ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 08 April 2020

doi: 10.3389/fmats.2020.00065

Role of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash in

Developing Sustainable Engineered
Cementitious Composites
Muhammad Nasir Amin 1* , Muhammad Ashraf 2 , Rabinder Kumar 2 , Kaffayatullah Khan 1 ,
Daniyal Saqib 3 , Syed Sajid Ali 3 and Sajidullah Khan 3
1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia,
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan,
3
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan

Sugarcane bagasse is an agricultural waste that can be transformed by incineration into

a cement replacement material for various cementing purposes. This study investigated
the role of finely ground bagasse ash (GBA) in producing engineered cementitious
composites (ECCs) with the addition of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers. The main focus of
this study was to develop a green ECC with higher strength capabilities (compressive,
tensile, and flexural) and greater tensile ductility. To develop this composite, GBA was
added into ECC mixes at different proportions, i.e., 10, 20, and 30%. The proportions
of PVA fibers and the water-to-binder ratio were kept constant. The results revealed that
Edited by:
Carlos Chastre, the ECC mix containing 10% GBA exhibited higher compressive strength compared
New University of Lisbon, Portugal to that of a control and the other ECC mixes. The tensile and flexural strengths of the
Reviewed by: ECCs exhibited patterns almost similar to that of compressive strength. Moreover, the
Ionut Ovidiu Toma,
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University deflection in the control mix was higher compared to that of the GBA-ECC mixes at an
of Iaşi, Romania initial curing age. The ECC mix containing 10% GBA exhibited better ductile behavior
Paulina Faria,
among all the ECC mixes used in this study.
New University of Lisbon, Portugal
*Correspondence: Keywords: bagasse ash, engineered cementitious composite, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural
Muhammad Nasir Amin strength, ductility
[email protected]

Specialty section: INTRODUCTION

This article was submitted to
Structural Materials, After water, concrete is the most widely used material on our planet. The estimated yearly
a section of the journal consumption of concrete is approaching 30 billion tons (Klee, 2009). For the last two decades,
Frontiers in Materials the trend of using high-strength concrete has been increasing due to its demand for building
Received: 13 October 2019 advanced infrastructures. However, with the increase in strength, the brittleness of concrete also
Accepted: 03 March 2020 increases, which ultimately leads to the cracking and failure of concrete structures. Thus, it was
Published: 08 April 2020
decided to develop new cementitious materials with high ductility that would be more valuable in
Citation: terms of safety, durability, and sustainability in structural applications. Therefore, a new composite
Amin MN, Ashraf M, Kumar R, material called engineered cementitious composite (ECC) was developed, which possessed high
Khan K, Saqib D, Ali SS and Khan S
tensile strength along with high compressive strength (Li, 1993, 2002; Li et al., 2002). In ECC, the
(2020) Role of Sugarcane Bagasse
Ash in Developing Sustainable
concrete is sustained on an increased loading rate even after first cracking while undergoing large
Engineered Cementitious deformation. Because of these properties, ECCs are also known as strain-hardening cementitious
Composites. Front. Mater. 7:65. composites. In fact, the failure in concrete is initiated due to the generation of microcracks followed
doi: 10.3389/fmats.2020.00065 by their transformation into macrocracks. However, the addition of dispersed fibers into the matrix

