Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 27 (2021) 101335

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

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Fabrication and testing of double-sided solar collector dryer for

drying banana
Pimpan Pruengam, Siwalak Pathaveerat *, Prasertsak Pukdeewong
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Kamphaeng Saen, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon
Pathom, 73140, Thailand

H I G H L I G H T S

• Double-sided solar collector modification has been tested.

• The bananas in the drying chamber, placed on all 3 layers had similar uniformly lower moisture levels.
• Experimental thermal efficiency of the solar collector and solar drying system.
• Suitable for use by farmers in rural areas and small scale farms.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A double-sided solar collector dryer was designed to be installed on both sides of a drying
Cultivated banana chamber. The solar collector was tilted at an angle of 15◦ to the ground and had a total receiving
Solar energy area of 7 m2. After drying banana from an initial moisture content of 68.5% (w.b.) for 5 days, the
Drying
banana final moisture contents in the dryer and from open sun drying were 17.4% (w.b.) and
Solar collector
27.3% (w.b.) respectively. The highest air temperature in the drying chamber was 62.7 ◦ C and the
average temperature was 54.1 ◦ C, which was 13.6 ◦ C higher than from natural sun drying. The
high drying rate of the solar collector dryer reduced the banana moisture content 1.3–1.5 times
faster than by sun drying. The average thermal efficiency for the dryer and solar collector were
13% and 21.9%, respectively.

1. Introduction

The increasing cost of fossil fuels affects the costs of various production processes and encourages the use of renewable energy to
reduce fuel costs. Among all renewable energy sources, solar energy is unique due to its enormous amount of energy, low cost and high
potential [1,2]. Sun drying is the traditional way of reducing the moisture content in fruit and other products and is still popular in
developing countries [3]. Drying was an important step in the postharvest process and is one of the oldest techniques for preserving
agricultural products [4]. Although open sun drying is a simple and effective method, much of the heat generated from solar energy is
wasted to the environment, resulting in a low drying efficiency [3]. Furthermore, open sun drying is limited for agricultural products
because during exposure to sunlight, the product may be infested by insects and animals, contaminated by dust or damaged by rain
resulting in mold [3–6]. For these reasons, the development of solar dryers has an important role in drying agricultural products,
especially in Thailand where there is high solar energy potential [7]. Therefore, solar drying should be considered as a method that can

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Pathaveerat).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.101335
Received 23 March 2021; Received in revised form 2 August 2021; Accepted 9 August 2021
Available online 21 August 2021
2214-157X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
P. Pruengam et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 27 (2021) 101335

reduce the cost of processing Thai agricultural products.

