Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
1 Introduction to Hybrid
ElectrieVehicle
CONTENTS
Part-1: History of Hybrid and 1-2D to 1-4D
Electric Vehicles
1-1D (ME-Sem-7)
1-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction toHybrid Electric Vehicle
PART-1
History of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
1. Electric vehicles are defined as vehicles which use an electric motor for
propulsion. Electric vehicle is propelled by one or more electric motors,
receiving power from an onboard source of electricity such as batteries,
fuel cells,ultra capacitor, flywheel, etc.
2 The general layout of an electric vehicle is shown in Fig. 1.1.1.
3. When the car pedal is pressed, then:
i Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and
inverters.
i. With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of
electrical energy to the motor (according to the depth of pressure
on the pedal).
ii. Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(rotation).
iv
Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the wheels
turn and then the car moves.
Battery
Motor/
Generator
Transmission
Answer
A Advantages of Electric Vehicle:
1. Mechanically simpler.
2 Running cost per kilometre is extremely cheap.
3 Zero emission vehicles. Also reduces greenhouse emission.
4. They are very quiet in operation. While running, it does not produce
noise vibrations.
5 Easy to drive as there are no gears and clutch in these vehicles.
B. Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle:
1 Vehicle range is limited on one charge. The vehicle can usually run
80-160 km on a single charge.
2 Top speed is limited.
3 It is heavy and bulky.
4 Limited public charging stations.
Que 1.3. Explain in detail the history of hybrid and electric
vehicles. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
The history of hybrid and electric vehicles is as follows :
i. 1839 : Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric
vehicle.
ii. 1886: Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using
a battery with 28 cells and a small electric motor, was introduced in
England.
iii. 1888: Immisch & Company built a
four-passenger carriage powered
by a one-horsepower motor and 24-cell battery for the Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in Brighton, England
made a three-wheeled electric car.
iv. 1890 : Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna,
Austria,
need for an electric vehicle that would be less noisy than foresaw
the
the new gas
powered cars. He commissioned a design for an electric vehicle from
Austro-Hungarian engineer Ferdinand Porsche.
14D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
V. 1900: Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A
gasoline engine was used to power a generator which, in turn, drove a
small series of motors. The electric engine was used to give the car a
little bit of extra power.
vi. 1915:
1 Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the dual power hybrid
vehicle, second hybrid car in market. Rather than combining the two
power sources to give a single output of power, the dual power used an
electric battery motor to power the engine at low speeds (below
25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to carry the vehicle from these
low speeds up to its 55km/h maximum speed.
2 While Porsche had invented the series hybrid, Woods invented the
parallel hybrid.
vii. 1960: Victor Wouk worked in helping ereate numerous hybrid designs
earned him the nickname of the-Godfather of the Hybrid. In 1976 he
even converted a Buick Skylark from gasoline to hybrid.
viii. 1978 : Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system.
When a standard combustion engine car brakes, a lot of power is lost
because it dissipates into the atmosphere as heat.
ix. 1997:The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass
production and hybrid production and consumer take up has continued
to go from strength to strength over the decades.
X.
2000: Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market
hybrids to go on sale in the United States, with dozens of models
following in the next decade. The Honda Insight and Toyota Prius
were two of the first mainstream hybrid electric vehicles and both
models remain a popular line.
PART-2
Questions-Answers
Answer
1 The social and environmental impacts of electric and hybrid vehicles
include effects on mobility and travel, electricity supply system operation,
petroleum and other fuel consumption, air pollution and traffic noise.
2. An estimated 80 per cent of average annual vehicle kilometres can be
electrified., Electricity supply systems will not need to expand capacity,
and will benefit from load levelling if overnight recharging of electric
vehicles is encouraged.
3. Petroleum consumption for transportation purposes will decline, but
the benefits are dependent on the type of fuel used to generate recharge
electricity .
4. The fuel mix used by power stations also determines air pollution impacts,
since decreases in vehicle emissions are accompanied by increases in
power plant emissions.
5. Improvements in traffic noise are modest, with 10 per cent electrification
of light vehicles producing a 13 per cent decrease in traffic noise impacts.
6. The economics and environmental impact associated with use of an
electric car depends significantly on the source of the electricity:
i. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources,the electric
car is advantageous to the hybrid vehicle.
i. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains
competitive only if the electricity is generated on-board.
iü. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50-60 %by a gas
turbine engine connected to a high-capacity battery and electric motor,
the electric car is superior in many respects
7 Hybrid and electric vehicles play a critical role in reducing global
greenhouse gas emissions, with transport estimated to contribute to
14 %of CO, produced annually.
Que 1.5. Mention advantages of hybrid vehicle over a
conventional vehicle.
Answer
Advantages of ahybrid over a conventional vehicle are as follows:
a. Regenerative Braking:
1. A hybrid can capture some of the energy normally lost as heat to the
mechanical brakes by using its electric drive motor(s) in generator mode
to break the vehicle.
b. More Efficient Operation of the ICE (Internal Combustion
Engine), Including Reduction of Idle :
1. Ahybrid can avoid some of the energy losses associated with engine
operation at speed and load combinations where the engine is inefficient
1-6D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
by using the energy storage device to either absorb part of the ICE's
output or augment it or even substitute for it.
2. Thisallows the ICE tooperate only at speeds and loads where it is most
efficient.
3. When an HEV is stopped, rather than running the engine at idle, where
it is extremely inefficient, the control system may either shut off the
engine, with the storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating
or cooling the vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the
engine at a higher-than-idle (more efficient) power setting and use the
excess power (over auxiliary loads) to recharge the storage device.
4 When the vehicle control system can shut the engine off at idle, the
drive train can be designed so that the drive motor also serves as the
starter motor, allowing extremely rapid restart due to the motor's high
starting torque.
C. Smaller ICE:
1 Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the HEV's ICE
can be down sized.
2 The ICE may be sized for the continuous load and not for the very high
short term acceleration load.
3. This enables the ICE to operate at a higher fraction of its rated power,
generally at higher fuel efficiency, during most of the driving.
Que 1.6. What are the counter balancing factors reducing hybrid
energy advantages ?
Answer
Counter balancing factors reducing hybrid energy advantage, include :
a. Potential for Higher Weight:
1. Although the fuel-driven energy source on a hybrid generally will be of
lower power and weight than the engine in a conventional vehicle of
similar performance, total hybrid weight is likely to be higher than the
conventional vehicle it replaces because of the added weight of the
storage device, electric motor(s),and other components.
2 This depends on the storage mechanism chosen, the vehicle performance
requirements, and so forth.
b. Electrical Losses :
1. Although individual electric drive train components tend to be quite
efficient for one way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations,
electricity flows back and forth through components in a way that leads
to cascading losses.
2 Further, some of the components may be forced to operate under
conditions where they have reduced efficiency.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-7D (ME-Sem-7)
3.
For example, like ICEs,most electric motors have lower eficiency at
the low-speed, low-load conditions often encountered in city driving.
PART-3
Impact of Modern Trains on Energy Supply.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
PART-4
Questions-Answers
Answer
1 In general, conventional vehicles use an internal combustion engine
fueled by gasoline or diesel to power the wheels.
2 Electricity is used for some accessories, but is not used to move the
vehicle.
3 The development of automobiles with internal combustion engines is
one of the greatest achievements of modern technology.
4 However, the highly developed automotive industry and the large
number of automobiles in use around the world are causing serious
problems for society and human life.
5 Deterioration in air quality, global warming, and a decrease in petroleum
resources are becoming the major threats to human beings.
Answer
1 Vehicle performance is the study of the motion of a vehicle.
2 The motion of any vehicle depends upon all the forces and moments
that act upon it. These forces and moments, for the most part are caused
by interaction of the vehicle with the surrounding medium(s)such as
air or water, gravitational attraction (gravity forces) earth's surface,
and on-board energy consuming devices such as rocket, turbojet, piston
engine and propellers.
3 Consequently, in order to fully understand the performance problem it
is necessary to study and in some way characterize these interacting
forces.
4 Generally speaking, the performance of a vehicle can be evaluated
using following indicators: the maximal speed that can be reached, the
accelerating time from zero to a certain speed, the maximal climbing
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-9 D (ME-Sem-7)
Where d= F-F
M,g
(T,ii,n,/r,) -(1/2) p,CpA,V² ...(1.10.3)
M,g
is called the performance factor.
4. While the vehicle drives on a road with a large grade, the gradeability of
the vehicle can be calculated as,
sin a
d-f, 1-d +f² ...(1.10.4)
1+f
b. Maximum Speed ofa Vehicle :
1 The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising
speed that the vehicle can develop with full power plant load on a flat
road.
2. The maximum speed of a vehicle is determined by the equilibrium
between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance or the
maximum speed of the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission.
1-10 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction toHybrid ElectricVehicle
3 The tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as
Tod M.gf, cos a+ 1zP.Cs4,V ...(1.10.5)
4 This equation indicates that the vehicle reaches its maximum speed
when the tractive effort, represented by the left-hand-side term in (1.10.5),
equals the resistance, represented by the right-hand-side terms.