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

has been observed to enhance the tensile properties of However, the utilization of this bagasse ash waste in concrete
concrete and prevent microcracking from propagating to the as a partial substitute for cement provides significant benefits in
macrocracking stage, which eventually prevents brittle failure terms of reducing construction costs as well as greenhouse gas
(Al Qadi and Al-Zaidyeen, 2014). Apart from their well-known emissions. This is because bagasse ash contains high amounts of
extreme tensile ductility (Li, 2012), ECCs have been engineered amorphous silica and aluminum oxides, which are necessary for
to demonstrate other useful traits, including light weight, low a material to be pozzolanic (Ganesan et al., 2007; Frías et al., 2011;
carbon footprint, self-healing, self-sensing, self-thermal control, Bahurudeen et al., 2015).
impact resistance, fire resistance with low thermal conductivity, Some researchers have reported that the pozzolanic
rapid setting, self-consolidation, spray-ability, and extrudability reactivity of bagasse may improve the compressive strength
(Wu et al., 2012; Liu and Tan, 2018; Shi et al., 2018). However, of concrete and enhance other mechanical and durability-
all the above-mentioned traits greatly vary depending on the related properties (Rukzon and Chindaprasirt, 2012; Somna
proportions, material type, and mix design of ECC. et al., 2012; Akkarapongtrakul et al., 2017). Since the main
The cement content in ECCs compared to that in normal compound in bagasse ash is silica oxide, several searchers have
concrete is quite high as it does not contain coarse aggregates. reported its potential use in concrete. According to Malyadri and
However, the increased cement contents not only creates more Supriya (2015), the strength parameters of concrete increased
heat of hydration, autogenous shrinkage and higher costs, by using 5% sugarcane bagasse ash as a partial substitute for
but also causes the emission of large amounts of CO2 into cement. A very similar trend of strength improvement was
the environment from the calcination of limestone and fuel also reported in another study by Mangi et al. (2017). Whereas
combustion during the manufacturing of cement clinker (Zeman, Kawade et al. (2013) concluded that up to 15% of sugarcane
2009). Approximately, one ton of cement releases one ton CO2 , bagasse ash can be used favorably without compromising the
which is responsible for 5% of greenhouse gas emissions (Kumar primary properties of concrete. Shafiq et al. (2018) reported
et al., 2017). To minimize greenhouse effects, the addition of a considerable improvement in the compressive strength of
industrial byproducts and agricultural wastes have been observed concrete utilizing 20% sugarcane bagasse ash. Moreover, a
as sustainable alternatives because they successfully replace bulk significant improvement was also seen in the fresh, mechanical
proportions of cement in ECCs without compromising strength and durability properties of concrete. Ganesan et al. (2007)
and ductility (Kumar et al., 2017; Shafiq et al., 2018). also reported an optimum substitution of 20% sugarcane
Currently, there is an increasing use of industrial waste, bagasse ash for cement without compromising the desired
including fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast furnace properties of concrete. Although the utilization of ground
slag to produce highly sustainable concretes. The amorphous bagasse ash (GBA) in concrete has been widely explored and
mineralogical character and high silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) content well documented by many researchers, its efficiency in ECCs is
of these materials are usually responsible for controlling the still a novel topic to explore. Being a modern day construction
stability and the development of high strength in the end product material, ECC produced using GBA can be useful in repair
(Shafiq et al., 2018). In addition, the trend of using biowastes works and prefabricated building components where high
from fuel sources in concrete, such as wheat straw ash, palm oil ductility is required.
fuel ash, rice husk ash, and sugar cane bagasse ash, is increasing Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to evaluate
significantly in those countries that produce large amounts of the performance of different proportions of GBA with PVA fibers
these wastes that cause severe environmental issues if dumped on the mechanical properties of ECCs. For this purpose, the
in open fields (Binici et al., 2008; Martirena and Monzó, 2018). detailed investigations of the compressive strength, direct tensile
Previous studies show that sugar cane bagasse ash, which is a strength, and flexural strength of ECCs were carried out. The
byproduct of the sugar cane industry, can be an effective material idea of such a detailed investigation is due to the target of this
to be used in producing sustainable concrete (Ganesan et al., research, which is to obtain the optimum content of GBA as a
2007; Aigbodion et al., 2010). Bagasse, a residue remaining after partial substitute for cement in ECCs with the maximum gain
the extraction of juice from sugarcane is subsequently used in in terms of mechanical performance, as well as economic and
some industries as a primary source of energy (Frías et al., 2011). environmental sustainability.
When it is burned as a fuel, it leaves bulk ash called bagasse
ash (Loh et al., 2013). The burning of bagasse material at the
temperature of 600–700◦ C produces amorphous silica, which MATERIALS AND METHODS
eventually results in its substantial pozzolanic reactivity (Moretti
et al., 2018). The estimated bulk production of bagasse after Materials
juice extraction of sugarcane is 600 Mt, which is between 40 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
and 50% of the total weight of annually produced sugarcane in The cement used in this study was Type-I ordinary Portland
the world (Shafiq et al., 2018). Among the largest sugarcane- cement (OPC) conforming to the requirements of ASTM C150-
producing countries, Pakistan is ranked fifth in the world, after 07 (2007). The specific surface area and density of the cement
Brazil, India, China, and Thailand, with an annual production were 2670.3 cm2 /g and 3.15 g/cm3 , respectively. The X-ray
of approximately 65.451 Mt. After burning the bagasse as a fluorescence (XRF) analysis was performed to determine the
source of fuel, the ash waste is disposed of in landfills, which is chemical composition of the cement. Table 1 shows the chemical
causing serious environmental problems (Chusilp et al., 2009). composition of the cement used in this research.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