The two common types of solar collector dryers are (a) cabinet dryer and (b) chimney type solar dryer. The cabinet dryer has a solar
collector integrated inside the dryer. Solar radiation is transmitted through the top and absorbed on the blackened interior surfaces
under the product drying tray. The chimney type solar dryer has the same main components as a cabinet dryer but the solar collector is
separate from the dryer. In addition, the chimney at the top of the drying chamber improves air circulation and increases the drying
performance of the ventilation inside the dryer. The product being dried is directly heated by the sun and also is exposed to the hot air
passing through the solar collector. A chimney type solar dryer generally has a higher temperature in the drying chamber than a
cabinet dryer and since a chimney type solar dryer can make use of racks in the drying chamber, it also occupies less space. Therefore,
most researchers using solar dryers have chosen to have a separate solar collector.
Banana Namwa (Musa sp. ABB cv. “Kluai Namwa”) is the most common banana variety in Thailand, accounting for 70% of the total
yield in 2018–1019 [8]. Banana is one of the important tropical fruits in the world [9] being climacteric fruit with a soft texture so that
it deteriorates at high temperature and relative humidity due to the initial high moisture content in the fruit [10]. Dried banana is a
popular food in many countries such as Thailand [11]. Normally banana drying is carried out using open sun drying. Therefore, banana
was selected as the sample product in the drying experiments.
Many researchers have used a solar collector dryer to study the dehydration of bananas. Hassanain [12] designed and evaluated a
simple solar drying system to dry banana pulp. The solar collector was mounted all the year at 30◦ and the drying chamber was flexible
between 0◦ and 90◦ to the horizontal axis. That study found that the horizontal drying chamber speeded up banana drying compared to
the vertical drying chamber. The maximum temperature in the drying chamber was 54 ◦ C. The dryer was able to dry banana pulp in 25
h under sunny conditions from an initial moisture content of 66–67% (w.b.) to a final moisture content of 22% (w.b.). Amer et al. [11]
designed and evaluated a new hybrid solar dryer for bananas. The solar collector was mounted above the drying chamber. The dryer
used solar energy on sunny days, but on cloudy days, it operated as a hybrid solar dryer. The air temperature was 30–40 ◦ C higher than
the ambient air. Lingayat et al. [13] designed and developed a solar dryer to dry bananas that consisted of a solar flat plate air collector
with corrugated V-shape copper absorber that were tilted at an angle of 23.50◦ to the horizontal, insulated drying chamber, and
chimney for exhaust air. The moisture content of bananas was reduced from an initial value of 356% (d.b.) to a final moisture content
of about 22% (d.b.) in 18 h. Similarly, Hudakorn [14] studied the performance of a V-groove, flat plate solar collector in a solar dryer to
dry cherry tomatoes. The maximum efficiency of the solar collector and the thermal efficiency of the solar dryer were 56.23% and
16.90%, respectively. Cresencio et al. [15] designed a low-cost solar cabinet dryer to dry green bananas. The system consisted of two
types of solar collector, one was a solar air heater and the other was a water heater with a storage tank and a heat exchanger. The
maximum temperature in the drying chamber was 48 ◦ C. The drying rate and dryer efficiency were 0.27 kg/h and 18%, respectively.
Recently, several investigators have shown that different amounts of solar collector affect differently the mechanical properties of
drying materials. Camas-Nafate et al. [16] designed and build a double solar collector for improved drying performance. The incli­
nation angle of the primary collector was 16◦ based on the latitude of the drying location. The secondary collector was placed on the
drying chamber at the same angle as the first one. The results of drying carrots, chayote squash, tomatoes and oyster mushrooms
showed that the solar device achieved a drying efficiency of 22.8–37.9%. Yaibok et al. [17] developed a fish dryer with combined
solar-electric dryer energy source. Designed with solar collectors on all three sides of the chamber, the chamber temperature was
12.64 ◦ C higher than the ambient temperature.
As mentioned above, the study of the horizontal drying chambers as well as increasing the number of solar collectors showed an
interesting approach. This information should help in designing, building and validating a double collector solar device for improved
drying performance. Thus, the objective of the current project was to experimentally evaluate the performance of drying banana
cultivar Namwa in a double-sided solar collector dryer compared with directly in the open sun drying.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Design and construction of a double-sided solar collector dryer

The double-sided solar collector dryer system consisted of two solar collectors, a drying chamber and a chimney.

2.1.1. Solar collector

The solar collector was tilted at an angle of 15◦ to the ground with dimensions of 3 m length, 1.15 m width and 0.1 m thickness. The
frame was made of steel box and the back was covered with a black aluminium-zinc coated steel sheet, while the front and back sides
were covered with polycarbonate sheets. The top and bottom sides were open to allow outside air to flow through. The dryer was
designed so that a solar collector could be installed on both sides of the drying chamber to increase the temperature in the drying
chamber.

2.1.2. Drying chamber

The drying chamber was a rectangular case with dimensions of 3 × 0.6 × 0.55 m. The structure was made of steel and the enclosure
was covered with polycarbonate sheet and the inside was divided into 3 stainless steel wire mesh layers for placing the drying material
on.

2.1.3. Chimney
The chimney had dimension of 2 m height, 0.6 m length and 0.2 m width and was installed at the end of the drying chamber to

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Fig. 1. Completed double-sided solar collector dryer.

enhance natural convection flow. The structure was made of steel enclosed with polycarbonate sheet, the same as the drying chamber.
The bottom of the chimney was fitted with net to prevent insects or dust from entering the drying chamber, while the top had a sloping
roof.
This solar dryer was operated during sunshine hours only. The sunlight could shine through the polycarbonate sheet covering the
top of the collector and hit the black aluminum-zinc coated steel sheet as a solar radiation absorber. The temperature of the air flowing
from the outside was heated. The higher air temperature flows into the drying chamber causing heat transfer to the drying material.
The water inside the material was evaporated as vapor and flowed out with the hot air through the chimney. As hot air flowed from the
dryer, ambient air from outside replaced it, as shown in Fig. 1.

