during the Precambrian era. 67–76.
Precambrian Res. 137, 119–129. Lowe, D.R., 1994a. The abiological origin of described stromatolites
Kasting, J.F., Howard, M.T., Wallmann, K., Veizer, J., Shields, G., older than 3.2 Ga. Geology 22, 387–390.
Jaffrés, J., 2006. Paleoclimates, ocean depth, and the oxygen Lowe, D.R., 1994b. Early environments: constraints and opportunities
isotopic composition of seawater. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 252, for early evolution. In: Bengtson, S. (Ed.), Early Life on earth:
82–93. Nobel Symposium No. 84. Columbia University Press, pp. 24–35.
Kasting, J.F., Pavlov, A.A., Siefert, J.L., 2001. A coupled ecosystem- Lowe, D.R., 2007. A comment on “Weathering of quartz as an Archean
climate model for predicting the methane concentration in the climatic indicator” by N.H. Sleep and A.M. Hessler. Earth Planet.
Archean atmosphere. Origins Life Evol. Biosphere 31, 271–285. Sci. Lett. 253, 530–533.
Kasting, J.F., Zahnle, K.J., Walker, J.C.G., Weber, R., Guerrero, J.C., Lowe, D.R., Braunstein, D., 2003. Microstructure of high-temperature
1983. Photochemistry of methane in the earth’s early atmosphere. (>73 ◦ C) siliceous sinter deposited around hot springs and geysers,
Precambrian Res. 20, 121–148. Yellowstone National Park: the role of biological and abiological
Kaufman, A.J., Knoll, A.H., Narbonne, G.M., 1997. Isotopes, ice ages, processes in sedimentation. Can. J. Earth Sci. 40, 1611–1642.
and terminal Proterozoic earth history. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94, Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R., 1999. Stratigraphy of the west-central part
6600–6605. of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. In: Lowe, D.R.,
Knauth, L.P., Lowe, D.R., 1978. Oxygen isotope geochemistry of Byerly, G.R. (Eds.), Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Green-
cherts from the Onverwacht Group (3.4 billion years), Transvaal, stone Belt, South Africa. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 329, pp. 1–36.
South Africa, with implications for secular variations in the isotopic Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R., in press. An overview of the geology of
composition of cherts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 41, 209–222. the Barberton greenstone belt and vicinity: Implications for early
Knauth, L.P., Lowe, D.R., 2003. High Archean climatic temperatures crustal development. In: van Kranendonk, M.J., Smithies, R.H.,
inferred from oxygen isotope geochemistry of cherts in the 3.5 Ga Bennett, V.C. (Eds.), Earth’s Oldest Rocks, Elsevier.
Swaziland Supergroup, South Africa. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 115, Lowe, D.R., Fisher-Worrell, G., 1999. Sedimentology, mineralogy, and
566–580. implications of silicified evaporites in the Kromberg Formation,
Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. In: Lowe, D.R., Byerly, sandstones from the Pilbara Craton, Australia. Geology 27,
G.R. (Eds.), Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, 115–118.
South Africa. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 329, pp. 167–188. Rey, P.F., Philippot, P., Thébaud, N., 2003. Contribution of man-
Lowe, D.R., Tice, M.M., 2004. Geologic evidence for Archean atmo- tle plumes, crustal thickening and greenstone blanketing to the
spheric and climatic evolution: fluctuating levels of CO2 , CH4 , and 2.75–2.65 Ga global crisis. Precambrian Res. 127, 43–60.
O2 with an overriding tectonic control. Geology 32, 493–496. Robert, F., Chaussidon, M., 2006. A palaeotemperature curve for the
Lowe, D.R., Anderson, K.S., Braunstein, D., 2001. The zonation and Precambrian ocean based on silicon isotopes in cherts. Nature 443,
structuring of siliceous sinter around hot springs, Yellowstone 969–972.
National Park, and the role of thermophilic bacteria in its depo- Rumble, D., 2005. A mineralogical and geochemical record of atmo-
sition. In: Reysenbach, A., Voytek, M., Mancinelli, R. (Eds.), spheric photochemistry. Am. Mineral. 90, 918–930.