TABLE 1 | Chemical composition of cement and bagasse ash.

Oxides composition SiO2 Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 CaO Na2 O MgO SO3 LOI Physical properties

Blaine fineness Density

(cm2 /g) (g/cm3 )

(%)

Cement 18.4 3 5.6 66.8 0.13 1.4 1.3 2 2670.3 3.15

Bagasse ash 66.70 1.53 9.70 10.07 4.14 4.60 – 7.4 2850.8 2.25

Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) Fibers enhance the pozzolanic reactivity, the bagasse ash waste was
Kuraray polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers of diameter 14.3 µm were treated using various processes, including burning, sieving,
used in this research as a reinforcement for the ECC (Figure 1). grinding, and chemical activation. These methods were efficiently
These fibers were very thin, similar to hairs, and flexible utilized in combinations such that the bagasse ash waste attained
enough to prevent the generation of micro cracks. The density of the highest achievable pozzolanic reactivity. The bagasse ash
the PVA fibers was 1.3 g/cm3 . Table 2 shows the detailed physical collected from the sugar industry was further burned at 700◦ C
properties of PVA fibers. The PVA characteristics data shown in for 90 min followed by cooling at room temperature. After
Table 2 were obtained from the manufacturer. cooling, the ash was stored in airtight containers until further
testing. The burned bagasse ash stored in airtight containers was
Bagasse Ash composed of both entirely burned (fine) and unburned (coarse
Boiler-fired bagasse ash waste was collected from the sugar fibrous) particles. The unburned coarse fibrous particles with
industry located in Sakhakot Malakand agency, Pakistan. To high carbon content and without silica were not desired and,
therefore, were completely separated by sieving through a 300-
µm sieve to obtain only the fine particles for further processing.
According to Bahurudeen et al. (2015), the burned bagasse ash
passing the sieve 300-µm leaves only fine particles that are rich in
silica content. Figures 2A,B show the appearance of the bagasse
ash before and after sieving, respectively. The fine bagasse ash
after grinding is shown in Figure 2C.

Grinding of the bagasse ash

Following heat treatment and sieving, the mechanical treatment
of fine bagasse ash was carried out in a ball mill. The role of
mechanical grinding in improving the performance of potential
cement substitute materials is a well-established fact. In this
study, the purpose of the mechanical grinding of bagasse ash
was to increase its surface area and obtain its optimized value by
varying the grinding times as 15, 30, 45, and 60 min. The speed of
grinding was kept constant at 66 revolutions per minute and the
grinding media-to-ash ratio was 5:1 by weight (i.e., 5 kg of balls
to 1 kg of ash).