C. Acceleration:
1. The acceleration performance of a vehicle is usually described by its
acceleration time and the distance covered from zero speed to a certain
high speed (zero to 96 km/h or 60 mph, for example) on level ground.
2. The acceleration of the vehicle is given as
a = dV_ F- F, -F,
dt M,8
(T,ji,n,/r)-(1/2p.CpA,V²
=
M,8 -8(d-f)
.(1.10.6)
Where ¿= The mass factor.
3 Considering the equivalent mass increase due to the angular moments
of the rotating components. The mass factor can be written as,
8= ...(1.10.7)
M,r Mr?
Where I. is the total angular moment of the wheels and I is the total
angular moment of the rotating components associated with the power
plant.
4 Calculation of the mass factor, 8, requires knowing the values of the
mass moments of inertia of all the rotating parts. In the case where
these values are not known, the mass factor, 8, for a passenger car
would be estimated using the following empirical relation,
8 =1+6, t 8,7 ...(1.10.8)
Where 6, represents the second term on the right-hand side of equation
(1.10.8), with a reasonable estimate value of 0.04, and 8, represents the
effect of the power plant-associated rotating parts, and has a reasonable
estimate value of 0.0025.
PART-5
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions
Power
Torque
Speed
Fig. 1.11.1. Ideal performance characteristics for a
vehicle traction power plant.
3. At low speeds, the torque is constrained to be constant so as not to be
At low speeds, torque is kept constant to avoid exceeding
over the maximaadhesion
the maximum limited by the adhesion
between thebetween thethe
tire and tireground.
ground contact
area.
4 This constant power characteristic will provide the vehicle with a high
tractive effort at low speeds, where demands for acceleration, drawbar
pull, or grade climbing capability are high.
5 Since the internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most
commonly used power plants for automotive vehicles to date, it is
appropriate to review the basic features of the characteristics that are
essential to predicating vehicle performance and driveline design.
6 Representative characteristics of a gasoline engine in full throttle and
an electric motor at full load are shown in Fig. 1.11.2 and Fig. 1.11,3,
respectively.
7. The internal combustion engine usually has torque-speed characteristics
far from the ideal performance characteristic required by traction.
8. It starts operating smoothly at idle speed. Good combustion quality and
maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine speed.
1-12 D ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(Nm)
Torque
100 1300
Torque
(kW)
Power
80 |240
Speed (nm)
Fig. 1.11.2. Typical performance characteristics
of gasoline engines.
80 1400
(kW)70
Motor
torque 1350
Motor
(Nm)
torque
Power
60 300
50 250 Z
Torque
40 200
30 150
20 100
Base
10 50
speed
(
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Motor (rpm)
Fig. 1.11.3. Typical performance characteristies
of electric motors for traction.
9 As the speed increases further, the mean effective pressure decreases
because ofthe growing losses in the air-induction manifold and a decline
in engine torque.
10. Power output, however, increases to its maximum at a certain high
speed.
11. Beyond this point., the engine torque decreases more rapidly with
increasing speed. This results in the decline of engine power output.
PART-6
Transmission Characteristics.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-13 D (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
1st gear
2nd gear
3rd gear
4th gear
Speed
Fig.1.12.1. Tractive effort characteristics of a gasoline
engine-powered vehicle.
2. The common practice of requiring direct drive (non-reducing) in the
gearbox to be in the highest gear determines this ratio.
3. The gearbox provides a number of gear reduction ratios ranging from
three to five for passenger cars and more for heavy commercial vehicles
that are powered with gasoline or diesel engines.
4. The maximum speed requirement of the vehicle determines the gear
ratio of thehighest gear (i.e., the smallest ratio). On the other hand, the
gear ratio of the lowest gear (i.e., the maximum ratio) is determined by
the requirement of the maximum tractive effort or the gradeability.
1-14 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid ElectricVehicle
5. Ratios between them should be spaced in such a way that they will
provide the tractive effort-speed characteristics as close to the ideal as
possible, as shown in Fig. 1.12.2.
Engine operating speed range
"gear
V
Vehicle
speed 4th
3rd
V,
Engine speed
Fig. 1.12.2. Demon stration of vehicle speed range
and engine speed range for each gear.
6 In the first iteration, gear ratios between the highest and the lowest
gear may be selected in such a way that the engine can operate in the
same speed range for all the gears.
b. Hydrodynamic Transmission :
1 Hydrodynamic transmissions use fluid to transmit power in the form of
torque and speed and are widely used in passenger cars.
2 They consist of a torque converter and an automatic gearbox. The torque
converter consists of at least three rotary elenments knowm as the impeller
(pump), the turbine, and the reactor, as shown in Fig. 1.12.3.
Impeller
(pump)
Turbine
One-way
clutch
Reactor
Output shaft
Fw
M.g sina
Fr
Mg cos a
ba IM.L,8
dV SF - F, ...(1.13.1)
dt EM,
Where, V=Vehicle speed,
SF, = Total tractive effort of the vehicle,
SF, = Total resistance,
M, = Total mass of the vehicle,
and J = Mass factor, which is an effect of rotating
components in the power train.
Answer
i. Grading Resistance:
1. When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component,
which is always directed to the downward direction, as shown in
Fig. 1.14.1.
0M.g sin a
H M,g cos a
M,8
When the road angle is small, the road resistance can be simplified as
Fd =F,+ F, =M,gf +i) ...(1.14.4)
ii. Rolling Resistance:
1. The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is primarily caused by
hysteresis in the tire materials.
2 This is due to the deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling.
3 The hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution of ground reaction
forces.
4. The pressure in the leading half of the contact area is larger than that in
the trailing half, as shown in Figl.14.2.(a).
5 This phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting forward.
6 This forwardly shifted ground reaction force with the normal load acting
on the wheel center creates a moment that opposes the rolling of the
wheel.
7. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is primarily caused by deformation
of the ground surface as shown in Fig. 1.14.2(b).
P P
Px
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.14.2. Tire deflection and rolling resistance
on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface.
1-18 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
PART-7
Mathematical Models to Describe Vehicle Performance.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
1 Vehicle system modeling represents electric vehicle components and
embedded software in the form of a prototype so that experiment or
simulation can be performed on prototype to get insight about actual
vehicle performance.
2 The vehicle performance is measured in terms of maximum speed, fuel
economy, stability, emissions etc. Vehicle system modelingis also useful
during design and component testing stage of vehicle.
3. The dynamic modeling of vehicle employs physics based mathematical
models using resistive companion form (RCF) modeling technique.
4. In this form of modeling initially empirical data, engineering assumptions
each
and physics based algorithm are used by simulators to model
component of vehicle.
5.
Now connectivity constraints are applied between all the components in
order to connect the various components of vehicle mathematically.
6 Then finally an integrated system model is obtained which is useful for
design stage of vehicle.
7
The general form of RCF model of each component is expressed as
follows,
i(t) = Gt)ult)-b(t-h)
Where, i= Vector of through variables,
G= Jacobian matrix,
U= Vector of across variables,
b= Vector which depends on past history valuesof
through and across variables,
h= Numerical integration time step, and
t= Time instant.
8
The above RCF model can be obtained by integrating differential -
algebraic equations describing the dynamics of each component. The
most common integration method used is trapezoidal rule.
2
UNIT Hybrid Electric
Drive Trains
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Hybrid Electric Drive Trains : 2-2D to 2-6D
Basic Concept of Hybrid Traction
Part-2 : Introduction to Various Hybrid 2-7D to 2-11D
Drive Train Topologies
Part-3 : Power Flow Control 2-11D to 2-16D
Strategies in Hybrid Drive
Train Topologies, Efficiency
Part-4 : Electric Trains : Basic Concept ..... 2-16D to 2-17D
of Electric Traction
2-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
2-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
PART- 1
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Asystem which causes the propulsion of vehicle in which tractive or
driving force is obtained from various devices such as diesel engine
drives, steam engine drives, electric motors, etc. is called as traction
system.
2 The hybrid electric traction system consists of electric motor /generator
and a battery which stores electrical energy, generator and a battery
which stores electrical energy.
3 Battery provides power when excess tractive power is required and
when the requirement of tractive power is less than the engine output
power, the battery stores the generated electrical energy.
4. The generator is used to regain the kinetic energy of the vehicle when
it is slowed down when brakes are applied.
Answer
1. Basically, any vehicle power train is required to :
i. Develop sufficient power to meet the demands of vehicle performance.
Carry sufficient energy onboard to support vehicle driving in the given
range.
iü. Demonstrate high efficiency.
iv. Emit few environmental pollutants.
2. Broadly, a vehicle may have more than one energy source and energy
converter (power source), such as a gasoline (or diesel) heat engine
system, hydrogen fuel cell electric motor system, chemical battery
electric motor system, etc.
3. A vehicle that has two or more energy sources and energy converters is
called a hybrid vehicle. Ahybrid vehicle with an electrical power train
(energy source energy converters) is called an HEV.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-3 D (ME-Sem-7)
4 Ahybrid vehicle drive train usually consists of no more than
two power
trains. More than two power train configurations will complicate the
system.