Thermophiles: Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution. Kluwer Aca- Rye, R., Holland, H.D., 1998. Paleosols and the evolution of atmo-
demic/Plenum, New York, pp. 143–166. spheric oxygen: a critical review. Am. J. Sci. 298, 621–672.
McCulloch, M.T., Bennet, V.C., 1994. Progressive growth of the earth’s Schidlowski, M., 1988. The 3,800-million-year isotopic record of life
continental crust and depleted mantle: geochemical constraints. from carbon in sedimentary rocks. Nature 333, 313–318.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58, 4717–4738. Schidlowski, M., 2000. Carbon Isotopes and microbial sediments.
McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., 1982. Geochemical constraints on the In: Riding, R.E., Awramik, S.M. (Eds.), Microbial Sediments.
growth of the continental crust. J. Geol. 90, 342–361. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 84–95.
McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., 1991. Sedimentary rocks and crustal Schidlowski, M., 2001. Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders
evolution: tectonic setting and secular trends. J. Geol. 99, 1–21. of life over 3.8 Ga of earth history: evolution of a concept. Precam-
Mojzsis, S.J., Coath, C.D., Greenwood, J.P., McKeegan, K.D., Har- brian Res. 106, 117–134.
rison, T.M., 2003. Mass-independent isotope effects in Archean Schidlowski, M., Hayes, J.M., Kaplan, I.R., 1983. Isotopic infer-
(2.5–3.8 Ga) sedimentary sulfides determined by ion microprobe ences of ancient biochemistries: carbon, sulfur, hydrogen, and
analysis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67, 1635–1658. nitrogen. In: Schopf, J.W. (Ed.), Earth’s Earliest Biosphere: Its
Muehlenbachs, K., 1998. The oxygen isotopic composition of the Origin and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ,
oceans, sediments and the seafloor. Chem. Geol. 145, 263–273. pp. 149–186.
Muehlenbachs, K., Clayton, R.N., 1976. Oxygen isotope composition Schopf, J.W., 1992. Paleobiology of the Archean. In: Schopf, J.W.,
of the oceanic crust and its bearing on seawater. J. Geophys. Res. Klein, C. (Eds.), The Proterozoic Biosphere. Cambridge University
81, 4365–4369. Press, Cambridge, pp. 25–40.
Nelson, B.K., DePaolo, D.J., 1985. Rapid production of continental Schopf, J.W., Barghoorn, E.S., 1967. Alga-like fossils from the early
crust 1.7–1.9 b.y. ago: Nd isotopic evidence from the basement Precambrian of South Africa. Science 156, 508–512.
of the North American mid-continent. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 96, Schopf, J.W., Packer, B.M., 1987. Early Archean (3.3 billion to 3.5
746–754. billion-year-old) microfossils from Warrawoona Group, Australia.
Nhleko, N., 2004. The Pongola Supergroup in Swaziland. PhD Thesis. Science 237, 70–73.
Rand Afrikaans University, Auckland Park, South Africa. Schwartzman, D.W., 1999. Life, Temperature, and the Earth: The Self-
Ohmoto, H., 1997. When did the earth’s atmosphere become oxic? organizing Biosphere. Columbia University Press, NY, 241 p.
Geochem. News 93, 12–13 ( and 26–28). Schwartzman, D.W., Lineweaver, C.H., 2004. The hyperthermophilic
Ohmoto, H., 2004. Archean atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. origin of life revisited. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 32, 168–171.
In: Eriksson, P.A., Altermann, D.R., Nelson, D.R., Mueller, W.U., Schwartzman, D.W., McMenamin, M., Volk, T., 1993. Did sur-
Catuneanu, O. (Eds.), The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events. face temperatures constrain microbial evolution? BioScience 43,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 361–387. 390–393.
Ohmoto, H., Watanabe, Y., Ikemi, H., 2005. The absence of mass inde- Sleep, N.H., Zahnle, K., 2001. Carbon dioxide cycling and implications
pendent fractionation of sulfur isotopes in Archean sedimentary for climate on ancient earth. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 1373–1399.
rocks: an insignificant phenomenon? Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Sleep, N.H., Hessler, A.M., 2006. Weathering of quartz as an Archean