Mix Proportions
FIGURE 1 | Polyvinyl alcohol fibers. The constituents used in the production of ECC blends contained
OPC, GBA, PVA fibers, and sand. Four different ECC mixes
TABLE 2 | Physical properties of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers. were designed by increasing the amount of GBA (0, 10,
20, and 30%) as a partial substitute by mass of cement.
Manufacturer Kurary
The water-to-binder ratio and the amount of PVA fibers
Origin Japan were kept constant in all the ECC mixes at 0.40 and 1.5%
Color White of total mix volume, respectively. The detailed experimental
Diameter (µm) 14.3 matrix for the mix designs is summarized in Table 3. All
Length (mm) 8.0 the ECC mixes were labeled with a unique identity, i.e., CM
Aspect ratio (l/d) 560 for control mix without GBA, whereas the mixes containing
Tensile strength (MPa) 1716 10, 20, and 30% GBA were identified as 10ECC, 20ECC, and
Density (g/cm3 ) 1.3 30ECC, respectively. The different proportions of bagasse ash
Elongation (%) 6.9 in this study (10–30%) were selected based on the findings of

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

FIGURE 2 | Bagasse ash: (A) after heat treatment at 700◦ C for 90 min, (B) passed the 300-µm sieve after heat treatment, and (C) ground in a ball mill for 60 min
after sieving.

TABLE 3 | ECC mix proportions for the control and mixes containing different percentages of GBA.

Mix ID Mix quantities for 1 m3 ECC (kg)

W/B Cement Water GBA Sand PVA fibers Super plasticizers (% of binder)

CM 0.40 704 282 – 2112 26 1

10ECC 0.40 634 282 70 2112 26 1
20ECC 0.40 563 282 141 2112 26 1
30ECC 0.40 493 282 211 2112 26 1

previous studies (Ganesan et al., 2007; Bahurudeen et al., 2015; Fineness and Pozzolanic Reactivity of the Bagasse
Joshaghani et al., 2016) as well as the trial tests. The main Ash
objective was to evaluate the synergy of different percentages of The fineness values of the cement and GBA were determined by
bagasse ash in ECC. using the Blaine air permeability apparatus in accordance with
ASTM C204 - 11 (2011). The influence of the grinding time on
Mixing and Casting the total surface area of the GBA is shown in Figure 3. It can be
The ingredients of the ECC mixes were added into the seen that the surface area of the bagasse ash before grinding was
mixer in this order: sand, cement, PVA fibers, GBA. After 2067.8 cm2 /g, which, compared to that of cement (2670.3 cm2 /g),
adding the desired quantities to the mixer, the ingredients is lower. However, the surface area of the bagasse ash increased
were thoroughly mixed for two minutes. Subsequently, the after grinding and gradually continued increasing with increased
water and super plasticizers were added to the dry mixture grinding. The desired surface area (greater than that of cement)
and mixed for another 2 min. Eventually, the PVA fibers was attained, corresponding to grinding for 60 min. Bahurudeen
and GBA were slowly added into the mortar and mixed and Santhanam (2015) concluded that the pozzolanic reactivity of
until all the fibers were uniformly dispersed. Immediately
after mixing, the mixtures were cast into molds and stored
under standard laboratory conditions of temperature and
humidity. Three gang mortar steel molds (50 mm cube),
coupon shaped steel molds (152 mm × 76 mm × 13 mm),
and wooden prisms (320 mm × 40 mm × 12 mm) were
used to cast mortar specimens for compressive strength
tests, uniaxial tensile strength tests, and four-point bending
tests, respectively. All the specimens were demolded after
24 h of casting and moist cured at 24 ± 2◦ C until
the age of testing.

Test Methods
The pozzolanic activity of bagasse ash was determined using
the Chapelle test. The XRF, X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern,
and fineness were also determined. The microstructure
of the GBA particles was analyzed through the scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) technique. Together with direct
tensile strength and flexural strength tests, the flexural
FIGURE 3 | Influence of grinding duration on the surface area of bagasse ash
behavior of ECCs containing different proportions of BA and its comparison with cement.
was also investigated.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