5 AFor the purpose
hybrid of recapturing
drive train typically part
uses of athebidirectional
braking energyenergy
that issorce and
dissipated
in the formto of
converter recover
heat insome of the braking
conventional ICEeither energy that is dissipated
vehicles, a hybrid or
drive train
as heat in
usually hastraditional ICE vehicles
a bidirectional energy sorce and bidirectional
converter. The other one
is either bidirectional or
unidirectional.
6. Fig. 2.2.1 shows the concept of a hybrid drive train and the possible
different power flow routes.
Energy Energy
Source Converter
(1) (1)
Load
Power train (2)
(bidirection al
Energy Energy
Source
Converter
(2) (2
Wheel Power
from
IC
Engine
DC
Transmission
motor
Power
Charging harnessed
Battery circuit from
Engine
regenerative
breaking
Wheel
Power
Wheel harnessed
Battery . Charging
circuit from
regenerative
breaking
Transmission
Power
from
IC
Large
DC Engine
Motor
Wheel
Power
Wheel Charging harnessed
Battery circuit from
regenerative
breaking
Transmission Power
from
IC
IC Large Engine
Engine DC
Motor
Wheel
PART-2
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.6. Classify various hybrid drive train topologies with block
diagram.
Answer
Battery
Power Electric
Battery
Power |Electric
converter motor converter motor
Steering
Motor
Propeller shaft
Fuel Engine
Answer
A. Parallel Hybrid Topology :
1
These are the most common type of hybrid. The cars wheels can be
powered in three different ways: either directly by the engine, by the
electric motor alone, or by both power sources working together.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-9 D (ME-Sem-7)
2 In a parallel hybrid electric vehicle the single electric
motor and the
internal combustion engine are installed todeliver power in parallel to
drive the wheels.
3 As both the engine and electric motor connected to the
drive shaft
through amechanical coupling, they can propel the vehicle by the engine
alone, by the motor alone, or by both together.
4 The electric motor can be used as a generator to charge the energy
storage devices (battery or ultra capacitors by regeneration braking or
by extra power from the engine.
Steering
Motor
Transmission Differential
Front wheels
Rear wheels
Fuel Engine
Transmission Wheel
Battery Motor
Generator
Fig. 2.8.1.Parallel hybrid.
5. As the engine is connected to the wheels via mechanical coupling, it
makes this type hybrid quite efficient on the highway.
6. In addition, a parallel hybrid vehicle only needs two propulsion devices -
engine and electric motor, which makes the system very compact.
7. The result is that a parallel hybrid has fewer components than a series
hybrid which makes the system more cost effective.
8. The battery is big enough that the electric motor can power the car for
up to 200kms.
B. Applications :
1. Toyota Prius is the most widely known example.
2. Toyota also uses this system in the Yaris and Auris hatchbacks and
Prius+ MPV hybrids,while cars from Audi, BMW, Citroen, Land Rover,
Lexus, Mercedes-Benz, Peugeot, Porsche and Volkswagen work on the
same basis.
2-10 D (ME-Sem-7)
Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Answer
A. Split-Power Hybrid:
1
Split-hybrid provides the advantages of both the systems but is more
costly and complicated.
2. The transmission (planetary gear system) splits some of the
power from
engine to be transferred directly to the drive whereas the other part is
converted into electrical energy by means of an alternator and stored in
the high-voltage (HV) battery.
3 Both the electric motor and the internal
combustion engine can also
provide their power simultaneously for propelling the vehicle.
4. It is also possible to use electricity only.
B. Advantages :
1 Has a direct mechanical path for the internal
combustion engine which
isvery efficient in steady operating conditions like cruising.
2. Has an electro-mechanical path which allows for efficient
the IC engine in unsteady driving, such as speed variationsoperation
of
seen in city
driving.
C. Disadvantages :
1. More complexity and cost.
PART-3
Power FlowControl Strategies in Hybrid Drive
Train Topologies, Efficiency.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer TypeQuestions
3. This is done more easily when the energy storage capacity is reasonably
large as with a battery than when it is small as using ultra capacitors.
4 The strategy used for vehicles having a significant all-electric range isand
to
dischargethe battery to a prescribed state-of-charge (20 to 30 %)
then to turn on the engine to maintain the battery within 10 to 20
percent of that condition.
5 Electrical energy is generated at a rate slightly greater than the average
power demand of the vehicle to account for losses associated with storing
the energy.
that
6. In the case of an engine/generator, a minimum power level is set so
the engine is never operated below it.
Que 2.12. Explain control strategies of parallel hybrid drive train
topologies.
Answer
complicated
1. The control strategies for parallel hybrid vehicles are moredependent on
than those for series hybrids primarily because they are
both vehicle speed and state-of-charge of the energy storage unit and
driveling torque between the
should include criteria for splitting the
engine and the electric motor.
2. The purpose of the strategy is to permit the engine to provide the torque
and permit the engine
if it can at vehicle speeds below a prescribed value
to provide the torque at higher speeds.
mode, the motor provides
3. If the vehicle is operating in the all-electric regardless of the torque
turned on
the torque and the engine is not
demand or vehicle speed.
usually less than 80 km,
4. Since the all-electric range of a hybrid vehicle is
automatically to the hybrid mode
operation of the vehicle should change
when the all-electric range is exceeded.
be either charge sustaining
5. The control strategy in the hybrid mode can
or charge depleting.
the battery state-of-charge is maintained
In the case of charge sustaining,control
6.
strategy using electrical energy
at a near constant value by a as a generator and
produced by the engine and the motor acting the wall plug.
consequently little electrical energy is used from
strategy permits the battery
7. For the charge depleting case, the control and the battery is
state-of-charge to decrease as the vehicle is driven
then recharged from the wall plug at night.
transmission so the control
Parallel hybrids usually have a multi-speed
8
algorithm that depends on
strategy must also include a gear shiftingproducing torque.
whether the motor or engine or both are
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-13 D (ME-Sem-7)
9 A continuously variable transmission (CVT)
attractive for use in a parallel hybrid driveline. would particularly
be
the power converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the
wheels via transmission.
F E F E
T G T
B P
M B P
F F
G T G T
B P M B M
Answer
The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four
modes of operation are as follows:
Mode 1 : During start up or full throie acceleration (Fig. 2.15.1(a):
both the ICE and the EM share the required power to propel the vehicle.
Typically, the relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is
80-20 %.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-15D (ME-Sem-7)
F E
B P M B
HP M
T T
B P M B
PM
(c) Mode 3, braking or deceleration (d) Mode 4, light load
B: Battery G: Generator Electrical link
E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power converter Mechanical link
T:Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)
Fig. 2.15.1.
ii. Mode 2 :During normal driving (Fig. 2.15.1(b)), the required traction
power is supplied by the ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.
ii. Mode 3 : During braking or deceleration (Fig. 2.15.1(c), the EM acts as
a generator to charge the battery via the power converter.
iv. Mode 4: Under light load condition (Fig. 2.15.1(d), the traction power is
delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.
Que 2.16. Describe fuel efficiency of hybrid vehicle. Also define
tractive effort.
Answer
A. Fuel Efficiency :
1 Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the ratio of
effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy
contained in a carrier (fuel) into kinetic energy or work.
2 Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device, which in turn may vary per
application, and this spectrum of variance is often illustrated as a
continuous energy profile.
3. In the context of transport, fuel economy is the energy efficiency of a
particular vehicle, given as a ratio of distance traveled per unit of fuel
2-16D ME-Sem-7) Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
PART-4
Questions-Ánswers
Answer
A. Electric Traction System:
1. The traction system in which driving force is achieved from electric
motors for its location is called electric traction.
2. Following are requirements ofelectric traction system:
Maximum tractive effort should be exerted at starting so that rapid
acceleration may be attained.
Equipment should be capable of withstanding overloads for short periods.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-17D (ME-Sem-7)
iüi. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the
shoes and if possible the energy should be brake
the supply
during braking period.
regenerated and returned to
iv. Easy speed control.
V
Equipment required should be minimum, of high efficiency and low
initial and maintenance cost.
3.o Three main types of
electrictraction systems are:
i DC electric traction
system,
: AC electrictraction system, and
ii. Composite system.
B. Advantages of Electric Traction:
1 It is cleanest and healthier from hygienic
point as compared to allother
system of traction.
2 It can be put into service without any loss of
time.
3
Maintenance cost and running cost is comparatively low.
4 Electric traction is most economical in high traffic density areas
particularly, if the electrical energy is cheap.
5. The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the
exerted by electric motor is continuous. torque
6 No difficulty is being experienced during the period of
sudden and
temporary overloading as the system is capable of drawing more energy
from the supply network.
C. Disadvantages of Electric Traction :
1 High initial expenditure is involved for power system, if electric traction
is involved.