2.2. Experimental method

The double-side collector dryer was used in this study each side with dimensions of 3 × 1.15 × 0.1 m thus the total area of the solar
collectors was about 7 m2. The movement of the sun was from east to west during the day so the dryer was aligned on a north-south
horizontal axis to ensure that the solar collector was exposed to the most sunlight possible each day [3,18]. This solar dryer test was
used on ripe bananas.

2.2.1. Drying methods

2.2.1.1. Environment recording.

1. Data loggers (Fristaden Lab, SSN-23, Nevada, USA) were installed to record the ambient air temperature and relative humidity
inside and outside the drying chamber. The tests were performed from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m.

2. The air velocity flowing into the dryer was measured using an anemometer (Lutron, AM-4247SD, Taipei, Taiwan) every 2 h.

3. Solar power meter (Lutron, SPM-1116SD, Taiwan) were installed to record the solar intensity. The tests were performed from 9:00
a.m. until 5:00 p.m.

2.2.1.2. Moisture reduction of banana using solar energy.

1. One banana fruit was randomly selected from each banana clusters for determination of the initial moisture content. Each
experiment was used 10 kg of bananas.

2. The bananas were dried from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and the experiment was repeated 3 times (January 25–29, 2019; March 26–30,
2019 and April 2–6, 2019). The weight of bananas were recorded and represented by the mean of three replications.

3. The banana were randomly selected every 2 h for determination of the moisture content which was measured by drying 3–5 g of the
sample at 103 ◦ C for 3 h in a hot air oven (FD240, BINDER, Tuttlingen, Germany), which differed from the standard vacuum oven
method 934.06 (AOAC 1995) [19] by approximately 0.4–1% [20].

The final moisture content of the dried bananas was referenced from dried banana from various sources, which had been bought in
the market.

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Fig. 2. Variations in measured solar intensity, air temperature and relative humidity versus time of day.

2.2.2. Drying effectiveness

2.2.2.1. Drying rate. The drying rate is the amount of moisture to be removed over the drying time. The drying rate was used to
indicate whether the water evaporation capacity of the dryer was faster or slower than traditional sun drying. The drying rate of a
sample was calculated using the following equation (1) by cited reference [21,22]:
md (Mi − Mf )
DR = (1)
t

where.

DR = Drying rate (gwater/h)

md = The mass of dry banana (gsolid)

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Fig. 3. Average of the air temperature.

Mi = The initial moisture content of banana (gwater/gsolid)

Mf = The final moisture content of banana (gwater/gsolid)
t = The drying time (h)

2.2.2.2. Thermal efficiency. The thermal efficiencies for the solar collector and drying system of the solar dryer were calculated using
the following formula:

1. Thermal efficiency for solar collector

The collector efficiency during sunlight hours is influenced by the air velocity, air temperature, collector size and geographical
location. The collector efficiency was estimated using the following equation:
m·a cp (T∞ − Ti )
ηC = × 100 (2)
Ac I

where.

m·a = Air flow rate (kg/s)

T∞ = Collector outlet air temperature (◦ C)
Ti = Collector inlet air temperature (◦ C)
Ac = Collector area (m2)
cp = Specific heat of air (J/kg ◦ C)
I = Solar intensity (W/m2)
2. Thermal efficiency for solar drying system

The drying efficiency (for natural convection) or performance of the drying system can be calculated from the proportion of the
energy required to evaporate the water from the banana to the solar energy supplied to the system. The drying efficiency was estimated
using the following equation:
mw hfg
ηD = × 100 (3)
Ac I

where.

mw = Water removal rate through the drying (kg/s)

hfg = Latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)

3. Results and discussion

The drying experiments were carried out during January–April 2019 in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. All drying experiments were
performed in triplicate and an average value were reported.