GBA is enhanced significantly when its surface area is equivalent From these micrographs, it can be seen that the ash sample
to that of cement. contains many different particle shapes, such as rounded,
Following the grinding phase, the pozzolanic reactivity of the elongated, irregular, and prismatic (Figure 4A). The sizes of
bagasse ash obtained from grinding for 60 min was determined particles range from 10 to 50 µm. Moreover, Figure 4B shows
by the Chappelle test in accordance with French norm, NF small, flat irregular, needle-shaped, and elliptical particles.
P 18-513 (Association Française de Normalisation [AFNOR],
2012; Pontes et al., 2013). The Chappelle test was performed to Compressive Strength
determine the reduction in Ca(OH)2 due to its reaction with This test was performed to investigate the compressive strength
siliceous or alumina-silicates present in pozzolans in GBA. The evolution of all the ECC mixes. A total of nine 50 mm cube
Chappelle activity test chemically determines the amount of lime specimens were cast for each mix (CM, 10ECC, 20ECC, and
utilized by a pozzolan. The amount of lime utilized is directly 30ECC) to test three identical specimens at ages of 14, 28,
proportional to the pozzolanic activity of the material. The results and 91 days. The tests were performed in accordance with
of the current Chapelle test on the GBA satisfied the minimum ASTM C109 / C109M - 16a (2016) using a compression
requirements set for pozzolanic activity (330 mg of CaO/g of machine as shown in Figure 5A. According to ASTM C109, the
pozzolan) due to its highly active amorphous silica (Li et al., loading rate in the compression machine was kept at 0.91 kN/s
2004). This finding clearly suggested that the GBA is chemically for all specimens.
reactive in nature and therefore suitable for its use as a sustainable
cement substitute material. Direct Tensile Test
Just like compression tests, nine coupon specimens having
dimensions of 152 mm × 76 mm × 13 mm were cast for each
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of the Bagasse mix to carry out uniaxial tensile tests at ages of 14, 28, and
Ash 91 days. A series of direct tensile tests were performed using
The morphological investigation of some selected samples of a universal testing machine (Figure 5B). The purpose of these
GBA was conducted using SEM (JSM5910 JEOL, Japan). Figure 4 tests is to investigate the influence of the different amounts of
shows the micrographs of studied samples at magnification GBA on tensile strength and to study the tensile stress-strain
ranges from X500 to X2000. and strain-hardening behavior of the ECC mixes at desired

FIGURE 4 | SEM images of bagasse ash after grinding in a ball mil: (A) the presence of different particle shapes and (B) the presence of small, flat irregular,
needle-shaped, and elliptical particles.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

FIGURE 6 | Comparison of compressive strength with aging among CM and

ECC mixes containing different percentages of GBA.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Compressive Strength
Figure 6 shows the comparison of the strength results of all four
ECC mixes according to different proportions of GBA and curing
FIGURE 5 | Test setup to measure: (A) compressive strength, (B) tensile ages (14, 28, and 91 days). At early ages (14 days of curing),
strength, and (C) flexural strength of the ECCs. all the ECC mixes containing GBA possessed lower compressive
strength compared to that of the control mix. Moreover, the
reduction in compressive strength gradually increased with
increasing amounts of GBA in the mix. This phenomenon of
testing ages. The specimens were loaded to a constant cross- strength reduction can be attributed to slight or no pozzolanic
head speed of 0.003 mm/s. To measure strain, electrical resistance activity at earlier stages. However, with increasing curing age,
strain gauges (Tokyo Sokki PFL-20-11-3L) were mounted on this phenomenon of strength reduction with increasing amounts
to the surface of coupon specimens and the strain data were of GBA was completely reversed, particularly at later ages such
recorded using a data logger. Along with strain measurements, as 91 days of curing. A similar behavior of decreasing strength
the elongation of the coupon specimen with loading was also at early ages and then increasing strength with curing ages
measured using a displacement transducer, simultaneously using was also reported in the literature (Arenas-Piedrahita et al.,
the same data logger. 2016; Joshaghani et al., 2016). The mineralogy (Table 1) as well
as the pozzolanic reactivity results obtained by the Chappelle
test reflected predominate behavior of GBA in gaining later
Four-Point Bending Test age strengths. Moreover, the particle characteristics of calcined
The flexural strengths of the ECC mixes were measured by GBA observed by SEM (Figure 4) also suggests a denser and
using the four-point loading method as specified by ASTM improved micro-structural phase of mortars containing different
C348 - 14 (2014). For this purpose, nine rectangular beams percentages of GBA as compared to CM. The size and the shape
of size 320 mm length × 40 mm height × 12 mm thickness of particles affect both the fresh as well as the hardened properties
were cast for each mix to test three identical specimens at of cement matrix in a significant manner.
ages of 14, 28, and 91 days. As shown in Figure 5C, the At 28 days, only the ECC containing 10% GBA (10ECC)
clear span (the span between the supports) was divided into produced better compressive strength compared to that of the
three equal parts to have two points to transmit the load. control mix, while the other two mixes (20ECC and 30ECC) still
A deflection gauge was attached to the middle bottom surface of possessed lower values. The inclusion of 10% GBA in the ECC
the beams to monitor deflection at regular intervals of loading. mix demonstrated 3 and 7% higher strength than that of the CM
Eventually, from this test, the values of the first crack load and at 28 and 91 days, respectively. The gain in strength could be
flexural strength were measured. Moreover, the load-deflection due to the consumption of free lime available in the matrix. The
curves were drawn using the measured values of load and mix containing 20% GBA (20ECC) exhibited an approximately
deflection to compare the toughness and deflection behavior of 6% reduction in compressive strength at 28 days of curing, while
different mixes. the compressive strength increased by 3% at an age of 91 days.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