2 Failure of power supply for a few minutes paralyses the whole system.
3. Additional equipment required for regeneration adds to the overall cost.
PART-5
Introduction to Various Electric Drive Train Topologies.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
There are two configuration for electric vehicle drive train topologies,
they are front wheel drive and rear wheel drive which are discussed as
given below:
1. In the case of front-wheel drive, the electric motor drives the gearbox
which is mounted on the front axle, as shown in Fig. 2.18.1. This
configuration is for an EV using a single propulsion moto.
2. The single motor drives the trans axle on a common axis, delivering
power to the two wheels differentially through a hollow motor shaft.
The use of two motors driving two front wheels simplifies the
transmission and eliminates the differential.
3. Several configurations are possible with two propulsion motors driving
two wheels. In one arrangement, the motors, mounted to the chassis,
can be connected to the wheels through two short half-shafts.
4 The suspension system of the vehicle isolates the wheels and its
associated parts from the rest of the components of the vehicle for
easier handling of the vehicle, depending on roadway conditions. The
wheels are able to move freely without the weight of the motors when
they are mounted on the chassis.
5. In an alternate arrangement, the motors are mounted on the half
shafts with the motor drive shaft being part of the half-shaft. The half
shafts connect the wheels on one side and the chassis through a pivot on
the other side. In-wheel mounting of motors is another arrangement
possible in EVs.
6 The difficulty in this case is that the unsprung weight of the vehicle
increases due to motors inside the wheels, making traction control more'
complex.
7.
The transmission is more complex in the case of a rear-wheel drive,
which requires a differential to accommodate unequal speeds of the
inside and outside wheels of the rear axle during vehicle cornering. A
typical rear-wheel drive transmission configuration is shown in
Fig. 2.18.2.
Electric
Half shaft motor
Half shaft
Rear
wheels
Electric Gear
motor Differential
box
Drive shaft
PART-6
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
due the variations in electric
There are many possible EV configurations control is based on these six
propulsion and energy sources. Power flow
configurations. These six alternatives are:
configuration with gearbox (GB) and a
1 In Fig. 2.20.1(a) a single EM connection or disconnection of
clutch is shown. The clutch enables the
consists of a set of gears
power flow from EM to the wheels. The gear
and gearbox, the driver
with different gear ratios. With the use of clutch to the wheels can be
going
can shift the gear ratios and hence the torque and
changed. The wheels have high torque low speed in the lower gears
high-speed low torque in the higher gears.
C
MHHGB D MFGD
I---------t-
(a) (b)
-
I--
G
M
D FG
(d)
(c)
FG MJ
M
M
--RG-!
(e) (f)
C: Clutch GB: Gearbox
D: Differential EM:Electric motor
FG:Fixed gearing
Fig.2.20.1.
2 In Fig.2.20.1(b) a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the
clutch is shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight
of the transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a
more complex controlof the EM to provide the necessary torque to the
wheels.
3 Fig. 2.20.1(c) shows aconfiguration ofEV using one EM. It is a transverse
front EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and
differential and they are integrated into a single assembly.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 2-21 D (ME-Sem-7)
4. In Fig. 2.20.1(d) a dual motor
the differential action of anconfiguration
is shown. In this configuration
EV when cornering can be electronically
provided by two electric motors.
5. Fig. 2.20.1(e) shows this configuration in which fixed
is employed toreduce the motor speed to the planetary gearing
6 In Fig. 2.20.1(f) an EV configuration without any desired wheel speed.
mechanical
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drivegearing is shown.
can be
by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel. realized
PART-7
Fuel Efficiency Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CONTENTS
Part-1: Introduction to Electric 3-2D to 3-3D
Components used in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles
3-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
3-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
PART- 1
Questions-Answers
Answer
Major components of an electric vehicle are shown in Fig. 3.1.1 and are
discussed below:
Auxiliary Batteries
power supply
PART-2
Configuration and Control of DC Motor Drives.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
1. Typically, there are four types of wound-field DC motors, depending on
the mutual interconnection between the field and armature windings.
2. They are separately excited, shunt excited, series excited, and compound
excited as shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
A, A F
+
V -000
A F A, F,
(a) Separately excited (b) Shunt excited
V
+
000
3 In the case of a separately excited motor, the field and armature voltage
can be controlled independently of one another. In a shunt motor, the
field and armature and connected in parallel to a common source.
4. Therefore, an independent control of field current and armature or
armature voltage can be achieved by inserting a resistance into the
appropriate circuit.
5. This is an inefficient method of control.
3-6D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
6. The efficient method is to use power electronics based DC-DCconverters
in the appropriate circuit to replace the resistance.
7. The DC-DCconverters can be actively controlled to produce proper
armature and field voltage.
8 In the case ofa series motor, the field current is the same as the armature
current; therefore,field flux is a function of armature current.
9 In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetomotive force (mmf) of a
series field is a function of the armature current and is in the same
direction as the mmf of the shunt field.
Answer
Speed and torque of DC motor can be controlled by using following
methods:
i. Armature Voltage Control Method :
1. The speed of DC motor can be controlled by using voltage variation by
reducing the voltage rated value.
2. Consider a separately excited DC motor as shown in Fig. 3.4.1.
Hw
Ia
V,
Fig. 3.4.1.
3 We know that the standard speed equation is,
)=
V, -1
4. In this method we do not add any external resistance in series with
armature or field circuit. Hence the only drop in resistance is I, r, drop.
5. As the value of r, is small hence I, r, drop can be neglected,
)= V,
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 3-7D (ME-Sem-7)
6. Therefore when voltage reduces below rated value then speed also
reduces below base speed.
ii. Field Flux Control Method :
1. This method is used to control the speed of motor above rated value. In
this method additional resistance is connected in series with field circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.4.2.
ex
I, V,
Fig. 3.4.2.
2. When r is added then due tothe additional resistance the field current
I,will decrease. When field current (I) decreases, then field flux ((¢) also
decreases.
3 The basic speed equation of DC motor is,
4. When field flux (¢) decreases then speed o will increase i.e., speed
becomes more than base speed.
Answer
A. Advantages of DC Motor :
1 DC motors are smaller in size.
2 DCmotors are suitable for traction systems for driving heavy loads.
3. DCseries motors have high starting torque.
4. Wide range of speed control.
5. DC Shunt motors are best suited for armature control and field control.
6 DC motors have quick starting, stopping, reversing, and fast acceleration.
7. DC motors are free from harmonics.
3-8D (ME-Sem-7)
Electric Propulsion Unit
B. Disadvantages of DC Motor :
1 DC motors have a high initial cost.
2 Maintenance cost is high and increased operation due to the presence of
brushes and commutator.
3. Due to sparking at brush, DC motors cannot operate in explosive and
hazardous conditions.
4 As the speed increases, the shaft gets vibrated and the armature gets
damaged.
5 We need converters to supply power to the motor.
Answer
1. Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of a number of
advantages such as high efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight,
small size, quick response and regeneration down to very low speeds.
2. Presently, the separately excited DC motors are usually used in traction
due to the control flexibility of armature voltage and field.
3 For a DC motor control in open-loop and closed-loop configurations, the
chopper offers a number of advantages due to its high operation
frequency.
Torque
Power
Armature current
Que 3.7.
Explain in brief two quadrant control of forward
motoring and regenerative braking.
Answer
1. Atwo-quadrant operation consisting of forward motoring and forward
regenerative braking requires a chopper capable of giving a positive
voltage and current in either direction.
2. This two-quadrant operation can be realized in the following two schemes:
i. Single Chopper withaReverse Switeh:
1 The chopper circuit used for forward motoring and forward regenerative
braking is shown in Fig. 3.7.2, where S is a self-commutated
semiconductor switch, operated periodically such that it remains closed
for a duration of 8T and remains open for a duration of (1 - S)T. Cis the
manual switch.
D,
+
1, R
V
V.a
D, A
içi S
A D
S
D,4 v,
Fig. 3.7.2.
PART-3
Questions-Answers
Answer
The requirements of the EV motors are as follows :
1. High torque at low speeds and climbing as well as high speed at low
torques for eruising.
3-11D (ME-Sem-7)
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
2. Very wide speed range including constant-torque and constant-power
regions.
3 Fast torque response.
4 High efficiency for regenerative braking.
5. High reliability and robustness for various vehicle operating conditions.
6 Reasonable cost.
Que 3.9. Discuss in brief about induction motor.
Answer
1 Induction motor drives are the mature technology among
commutatorless motor drives. Compared with DC motor drives, the AC
induction motor drive has additional advantages such as lightweight
nature, small volume, low cost, and high efficiency. These advantages
are particularly important for EV and HEV applications.
wound-rotor and
2. There are two types of induction motors, namely,
squirrel cage motors. Because of the high cost, need for maintenance,
attractive
less
and lack of sturdiness, wound-rotor induction motors are
electric propulsion
than their squirrel-cage counterparts, especially for motors
in EVs and HEVs. Hence, squirrel-cage induction are loosely
termed as induction motors.
shown in Fig. 3.9.1.