Supplement, A450. climatic indicator. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 241, 594–602.
Ohmoto, H., Watanabe, Y., Kumazawa, K., 2004. Evidence from mas- Sleep, N.H., Hessler, A.M., 2007. Reply to a comment by D.R. Lowe
sive siderite beds for a CO2 -rich atmosphere before ∼1.8 billion on “Weathering of quartz as an Archean climatic indicator” by N.H.
years ago. Nature 429, 395–399. Sleep and A.M. Hessler. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 253, 534–535.
Ohmoto, H., Watanabe, Y., Ikemi, H., Poulson, S.R., Taylor, B.E., Smithies, R.H., Hickman, A.H., Nelson, D.R., 1999. New constraints
2006. Sulphur isotope evidence for an oxic Archaean atmosphere. on the evolution of the Mallina Basin, and their bearing on
Nature 442, 908–911. relationships between the contrasting eastern and western granite-
Ono, S., Eigenbrode, J.L., Pavlov, A.A., Kharecha, P., Rumble III, greenstone terranes of the Archaean Pilbara Craton, Western
D., Kasting, J.F., Freeman, K.H., 2003. New insights into Archean Australia. Precambrian Res. 94, 11–28.
sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Stein, M., 2003. Tracing the plume material in the Arabian-Nubian
Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 15–30. Shield. Precambrian Res. 123, 223–234.
Pavlov, A.A., Kasting, J.F., Brown, L.L., Rages, K.A., Freedman, R., Sugitani, K., Mimura, K., Suzuki, K., Nagamine, K., Sugisaki, R.,
2000. Greenhouse warming by CH4 in the atmosphere of early 2003. Stratigraphy and sedimentary petrology of an Archean
earth. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 11,981–11,990. volcanic-sedimentary succession at Mt. Goldsworthy in the Pilbara
Pavlov, A.A., Kasting, J.F., Eigenbrode, J.L., Freeman, K.H., 2001. block, Western Australia: implications of evaporite (nahcolite) and
Organic haze in earth’s early atmosphere: source of low-13 C Late barite deposition. Precambrian Res. 120, 55–79.
Archean kerogens. Geology 29, 1003–1006. Summons, R.E., Jahnke, L.L., Hope, J.M., Logan, G.A., 1999.
Rasmussen, B., Buick, R., 1999. Redox state of the Archean atmo- 2-Methylhopanoids as biomarkers for cyanobacterial oxygenic
sphere: evidence from detrital heavy minerals in ca. 3250–2750 Ma photosynthesis. Nature 400, 554–557.
Sylvester, P.J., Campbell, I.H., Bowyer, D.A., 1997. Niobium/uranium Walsh, M.M., 1992. Microfossils and possible microfossils from the
evidence for early formation of the continental crust. Science 275, early Archean Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land,
521–523. South Africa. Precambrian Res. 54, 271–293.
Taylor, S.R., McLennan, S.M., 1985. The Continental Crust: its Com- Walsh, M.M., Lowe, D.R., 1985. Filamentous microfossils from the
position and Evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, 312 p. 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land,
Taylor, S.R., McLennan, S.M., 1995. The geochemical evolution of South Africa. Nature 314, 530–532.
the continental crust. Rev. Geophys. 33, 241–265. Walsh, M.M., Lowe, D.R., 1999. Modes of accumulation of carbona-
Tice, M.M., Lowe, D.R., 2004. Photosynthetic microbial mats in the ceous matter in the early Archean: a petrographic and geochemical
3,416-Myr-old ocean. Nature 43, 549–552. study of the carbonaceous cherts of the Swaziland Supergroup. In:
Tice, M.M., Lowe, D.R., 2006a. Hydrogen-based carbon fixation in Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R. (Eds.), Geologic Evolution of the Bar-
the earliest known photosynthetic organisms. Geology 34, 37–40. berton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.
Tice, M.M., Lowe, D.R., 2006b. The origin of carbonaceous matter 329, pp. 115–132.
in pre-3.0 Ga greenstone terrains: a review and new evidence from Walter, M.R., 1983. Archean stromatolites: evidence of the earth’s
the 3.42 Ga Buck Reef Chert. Earth Sci. Rev. 76, 259–300. earliest benthos. In: Schopf, J.W. (Ed.), Earth’s Earliest Bio-
Valley, J.W., Peck, W.H., King, E.M., Wilde, S.A., 2002. A cool early sphere. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 187–