3.1. Ambient parameter

The measurements of solar radiation intensity in the period between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., are shown in Fig. 2.
As seen in Fig. 2, the solar radiation intensity at 9:00 a.m. in January of the experimental site was approximately 200 W/m2, while
for March and April (summer in Thailand) the initial radiation intensity was 400–550 W/m2. The radiation intensity values tended to
increase until between 12:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m., when the maximum solar radiation intensity was 730–780 W/m2 but in summer it

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Fig. 4. Average relative humidity of the air.

Fig. 5. Variation in banana moisture content during 3 separate months and average banana moisture content.

reached 1000–1100 W/m2; after that, the measured values gradually reduced.
The temperature of the air exiting the solar collector and then delivered to the drying chamber was always higher than the ambient
air temperature. During the summer months of March to April, the ambient air temperature was higher than in January by at least
1.65 ◦ C and in some periods, it was 12.75 ◦ C; higher than the ambient air temperature resulting in a higher drying temperature as
shown in Fig. 2.
The ambient air flows through the solar collector, it can be found that the average temperature in drying chamber was 54.1 ◦ C and
higher than ambient was 13.6 ◦ C. In average, it was 12:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. shown the highest drying chamber temperature at 62.7 ◦ C
as depicted in Fig. 3.
The relative humidity of air in the drying chamber was lower than the ambient air (Fig. 4.) which increased the drying rate and
reduced the drying time because air at a low humidity could absorb more moisture from the bananas.
The ambient air had an average relative humidity of 42.7% and after flowing through the solar collector, the temperature
increased. Therefore, the air in the drying chamber had an average relative humidity of 30.1% as shown in Fig. 4. The lowest relative
humidity of 21.7% was during 12:00 p.m. to 2:00 p.m. when the temperature was highest.

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Fig. 6. The variation of drying rate.

Fig. 7. Variation in thermal efficiency for solar drying system.

3.2. Performance of solar dryer

3.2.1. Moisture content

The dried bananas were tested for 3 months, and in each month drying occurred for 5 days, with the sampling period divided each
day into 5 times at 9:00 a.m., 11:00 a.m., 1:00 p.m., 3:00 p.m. and 5:00 p.m. (drying time 8 h per day). The bananas have an average
initial moisture content of 68.5% (w.b.). After 5 days of dehumidification the bananas in the drying chamber had a lower moisture
content than from sun drying in all three replications as shown in Fig. 5. In April, the relative humidity was low and the ambient air
temperature was higher than during January and March. The final moisture contents of the bananas in the drying chamber in January,
March and April were 18.9% (w.b.), 17.2% (w.b.) and 16.0% (w.b.), respectively. The results indicated that the final moisture content
of bananas was lower than from sun drying by 52%, 58% and 63%, respectively. Thus the relative humidity and air temperature had a
direct effect on drying rate and drying time. The bananas in the drying chamber, placed on all 3 layers of stainless steel wire mesh, had
similar uniformly lower moisture levels. The similarity in the results were probably due to the sufficiently uniform temperature of the
drying air inside the drying chamber. Amer et al. [11] reported a corresponding result for air temperature using different trays in the
drying chamber.
The average moisture content of the dried bananas following drying in the drying chamber was lower than from sun drying by
approximately 9.6% (w.b.). On the first day, the moisture content difference was only 4.8% (w.b.), with days 2–5 having differences in
the range 9.8–11.5% (w.b.), as shown in Fig. 5. The moisture content decreased more slowly with sun drying, resulting in a longer
period to obtain the same amount of moisture reduction.
The testing of the moisture content of the dried bananas from various distribution sources indicated that their moisture content was
approximately 32.96 ± 0.54% (w.b.), similar to the final moisture content were reported by Abhay Lingawat et al. [13] Using this as
the reference moisture content, the bananas in the current study would require a drying time of only 3 day in the drying chamber or 5
days for sun drying.

3.2.2. Drying rate

Every drying experiment, both inside the drying chamber and from traditional sun drying, produced similar changes; on the first
day the drying rate was high and gradually decreased until the final day of drying. For example, during January in the drying chamber,
the highest drying rate was almost 800 gwater/h on the first day and became less until on the final day it was 70 gwater/h because the

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Fig. 8. Variation in thermal efficiency for solar collector.