3. A cross section of a two-pole induction motor is
phase
4. Slots inthe inner periphery of the stator are inserted with three
windings.
that the current in the
5. The turns of each winding are distributed such
distributed flux density
winding produces an approximate sinusoidally
around the periphery of the air gap.
showm in Fig. 3.9.1.
6. The three windings are spatially arranged by 120° as
a'l
-Stator
-Statorslot and windings
120° Rotor bar
E l120 -Rotor
a
Las bs les
C
O)a
(b)
(a)
Ta E,l, cos ,
T =kE,l, cos 2
T= hsR, E,
R; (SX,}
sE, R,
l,= cos , =
JR, + J(sX,
Where, = Stator flux (Wb)
L,= Rotor current (A)
cos , = Rotor power factor
R, = Rotor resistance (2)
X, = Rotor reactance (2)
to slip
3 For slip values, s from s = 0 to s-s,m, the torque, T is proportional
i.e., R, is constant and the term sX, is small compared to R, value. Then,
To s
4 Thisregion is shown by curve AB in Fig. 3.11.1.
Reverse Forward motor region (T(N-m)
breaking B
Generating region
region Maximum
torque Torque,
D A
Slip 's'
1 Sn
Fig. 3.11.1.
3-14 D (ME-Sem-7)
Electric Propulsion Unit
5 For values of slip, s beyond the
proportional to slip. value s = s., torque T is inversely
6 Here, R, value is small compared to sX,
thereby,
To
Tor
(for constant X, value)
7
Therefore, for an induction motor torque-slip
rectangular hyperbola for slip values in betweens=scharacteristics
and s = 1 as
are
in Fig. 3.11.1 by the curve BC. shown
8 The region between 0 < s <l is
9 When slip s > 1
known as forward motoring region.
from Fig. 3.11.1 it is seen that the rotor
decreases with increase of slip. In this region the speed istorque further
this region is known as reverse braking negative and
region as shown by curve CD.
10. When slip is negative i.e., when s > 0
then
than synchronous speed then the motor the rotor speed is greater
produces a negative torque.
Que 3.12. Discuss in brief about
constant volt/hertz control of
induction motor.
Answer
1 For traction application, the torque-speed
motor can be varied by simultaneously characteristic of an induction
controlling the voltage and
frequency, which is known as constant volt/hertz control.
2 By emulating a DCmotor at low speed, the flux may be kept
Also the field current I, should be kept constant and constant.
value. That is, equal to its rated
E
..(3.12.1)
where I._ is the rated field current, and E.and o, are the rated mmf
and frequency of the stator, respectively.
3 To maintain the flux at constant, Elo should be kept
constant and equal
to Erated,
4 Ignoring the voltage drop in the stator impedance Z, results in a constant
Vlo until the frequency and voltage reach their rated values.
This
approach is known as constant volt/hertz control.
5 The rotor current can be calculated as,
I,= (o/o,)Eatel.
jL,o +R,ls ...(3.12.2)
6 The torque produced can be obtained as,
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 3-15 D (ME-Sem-7)
3| (o/o,} EnR,s
IE,/s= ...(3.12.3)
o (R/s +(L,o?
7. The slip s, corresponding to the maximum torque is
S, =t
R
...(3.12.4)
L,o
And then, the maximum torque is
T max 3 Eted
...(3.12.5)
2 2L,o
8. Eg. (3.12.5) indicates that with the constant E/o, the maximum torque is
constant with varying frequency. Eq. (3.12.4) indicates that so is
constant, resulting in constant slip speed, o,.
9. In practice, due to the presence of stator impedance and the voltage
drop, the voltage should be somewhat higher than that determined by
constant Elo, as shown in Fig. 3.12.1.
10. When motor speed is beyond its rated speed, the voltage reaches its
rated value and cannot be increased with the frequency.
T Pml
Pmy Pm
V
0s osl
T
osl
0(s=1)
Constant Constant Region with
torque power fixed voltage
region region and frequency
Fig. 3.12,1, Operating variable varying with motor speed.
11. In traction application, speed control in a wide range is usually required
and the torque demand in the high-speed range is low. Control beyond
constant power range is required.
12. To prevent the torque from exceeding the breakdown torque, the
machine is operated at a constant slip speed and the machine current
and power are allowed to decrease as shown in Fig. 3.12.1.
3-16 D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
13. Fig. 3.12.2 shows a general block diagram where constant VIfcontrol is
implemented.
Slip speed
controller
Inverter
P (1
O syn
2
m
Motor
m
Speed sensor
Fig. 3.12.2. General configuration of constant Vf control.
PART-4
Questions-Answers
6 BLDC motors are very efficient. Torque is high under low speeds and
goes down as the speed goes up.
7 A drawback of this type of motor is the price compared to the other
possible EV motors. A BLDC motor needs strong permanent magnet
that can influence the total price of the motor.
U: Phase-U winding
V: Phase-V winding
W: Phase-W winding
Rotor: Magnet
3-18 D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
Stator
U
Motor
windings
Rotor
-O W
oOutput 1
|HE HE! HE
-oOutput 2
oOutput 3
Hall effect IC
Fig. 3.13.1.
Answer
A. Advantages of BLDC Motor:
1. BLDC motor is compact in size and light in weight.
2 They are easy to control.
3 Easy tocool.
4 Requires low maintenance.
5 Have high reliability.
6 They have law noise emissions.
B. Disadvantages of BLDC Motors :
1 More expensive.
2 They have limited constant power range.
3 Problem magnet denmagnetization.
4 Cannot reach high speeds because of the limited mechanical strength of
the assembly between the rotor yoke and the permanent magnets.
Que 3.15. Discuss in brief about control of BLDC motor drives.
Answer
1 In vehicle traction application, the torque produced is required to follow
the torque desired by the driver and commanded through the accelerator
and brake pedals. Thus, torque control is the basic requirement.
2. Fig. 3.15.1 shows a block diagram ofa torque control scheme for a BLDC
motor drive.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 3-19 D (ME-Sem-7)
3. The desired current I' is derived from the commanded
a torque controller.
torqueTthrough
4 The current controller and commutation sequencer receive the
desired
current I' position information from the position sensors, and perhaps
the current feedback through current transducers, and then
gating signals. produce
5. These gating signals are sent to the three-phase inverter
(power
converter) to produce the phase current desired by the BLDC machine.
DC supply
Three-phase BLDC
Load
inverter
motor
Commanded
Gating
signals
torque T
Current controller and
commutation sequencer Position
sensor
Fig. 3.15.1. Block diagram of the torque control of the BLDC motor.
6. Many high-performance applications include current feedback for torque
control.
7. At the minimum, aDC bus current feedback is required to protect the
drive and machine from over currents.
8 The commutation angle associated with a brush-less motor is normally
set so that the motor will commutate around the peak of the torque
angle curve.
9. Considering a three-phase motor, connected in delta or wye,
commutation occurs at electrical angles, which are - 30° (electrical)
from the peaks of the torque-angle curves.
10. When the motor position moves beyond the peaks by an amount equal
to 30° (electrical), then the commutation sensors cause the stator phase
excitation to switch to move the motor suddenly to -30° relative to the
peak of the next torque-angle curve.
Que 3.16. Discuss in brief three classes of permanent magnet
materials used for electric motors.
Answer
There are three classes of permanent magnet materials currently used
for electric motors:
i. Alnico:
1. The main advantages of Alnico are its high magnetic remanent flux
density and low temperature coefficients.
2. The temperature coefficient of its remanent magnetic flux density Br,
or remanence, is 0.02 % /°Cand the maximum service temperature is
520°C.
3-20 D ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
3 These advantages allow quite a high air gap flux density and high
operating temperature. Unfortunately, coercive force is very low and
the demagnetization curve is extremely non-linear.
4 Therefore, it is very easy not only to magnetize but also to demagnetize
Alnico. Alnico magnets have been used in motors having ratings in the
range ofa few watts to 150 kW.
i. Ferrites:
1 Aferrite has a higher coercive force than that of Alnico, but at the same
time has a lower remanent magnetic flux density.
2 Temperature coefficients are relatively high, that is, the coefficient of
B, is 0.20 %/°C and the coefficient of coercive field strength, H, or
coercivity is 0.27 %/°C.
3. The maximum service temperature is 400 °C. The main advantages of
ferrites are their low cost and very high electric resistance which means
that there are no eddy-current losses in the PM volume.
iii. Rare-Earth PMs :
1. The first generation of the rare-earth PMs based on the composition of
samarium-cobalt (SmCo.) was invented in the 1960s and has been
produced commercially since the early 1970s.
2. Today, it is a well-established hard magnetic material. SmCo, has the
advantages of high remanent flux density,high coercive force, high
energy production, linear demagnetization curve, and low temperature
coefficient.
3. The temperature coefficient of Br is 0.03 to 0.045%/ °C and the
temperature coefficient of H,is 0.14 to 0.40%/°C. The maximum service
temperature is 250 to 300 °C.
4. It is well suited for building motors with low volume and, consequently
with high specific power and low moment of inertia.