earth. Geology 30, 351–354. 213.
Van Kranendonk, M.J., Collins, W.J., Hickman, A., Pawley, M.J., Walter, M.R., Bauld, J., Brock, T.D., 1976. Microbiology and morpho-
2004. Critical tests of vertical vs. horizontal tectonic models for the genesis of columnar stromatolites (Conophyton, Vacerrila) from
Archaean East Pilbara Granite-Greenstone Terrane, Pilbara Craton, hot springs in Yellowstone National Park. In: Walter, M. (Ed.),
Western Australia. Precambrian Res. 131, 173–211. Stromatolites. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 273–310.
Van Kranendonk, M.J., Hickman, A.H., Smithies, R.H., Nelson, D.N., Walter, M.R., Buick, R., Dunlop, J.S.R., 1980. Stromatolites
Pike, G., 2002. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Archaean 3400–3500 Myr old from the North Pole area, Western Australia.
North Pilbara terrain, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia. Econ. Nature 284, 443–445.
Geol. 97, 695–732. Watanabe, Y., Klarke, A.I., Poulson, S., Ohmoto, H., 2005. The absence
van Zuilen, M.A., Lepland, A., Arrhenius, G., 2002. Reassessing the of mass independent sulfur isotope fractionation in Archean sedi-
evidence for the earliest traces of life. Nature 418, 627–630. mentary rocks: evidence for an oxic atmosphere? Geol. Soc. Am.
van Zuilen, M.A., Lepland, A., Teranes, J.L., Finarelli, J., Wahlen, Abstracts with Prog., 34.
M., Arrhenius, G., 2003. Graphite and carbonates in the 3.8 Ga Wiebols, J.H.A., 1955. Suggested glacial origin for the Witwatersrand
old Isua Supracrustal Belt, southern West Greenland. Precambrian conglomerates. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 58, 367–382.
Res. 126, 331–348. Windley, B.F., 1995. The Evolving Continents. Wiley, Chichester, 526
Veizer, J., Compston, W., Hoefs, J., Nelsen, H., 1982. Mantle buffering pp.
of the early oceans. Naturwissenschaften 69, 173–180. Young, G.M., 1991. The geologic record of glaciation: relevance to the
Veizer, J., Jansen, S.L., 1979. Basement and sedimentary recycling and climatic history of earth. Geosci. Can. 18, 100–108.
continental evolution. J. Geol. 87, 341–370. Young, G.M., von Brun, V., Gold, D.J.C., Minter, W.E.L., 1998. Earth’s
Veizer, J., Jansen, S.L., 1985. Basement and sedimentary recycling-2: oldest reported glaciation: physical and chemical evidence from the
time dimension to global tectonics. J. Geol. 93, 625–643. Archean Mozaan Group (∼2.9 Ga) of South Africa. J. Geol. 106,
von Brunn, V., Gold, D.J.C., 1993. Diamictite in the Archaean Pongola 523–538.
sequence of southern Africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 16, 367–374. Zahnle, K., Sleep, N.H., 2002. Carbon dioxide cycling through the
Walker, J.C.G., Klein, C., Schidlowski, M., Schopf, J.W., Stevenson, mantle and implications for the climate of the ancient earth. In:
D.J., Walter, M.R., 1983. Environmental evolution of the Archean- Fowler, C.M.R., Ebinger, C.J., Hawkesworth, C.J. (Eds.), The Early
Early Proterozoic earth. In: Schopf, J.W. (Ed.), Earth’s Earliest Earth: Physical, Chemical and Biological Development, 199. Geol.
Biosphere. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 260–290. Soc. London Spec. Publ., pp. 231–257.

Paleoclimatic Control Archaen Proterozoic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Paleoclimatic Control Archaen Proterozoic

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Paleoclimatic Control Archaen Proterozoic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Precambrian Research 158 (2007) 177–197

Tectonic controls on atmospheric, climatic,

1. Introduction sequences, all of which are heavily deformed and meta-

The preserved sedimentary record also provides no

water. An analysis of the distribution of the carbonaceous

Carbonaceous coccoidal and filamentous microfos-

temperatures that in turn resulted in increased methane

4.2. Atmospheric evolution and climate 2.7–2.4 Ga 4.3. Life 2.7–2.5 Ga

tiated crust, especially TTG intrusive complexes

You might also like