Table 1
Comparison between average thermal efficiency (%) for solar drying system and solar collector.
Jan 25–29, 2019 Mar 26–30, 2019 APR 2–6, 2019 Average

Solar drying system efficiency 11.94 12.88 14.17 13.0 ± 1.1

Solar collector efficiency 18.18 21.19 26.33 21.9 ± 4.1

initial banana moisture content was high leading to an initial rapid water transfer from inside to the surface. After a period, the banana
surface dried so that the internal moisture needed more time to travel to the surface, leading to lower water removal, which was
reflected in the lower drying rate. The period between 11:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. produced the highest drying rate, as shown in Fig. 6.
The variation in the drying rate between the drying chamber and sun drying had a similar trend, as the drying rate was very high
during the first two drying days and dropped rapidly afterward. On the first day, the drying rate in the drying chamber was about 2–2.5
times higher than from sun drying, as shown in Fig. 6 because the air in the drying chamber was drier and higher temperature than the
ambient air. On the other hand, in the last two drying days the drying rate from sun drying was higher than for the drying chamber
because not as much moisture had been removed before this period as for the drying chamber. Thus, the drying time required for
banana drying was greatly reduced by using the solar collector dryer.

3.2.3. Thermal efficiency for solar dryer

The performance of the dryer was examined with banana in the part of thermal efficiency for solar dyer or dryer efficiency was
calculated based on the total water evaporated from the dried bananas. Fig. 7 shows that the thermal efficiency tended to decrease
from the first day to the last day of drying according to the drying rate. The maximum dryer efficiency levels in January, March and
April were 65.47%, 65.84% and 70.23%, respectively, and all were obtained during the peak sunlight period.

3.3. Performance of solar collector

3.3.1. Thermal efficiency for solar collector

March and April had better solar collector performance compared to January, as shown in Fig. 8. During the three test period of
January, March and April, the average collector efficiency were 18.18%, 21.19% and 26.33%, respectively. It was evident that the
collector thermal efficiency improved with increasing air temperature.
The thermal efficiency for the solar collector was 21.9% for the average solar intensity (776 W/m2) and average temperatures of
40 C and 57 ◦ C for the inlet and outlet, respectively. The thermal efficiency for the dryer was 13%. The initial sample mass of 10 kg of
◦

banana after drying in the double-sided solar collector dryer was reduced to a final mass of dried banana of 3.8 kg. The all thermal
efficiency levels for all experiment options are shown in Table 1. The thermal efficiency for the solar collector was higher than for the
dryer, which was a similar finding to those reported by Lingawat et al. [13] and Dhanushkodi et al. [23].

4. Conclusion

A double-sided solar collector dryer was developed for drying bananas and based on the experimental results the solar collector
dryer was more effective than traditional sun drying as it reduced the drying time. The ambient parameter results showed that dryer
could reach a maximum outlet temperature of 62.7 ◦ C and the lowest relative humidity in the drying chamber was 21.7% which was
1.6 times lower than the ambient condition. Bananas with an initial moisture content of 68.5% (w.b.) has final values of 17.4% (w.b.)
and 27.3% (w.b.) for solar collector drying and sun drying, respectively. The high drying rate in the solar collector dryer could reduce
the banana moisture content 1.3–1.5 times faster than from sun drying. The average thermal efficiency levels for solar drying system
and solar collector was 13% and 21.9%, respectively.
The benefit of this solar dryer type was that it produced more hot air and lower relative humidity than traditional solar dryers. In
addition, three layers in the drying chamber provided additional capacity.

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Author statement

Pimpan Pruengam: Methodology, Data curation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Siwalak Pathaveerat: Conceptualization, Analysis and Supervision.
Prasertsak Pukdeewong: Investigation and Resources.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors whose names are listed immediately below certify that they have NO affiliations with or involvement in any orga­
nization or entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers’ bureaus; membership,
employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-
financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials
discussed in this manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their sincere appreciation to the Horticulture Innovation Lab Kasetsart University (KU D-lab) and the Faculty of
Engineering at Kamphaengsean, Kasetsart University, Thailand for supporting the study financially.

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