PART-5
Questions-Answers
Current Position
sensor sensor
Control
commands +Controller
SRD
Answer
Control of switched reluctance motor for vehicle traction is done by
following two methods :
a. Mutually Induced Voltage-Based Method:
1. The idea of this method is based on measuring the mutually induced
voltage in an idle phase which is either adjacent or opposite to the
energized phase of an SRM.
3-22 D (ME-Sem-7)
Electric Propulsion Unit
2 The mutual voltage in the off" phase induced due to the current in the
active phase, varies significantly with respect to the rotor position.
3. This mutually induced voltage variation can be sensed by asimple electronic
circuit. Ifthe functional relation between the mutually induced voltage in the
inactive phase due to the current in the active phase and the rotor position is
known, the rotor position information can be extracted from the mutually
measured induced voltage in the inactive phase.
4 This method is only suitable for low-speed operation. Furthermore, it is
very sensitive to noise since the ratio between induced voltage and
system noise is small.
b. Observer-Based Methods :
1 In this method, state-space equations are used to describe the dynamic
behavior of the SRM drive.
2 An observer is then developed based on these non-linear state-space
differential equations for estimation of the rotor position.
3. The input and output of this observer are phase voltage and phase
current, respectively. The state variables of this observer are stator flux
linkage, rotor position angle, and rotor speed.
4 The phase current, flux linkage, rotor position, and rotor speed canbe estimated
using this observer. The phase current estimated by this observer is compared
to the actual phase current of the SRM, and the resultant current errors are
used to adjust the parameters of the observer.
5. When the current estimated by the observer matches the actual current,
the observer is considered as a correct representation of the dynamic
behavior of the actual SRM drive and the rotor position estimated by the
observer is used to represent the actual rotor position.
6. The main disadvantages of these methods are real-time implementation of
complex algorithms, which require ahigh-speed DSP and asignificant amount
of stored data. This increases the cost and speed limitations by the DSP.
7. However, high resolution in detecting rotor position and applicability to
whole speed range are some merits of these methods.
Que 3.19. Describe factors which affect the efficiency of the drive
system of hybrid vehicle.
1.
Answer
--
The schematic diagram ofhybrid vehicle drive train is as shown in Fig. 3.19.1.
wheel
Battery Inverter
Fig. 3.19.1.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 3-23 D (ME-Sem-7)
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Energy Storage 4-2D to 4-3D
Requirements in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicle
4-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
4-2 D (ME-Sem-7)
Energy Storage
PART- 1
Questions-Answers
Answer
Requirements of EVs energy sources are as follows :
1 High specific energy and energy density.
2. High specific power and power density.
3. Fast charging and deep discharging capabilities.
4. Long cycle and service life.
5. Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency.
6 Safety and cost effectiveness.
7. Maintenance free.
8. Environmentally sound and recyclable.
Que 4.2. Write about energy storage systems.
OR
What are different energy storage techniques used in hybrid electric
vehicles ? AKTU2021-22,Marks 10|
Answer
1 Energy storage systems are the set of methods and technologies used to
store energy. The stored energy can be drawn upon at a later time to
perform useful operation.
2 Energy is available in various forms including radiation, chemical,
gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated
temperature, latent heat and kinetic.
3
There are various methods and technologies to store various forms of
energy. The choice of energy storage technology is typically dictated by
application, economics, integration within the system, and the availability
of resources.
4 Energy storage systems are also involved in converting energy from
forms that are difficult to store to forms that are more convenient or
economical.
4-3 D (ME-Sem-7)
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
:
5 Five key energy storage technologies are as follows
Electrochemical energy storage ii. Chemical energy storage
üi. Thermal energy storage iv. Mechanical energy storage
Electrical energy storage
6. The choice of energy storage system technology is interleaved with
vehicle tractive effort for the customer usage pattern anticipated.
PART-2
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Battery :
1 Batteries have been the major energy source for EVs for a long time.
The battery converts stored chemical energy into electric energy. The
chemical reaction between the electrodes and electrolyte generates
electricity.
2. Battery is the most important component of an electric vehicle and
typically constitutes up to about half of the vehicle cost and weight. The
choice of batteries depends on the energy density, weight and costs.
3. The available total energy in the batteries for vehicles is called the
battery capacity and the remaining amount of energy during use is
called the state of charge (SoC) and is expressed in percentage "charge"
remaining.
4 Electric cycles and low range mopeds have simple battery units while
electric cars deploy a large number of batteries.
B. Requirement of EVBatteries:
1 A stable voltage output over a good depth of discharge.
2 High energy capacity for the given battery weight and size.
3. High peak power output per unit mass and volume.
4. High energy efficiency.
5 Able to function with wide ranges of operating temperatures.
6 Good charge retention on open-circuit stand.
7 Ability to accept fast recharge.
8. Ability to withstand over charge and over discharge.
44D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
Electron flow
Sponge
Sponge lead Lead peroxide
changing to changing to
lead sulphate lead sulphate
Electrolyte
becomes
weaker
Nickel
hydroxide Cadmium
Potassium hydroxide
Fig. 4.5.1. NiCd alkaline battery cell.
2. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) batteries are
alkaline batteries with which electrical energy is derived from the
chemical reaction of a metal with oxygen in an alkaline electrolyte
medium.
3 Nickel-cadmium batteries are available for EVs
they may not be advisable due to cadmiumapplications, although
toxicity and nickel
carcinogenity. They do not have the same life span as the nickel-metal
hydride batteries.
4. The main components of the nickel-cadmium cellfor vehicle use are as
follows:
Positive plate - Nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH)
Negative plate -Cadmium (Cd)
iii. Electrolyte - Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
5. The process of charging
water (H,0)
involves the oxygen moving from the negative
plate to the positive plate, and the reverse when
6. When fully charged, the discharging.
negative plate becomes pure cadmium and the
positive plate becomes nickel oxide hydroxide. Fig.4.5.1 shows a simplified
representation of a NiCd battery cell.
Energy Storage
4-6D (ME-Sem-7)
reaction is given below:
7. Asimplified chemical equation to represent this
2Ni0OH +Cd + 2H,0+KOH + 2Ni(OH), +CdO, + KOH
B. Advantages : lead-acid batteries.
1. Superior low-temperature performance compared to
2. Flat discharge voltage.
3. Long life.
4. Excellent reliability.
5. Low maintenance requirements.
C. Disadvantages :
1. High cost.
2. Toxicity contained in cadmium.
3 Developing insufficient power for EV and HEV applications.
Que 4.6.
Describe nickel-metal hydride battery along with its
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Nickel-Metal Hydride (MHM) Battery :
reasons for the
1. The disadvantages of the NiCd batteries are the
development of NiMH batteries.
are also used
2 NiMH batteries are more widely used by HEVs, but
successfully in some BEV cars.
3 Nickel-metal hydride batteries have the advantages of high specific
batteries.
energy and long cycle life relative to lead-acid
4. An important feature of this battery is that they can be
fully charged
ambient
with very little impact on battery life. They operate at
temperature and do not require maintenance.
Nickel
Metal
hydroxide
hydride
Potassium hydroxide
Fig. 4.6.1. Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery.
5.
In NiMH batteries, the positive electrode is a nickel hydroxide similar to
that used in NiCd battery, while the negative electrode is a metal hydride
where hydrogen is stored.
6. The concept of NiMH batteries is based on the fact that fine particles of
certain metallic alloys, when exposed to hydrogen at certain pressures
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-7D (ME-Sem-7)
and temperatures absorb large quantities of the gas to form the metal
7.
hydride compounds.
Furthermore, the metal hydrides are able to absorb and release hydrogen
many times without deterioration.
8 The two electrode chemical reactions in a
NiMH battery are:
At positive electrode,
:
Ni0OH+ H,0 + e Ni(OH), + OH
At the negative electrode,
MH, +0H MH, _ +H,0 +e
B. Advantages:
1 Charge up quickly.
2 High cycle stability.
3 20 % higher specific energy and power, and in
higher. volumetric terms 40 %
4. Longer life cycle than Li-ion and lead-acid batteries.
5. Safe and abuse tolerant.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Relatively high cost.
2 Higher self-discharge rate compared to NiCd.
3 Poor charge acceptance capability at elevated temperatures.
4 Low cell efficiency.
Que 4.7. Explain in detail lithium-ion battery along with its
'advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Lithium-ion Battery :
1 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is now used primarily for electric vehicles,
as they are much lighter which provides a more fuel efficient vehicle.
2. This battery may already be familiar to us because it is also used in many
portable electronic equipment such as cell phones and laptops.
3. The main difference is a matter of scale. Its physical capacity and size on
electric cars is much greater - this is often referred to as a traction
battery pack.
4 Li-ion batteries have a very high power to weight ratio.
5. This battery also has a low self-discharge level, so the battery is better
than any other battery in maintaining its ability to hold its full charge.
