Chapter 2

Network Models
Introduction
• In communication and networking, protocol defines the rules that all
communicating parties must follow
• Communicating parties include
• Sender
• Receiver
• Intermediate devices
• Simple communication may need only one simple protocol.
• Complex communication needs to divide tasks between different layers.
• So need a protocol at each layer
• Protocol layering
Introduction

A single-layer protocol

Set of rules Maria and Ann would follow:

• Greet each other when they meet.
• Know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their
friendship.
• Refrain from speaking when the other party is speaking.
• Exchange some nice words when they leave.
Layered Communication

• We use the concept of layers in our

daily life.
• Let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail.
Layered Communication
Protocol Layering
• Enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks.
• Modular implementation (Modularity) enables layered replacements.
• Layer is black box with inputs and outputs, without concern about how inputs are
changed to outputs.
• Principles of protocol layering:
• Bidirectional communication needs to make each layer so that it is able to perform two
opposite tasks, one in each direction.
• Two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
Layered Communication
• Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
• The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer.
• The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer.
• The lower layer uses the services of the carrier.
• The layered model that dominated data communications and networking literature
before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
OSI Model
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• Open system is set of protocols that allow
any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a
model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust,
and interoperable.
• It consists of seven layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving
information across a network.
OSI Model
• As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate
nodes.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on
another machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols.
• The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called
peer-to-peer processes.
OSI Model
Peer-to-peer
process
 Encapsulation concept at each layer
OSI Model

Exchange using
OSI model
Layers in OSI Model: Application Layer

• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services.
Layers in OSI Model: Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation (different coding systems), compression,
and encryption.
 Layers in OSI Model: Session Layer

• The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
• Other responsibilities: authentication, authorization, dialog control and synchronization.
A network session is a temporary and interactive information interchange between two or
more devices communicating over a network.
 Layers in OSI Model: Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
• Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between those packets.
• Other responsibilities: service point addressing, segmentation and reassembly, connection
control, and end-to-end flow control.
Layers in OSI Model: Transport Layer
 Layers in OSI Model: Network Layer

• This layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
multiple networks (links).
• DLL oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links)
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
• Other responsibilities: logical addressing and routing.
Layers in OSI Model: Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
• This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
• Other responsibilities: framing, physical addressing, flow control, error control, and access
control (prevent data collision), Hop-to-hop delivery
Layers in OSI Model: Data Link Layer
Layers in OSI Model: Physical Layer

• This layer is responsible for the movement of bits from one hop (node) to the next.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
• It is also concerned with the data rate, synchronization of bits, line configuration, physical
topology, and transmission mode.
OSI Model: Layers Summary
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• Layers in TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• Description of Each Layer
• Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• Addressing
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layered Architecture

• Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

• Protocol suite used in the Internet today
• Hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality
• Each upper level protocol is supported by the services provided by
one or more lower level protocols
• Original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon
the hardware
• Host-to-network, internet, transport and application
• Today, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model
Communication through an Internet
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Layers in the
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite

Identical objects in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer
• Physical Layer
• Responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link
• At Physical Layer, communication is logical communication as
• There is another hidden layer, the transmission medium – transmits
signals
• Bits received in a frame from data-link layer are transformed and
sent through the transmission media
• Several protocols transform bits to a signal
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer

• Data-link Layer
• Internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by
routers
• Overlapping sets of links between host and destination
• Routers choose best links
• Data-link layer takes the datagram and moves it across the link using
various protocols for the specific type of link
• Takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame
• Link layer provides complete error detection and correction or only
error correction
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer
• Network Layer
• Responsible for creating a connection between source
computer and destination computer
• Communication is host-to-host
• Separate network layer to have modular implementation
• Internet Protocol
• Routing
• defines format of datagram, structure of addresses and routes
packet from source to destination
• Connectionless protocol
• No flow control, error control and congestion control
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer
• Network Layer
• Includes unicast and multicast routing protocols
• Creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in routing
process
• Other protocols that help IP in delivery
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some
problems when routing a packet
• Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) helps IP in
multicasting
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get
network-layer network layer address for a host
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) helps IP to find link layer
address of a host or router when its network layer address is given
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer
• Transport Layer (I/II)
• Gets message from application program and deliver it to
corresponding application program on the destination host
• Independent of application layer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Connection oriented protocol
• Establishes a logical connection between transport layers at
two hosts before transferring data
• Creates logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring stream
of bytes
• Provides Flow control, error control and congestion control
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer

• Transport Layer (II/II)

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Connectionless protocol
• Transmits user datagrams without creating logical connection
• Each datagram is independent entity
• Does not provide flow, error or congestion control
• Small overhead and hence applicable for sending short messages
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
• Designed to respond to new applications emerging in multimedia
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer

• Application Layer
• Communication between two processes
• Process sends a request to other process and receives a response
• Duty - Process to process communication
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Vehicle for accessing World Wide Web
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Used in e-mail service
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Used for transferring files from one host to another
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Description of
each Layer
• Application Layer
• Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH)
• Used for accessing a site remotely
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Administrator uses to manage Internet at global and local levels
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Used by other protocols to find the network-layer address of a
computer
• Internet Group Management Protocol
• Collects membership in a group
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Encapsulation
and Decapsulation

Encapsulation / Decapsulation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Addressing
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical Address
◼ Called as link address also
◼ Defined by LAN/WAN
◼ Size and Format depends upon network
◼ E.g: Ethernet uses 6-byte(48-bit) address imprinted on NIC
 Logical Address

◼ Necessary for Universal

Communication
◼ 32-bit address uniquely define a host
◼ Called as IP address also
 Port Address Specific Address

❑ Used for process to process ❑ URL

communication ❑ E-mail Address
❑ Eg. Computer A → B via TELNET

A → C via FTP
❑ In TCP/IT port address is of 16 bits in
length
TCP/IP and OSI