6. The various reactions involved in this type of battery are as follows:
Charging Reactions :
Cathode reaction : LiCoO, ’ Li,_CoO, +xLit +xe
Anode reaction : C + xLit + xe ’ CLi,
Battery as a whole : LiCoO, +C’ Li,CoCO, +CLi,
ii. Discharging Reactions :
Cathode reaction : LiCoO, ’ Li,_CoO, +xLit + xe
Anode reaction : C +xLi' +xe’ CLi,
Battery as a whole : LiCoO, +C-’ Li, CoC0,+ CLi,
4-8D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
7 Li-ion cells, in their most common form, consist of a graphite anode, a
lithium metaloxide cathode and an electrolyte of a lithium salt and an
organic solvent.
8. In an automotive application a Li-ion battery consists of tens to thousands
of individual cells packaged together to provide the required voltage,
power and energy.
Carbon
Metal (cobalt,
Energy manganese Load
Source
nickel) oxide
Li (-)
Cathode Cathode
() Li
(+)
Anode (+)
Anode
Li
Li
Discharge
Separator Electrolyte (Lithium salt
in solvent)
Charge
Fig. 4.7.1. Lithium-ion battery.
B. Advantages :
1 Higher specific energy.
2 Higher specific power.
3 Low self-discharge.
4. Ofer phenomenal starting power and massive deep cycle reserve power.
5. Longer life span.
6 No harmful emissions.
7. Loss of voltage over discharge.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Generation of heat.
2. Higher initial cost.
PART-3
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Afuel cell is an electrochemical device that
produces electricity by means
of a chemical reaction, much like a battery. The
major difference between
batteries and fuel cells is that the latter can produce electricity as long as
fuel is supplied,while batteries produce electricity from stored
energy and, hence, require frequent recharging. chemical
2 The basic structure of a fuel cell (Fig. 4.8.1) consists of an
cathode, similar to a battery. The fuel supplied to the cell anode and a
is hydrogen
and oxygen.
3 The concept of fuel cell is the opposite of electrolysis of water, where
hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form electricity and water.
4. The hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two
atoms per molecule chemically bonded together in the formhydrogen
H,. This
molecule includes two separate nuclei, each containing one proton, while
sharing two electrons.
5. The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to
produce
electricity.
6 The hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the
chemical reaction, releasing hydrogen ions and electrons.
Hydrogen e
Oxygen
e e (air)
H
H
Unreacted
Water
hydrogen
Fig.4.8.1. Basic fuel cell structure.
7 The flow ofelectrons from the anode to the cathode through the
external
circuit is what produces electricity. For the overall cell reaction to complete,
Oxygen or air must be passed over the cathode,
8 The chemical reaction taking place in a fuel cell are as follows:
Anode : H,’ 2H *+ 2e
Cathode: 2e- + 2H + (0,)’ H,0
2
1
Cell : H,+;0 H,0
4-10 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
Que 4.9. What are the various types of fuel cell ? Explain in detail.
Answer
Various types of fuel cell are as follows:
i. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC):
1. In an alkaline fuel cell (AFC), an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) is used as the electrolyte.
2. Alkaline fuel cells have been in actual use for a long time, delivering
electrical efficiencies of up to 60 %.
3. They require pure hydrogen as fuel and operate at low temperatures (at
80°C); therefore, they are suitable for vehicle applications.
4. Residual heat can be used for heating, but the cell temperature is not
sufficiently high to generate steam that can be used for cogeneration.
:ii. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell:
1. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use solid electrolytes
and operate at low temperatures (around 80 °C). Nafion is an example
of solid polymer electrolyte.
2 These fuel cells are also known as solid polymer membrane fuel cells.
3. The electrical efficiency of PEM fuel cells is lower than that of the
alkaline cells (about 40 %).
4 However, a rugged and simple construction makes these types of fuel
cells suitable for vehicle applications.
5. The advantage of PEM cells is that they can tolerate impurity in the fuel,
as compared to pure hydrogen which is needed in alkaline fuel cells.
iüi. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC):
1 The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is a result of research on using
methanol as the fuel that can be carried on-board avehicle and reformed
to supply hydrogen to the fuel cell.
2. A DMFC works on the same principle as the PEM, except that the
temperature is increased tothe range of 90to 120°C such that internal
reformation of methanol into hydrogen is possible.
3 The electrical efficiency of DMFC is quite low at about 30 %.
4 This type of fuel cellis still in the design stages, because the search for
a good electrocatalyst to reform the methanol efficiently and toreduce
Oxygen in the presence of methanol is ongoing.
iv. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC):
1 Phosphoric acid fuelcells (PAFC) are the oldest type with an origin that
extends back to the creation of the fuel cell concept.
2 The electrolyte used is phosphoric acid, and the cell operating
temperature is about 200 °C, which makes some cogeneration possible.
3 The electrical efficiency of this cell is reasonable at about 40 %.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-11D (ME-Semn-7)
4. These types of fuel cells are considered too bulky for transportation
applications, while higher efficiency designs exist for stationary
applications.
V. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC):
1. Molten carbonate fuel cells, originally developed to operate directly from
coal, operate at 600 °C and require C0 or CO² on the cathode side and
hydrogen on the anode.
2 The cells use carbonate as the electrolyte.
3 The electrical efficiency of these fuel cells is high at about 50 %, but the
excess heat can be used for cogeneration for improved efficiency.
4 The high temperatures required make these fuel cells not particularly
suitable for vehicular applications, but they can be used for stationary
power generation.
vi. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC):
1 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid ionic conductor as the electrolyte
rather than a solution or a polymer which reduces corrosion problems.
2 However, toachieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a ceramic, the
system must operate at very high temperatures.
3 This fuel cell has high electrical efficiency of 50 to 60 %, and residual
heat can also be used for cogeneration.
4. Although not a good choice for vehicle applications, it is at present the
best option for stationary power generation.
9. The only inputs required are electrical power, makeup water and air for
reactant and cooling.
PART-4
Questions-Answers
Polarized Polarized
electrode +
electrode
Electrolyte
Fig. 4.11.1. Basic principle of ultra capacitors.
2 Acapacitor is a device for storing deemed energy in a dielectric place
between two conducting plates.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-13D (ME-Sem-7)
3. Small volume capacitors are used frequently in
circuits. Their capacity is directly proportionalnumerous types of electric
to the area of the
conducting plates.
4. Thus
iflarge-area capacitors used, they gain a
the capacity per unit weight is the same or high storage potential. If
battery it becomes possible to use it as an EVgreater than the secondary
battery.
5. Alternatively, using a material
in it would reduce the size of the
whose surface has numerous small holes
6 In an electric car,
capacitor.
an ultra capacitor can provide the power
acceleration while a battery provides range needed for
and recharges the ultra
capacitor between surges.
7. Ultra capacitors can be
charged and discharged much
batteries and are very suitable for storing the energy from faster than
braking, for climbing hills or sudden acceleration. regenerative
B. Advantages :
1. Can store 10 to 100 times
more energy per unit volume or unit mass
than standard electrolytic capacitors.
2. Can be charged and discharged more quickly than batteries.
3. Tolerate many more charge/discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.
4. Able to provide large surges of power in short periods of time without
overheating.
5. Deliver many times more power for weight than Li-ion batteries.
6 They have efficiencies of up to 98 %.
7. Unlimited cycle life (over 1million cyles)
8 Tolerant of high temperatures.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Only about /10theenergy density of batteries (and thus are physically
larger for a given amount of energy).
2 Low maximum voltage.
3 Extremely high capital cost.
Que 4.12. Discuss principle and characteristics of ultra capacitors.
Answer
A Principle of Ultra Capacitors :
1 The double-layer capacitor technology is the major approach to achieve
the ultra capacitor concept.
2 When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a double layeris formed
by the dipole orientation and alignment of electrolyte
the entire surface of the electrodes. molecules over
3. By adopting high-dielectric materials, short separation
distances and
large electrode surface areas, the capacitance can be greatly increased.
4-14 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
PART-5
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. The flywheel is an energy storage device similar to a battery but instead
of storing the energy chemically, it is stored in kinetic form in a rotating
disc.
2 Typically, the rotor is accelerated by an electric motor (charging process)
and decelerated when the motor isswitched to generative operation
(discharging).
3
This flywheelenergy system composed of composite rotors spinning at
thousands of rpm on frictionless magnetic bearings, which can drive a
generator to provide power for EVs. Energy stored in flywheels increases
quadratically with rotational speed of the rotor.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-15 D (ME-Sem-7)
coupling
Frequency
inverter
Controls
Containment
Motor
generator
Cooling
Flywheel-mass
Vacuumn
system Bearing
Fig. 4.13.1. Flywheel.
6. According to different means for the reduction of energy loss, flywheel
energy storage system (FESS) can be divided into low-speed flywheel
system and high-speed flywheel system.
7. The first reduces air friction by increasing the mass of flywheel while
the second is to reduce the air pressure of operating environment of
flywheel.
Que 4.14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flywheel
based energy storage ?
Answer
A. Advantages :
1. High power density.
2 Long cycle life.
3 No degradation over time.
4-16 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
Answer
Battery Ultra Capacitor Flywheel
Storage mechanism Chemical Electric Mechanical
PART-6
Questions-Answers
Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
differentenergy
Que 4.16. What do you mean by hybridization of
AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
storage devices?
Answer
1. The hybridization of energy storage is
to combine two or more energy
can be brought out
storages together so that the advantages of each one
others.
and the disadvantages can be compensated by
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-17D (ME-Sem-7)
2 For instance, the hybridization of a chemical battery with an
ultracapacitor can overcome such problems as low specific power of
electrochemical batteries and low specific energy of ultra capacitors,
therefore achieving high specific energy and high specific power.
3 Basically, the hybridized energy storage consists of two basic energy
storages: one with high specificenergy and the other with high specific
power.
4. The basic operation of this system is illustrated in Figure 10.18. In high
power demand operations, such as acceleration and hill climbing, both
basic energy storages deliver their power to the load as shown in
Fig. 4.16.1(a).
High specific
power storage
(a)
Low power demand
High specific Power
converter Load
energy storage
High specific
power storage
(b)
Negative power
High specific Power
energy storage converter Load
PART-7
Sizing the Drive System : Matching the Electrical Machine and the Internal
Combustion Engine (1CE).
Questions-Answers
Que 4.17. Discuss about matching the electrical machine and the
internal combustion engine.
Answer
1. It is essential to size the vehicle power plan, to achieve required vehicle
mass, load and performance.
2 The traction of the vehicle propulsion system is determined by the vehicle
design mass and acceleration performance by Newton's law, F= ma.
3 The most commonly used matching elements in hybrid electric passenger
vehicle is the planetary gear set (or) epicyclic gear set.
4 In compact vehicles, continuously variable transmission (CVT s) of the
compression belt and toroidal variator variety are becoming popular
because of the presence of seamless transitions in ratio.
5 The representational diagram of epicyclic gear is shown in Fig. 4.17.1.
6. Speed summing device is used as three port mechanical component in
epicyclic gear set. Majority of designs of epicyclic gear set depends on a
dual input and single output where internal combustion engine (ICE) is
one input source and the other input source originates from the
motor-generator (M/G) set.
electric
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-19 D (ME-Sem-7)
Fig. 4.17.1.
7. The governing equation for epicyclic gear based on basic ratio and gear
tooth number is given as,
N, +KN,-(K+1)N=0
Where, N,, Ng, NÍ are number of teeth of the ring, the sun gear and
carrier, and
K=RinJR
ing where R is the radius of ring and sun gears.
PART-8
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. An electric machine is at the core of hybrid propulsion regardless of
whether or not the vehicle is gasoline electric, diesel electric or fuel cell
electric.
2.
Propulsion is via an ACdrive system consisting of an energy storage
unit, a power processor, the M/G and vehicle driveline and wheels.
4-20 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
ICE
O0OwGoH Trans. FD
Batt.
Ultra
cap.
Fig. 4.18.1. Hybrid vehicle drivetrain.
6. The motor-generator, M/G, is sized as follows : maximum input speed at
transmission is restricted to < 12000 rpm from the engine side by the
rev-limiter function in the electronic engine controller and on the
transmission side by the proper gear selection.
PART-9
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. All of the electrical power directed to the hybrid propvlsion M/G must
pass through the power electronics.
2 It has been said that control electronics uses power to process
information and that power electronics uses information to process
power.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-21 D (ME-Sem-7)
3 In this section we describe how power electronics is sized to
match the
electric machine to the vehicle energy storage system, via
processed by the control electronics. information
4. Fig. 4.19.1 is a schematic for the hybrid propulsion
system AC drive
system consisting of on board energy storage, power processing
to control algorithms, and traction actuation via the M/G according
driveline. and vehicle
Power electronics
W
R
v,,
V,T
Transmission
T
Control electronics
Driveline
Cmds
controller, common
gate drives, power
supply
PART-10
Selecting the Energy Storage Technology, Communication,
Supporting Subsystems.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Energy Storage
4-22 D (ME-Sem-7)
selectingthe energy
Que 4.20. What are various considerations in
storage system ?
Answer
upon certain
The selection of energy storage system depends
considerations as mentioned below:
6 Presentation 6 Presentation
5 Session 5 Session
4 Transport 4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
1Physical 1Physical
Communication channel
Fig. 4.21.1.
Que 4.22. Discuss in brief about supporting subsystems in hybrid
vehicles.
Answer
1 Hybrid vehicles needs supporting subsystems like electrically assisted
steering, braking and climate control systems.
2. To make sure that steering boost is accessible even when the
OFF, the vehicle steering system must be fully electric orengine
is
at least
electric over hydraulic and likewise for brakes as the engine vacuum is
not accessible during OFF mode.
3. Cabin climate control is also one of the most
subsystems in hybrid vehicles.
important supporting
4. Let us elaborate these three supporting subsystems as follows :
A. Steering Systems :
1. As it is
generally known that, the vehicle
load ranges between 8 kN to 12 KN, a lowsteering mechanism rack
voltage DC brush motor
electric assist is in sufficient for boosting the
mechanism. performance of steering
4-24 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Energy 5-2D to 5-3D
Management Strategies Used
in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle
5-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
5-2 D (ME-Sem-7)
Energy Management Strategies
PART-1
Introduction to Energy Management Strategies
Used in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
EMS
Contractors
Sensors
Battery pack
Fig. 5.1.1. Energy management system.
Organise
management Annual reviews
resources
Feedback
Prepare an Implement
energy policy actions
PART-2
Classification of Different Energy Management Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Answer
Different energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric
vehicle are as follows :
A Rule Based: The rule based strategies consist offollowing sub categories:
i. Fuzzy Based : The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types:
1 Predictive,
2 Adaptive, and
3 Conventional.
i. Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are sub divided
into :
1 State machine,
2 Power follower, and
3 Thermostat control.
B. Optimization Based:The optimization based strategies are offolowing
types:
i. GlobalOptimization: The global optimization methods are:
1. Linear programming methods,
2. Dynamic programming,
3. Stochastic dynamic programming, and
4 Genetic algorithms.
i. Real Time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques are
of following types :
1 EFC minimization,
2. Robust control, and
3 Modelpredictive.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 5-5D (ME-Sem-7)
Que 5.4. Discuss in brief rule based (RB) methods used in hybrid
and electric vehicles.
Answer
1 RB methods are based on a set of predefined rules to
control the system.
They use upper and lower set points to control processes within given
boundaries and are used mostly in HVACsub systems for temperature
control.
2 Modulation capability is limited as the control can be either one or zero,
and therefore performed actions can be as simple as turning a thermostat
or switch on or off.
3. Operation requires human made rules and thresholds that define the
source of data and how to manipulate that information.
4. These rules should outline unequivocally the triggers and the action
that should follow, and usually come in the form ofIF/THEN sentences,
for example,"IF this event occurs, THEN perform this action."
5 A careful design of the control rules is therefore essential, which is not
always granted. Furthermore, RB methods have no learning capability,
meaning that more complicated systenms would require more complex
rules with higher maintenance/update costs.
6 RB depends on the operator knowledge and applies its rules to reduce
the energy and operating cost, such as appropriate start/stop time of
HVAC, night set-back, precooling, and preheating et.
7 This alone can provide significant savings when applied correctly;
however, the operator has toconstantly monitor and adjust the HVAC
operation tomeet the objectives of reducing energy consumption while
maintaining thermal comfort.
Que 5.5. Describe in brief model based optimization strategies
used in hybrid and electric vehicles.
Answer
1 Model based control elements show promise in simulation and in theory,
these generally worsened or had no effect on tracking performance in
our experiment.
2 However, in exploratory tests we found that the best performance was
obtained by driving model based contributions to zero.
3 One reason for the ineffectiveness of model based compensation may
have been the non-linear stiffness ofthe Bowden cable, which we modeled
as a linear spring, and slow changes in cable stiffness and length due to
heating over the course of each trial.
4. Another reason may have been the exclusion of friction and stiction.
5-6D (ME-Sem-7)
Energy Management Strategies
5 Sensitivity to model errors seems to be a fundamental issue in
implementing this type of inverse-model control in devices with Bowden
cable transmissions.
6. The passivity based controller (PAS) fared slightly better,
to its adaptive nature, but still did not yield perhaps due
substantial benefits.
factor that may have limited its effectiveness is input mismatch. One
Que 5.6. Discuss basic principle of rule based control methods.
Answer
1 Rule based control strategies can cope with the various
of HEV. operating modes
2 The rule-based strategies arc developed using
intuition,analysis of the ICE efficiency charts engineering
shown
insight and
in Fig. 5.6.1 and
the analysis of electrical component efficiency charts.
0.60
Do
0.70
0.80 - BSFC
rpm
Torque
MOor and engine
Gas epgine 0.4o0
ghly/
0.45
0.50 0.60
0.70 B
Electric motor 0.80=BSFC
only BSFC=0.80
Upper boundary
A for electric motor
rpm
PART-3
Questions-Answers
Answer
PART-4
Questions-Answers