Similar to 20ECC, the reduction in strength continued for 30ECC

at 28 days and ended up at almost the same strength as that of
CM at 91 days. The reason for the strength reduction in 20ECC
and 30ECC at 28 days can be associated with decreased cement
content and therefore slow pozzolanic reactivity (Bahurudeen
et al., 2015). Overall, the current results indicated safe use of GBA
in lower amounts, such as up to 10%, in producing optimized
ECCs without compromising the required compressive strength.

Tensile Strength and Load-Strain

Behavior of the ECCs
Figure 7 shows the comparison of the tensile strength results
among different ECC mixes with and without GBA according
to different curing ages (14, 28, and 91 days). As expected, the
trend of tensile strength development among all ECC mixes
followed almost the same pattern as that of the compressive
strength at all ages except at 91 days. For instance, similar to
the compressive strength at an early age (14 days), the tensile
strength also remained lower than that of the CM in all the ECC
mixes and decreased gradually with the increasing percentage
of GBA. Moreover, at 28 days, only 10ECC possessed higher
tensile strength than that of CM, while the other ECC mixes
exhibited lower tensile strength. Contrary to the compressive
strength results, the tensile strengths of the ECC mixes remained
lower at 91 days than that of CM, except 10ECC, which exhibited
higher tensile strength. Overall, the results indicated that the
ECC containing 10% GBA (10ECC) produced the best results
among all the mixes in terms of tensile strength. The tensile
strengths were approximately 8.33 and 7.40% higher than those
of the CM at 28 and 91 days, respectively. Based on the tensile
strength comparison among the different ECC mixes, the use of
10% GBA can be recommended in producing optimized ECCs
without compromising tensile strength.
Figure 8 shows the load vs. strain relationship among the
different ECC mixes according to curing ages (14, 28, and

FIGURE 7 | Comparison of tensile strength with aging among CM and ECC FIGURE 8 | Comparison of the load vs. strain relationship between CM and
mixes containing different percentages of GBA. ECC mixes at an age of: (A) 14, (B) 28, and (C) 91 days.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

response to loading was observed in both 10ECC and 20ECC

compared to that of CM. It was further noted that 20ECC
performed better than CM at all load levels regardless of curing
ages. However, 10ECC showed more strain compared to that of
CM at all load levels at both 28 and 91 days, except toward failure
where it exhibited lower strain at higher loads than that of CM.
Eventually, the current load-strain relation demonstrated a
toughness behavior for all the ECC mixes (10ECC and 20ECC
GBA) comparable to that of CM. The values of toughness were
not calculated due to damage to the strain gauges corresponding
to the failure loads. The highest value of strain corresponding to
the failure load of 2.9 kN was observed in 10ECC as 558 µ at
91 days. At 28 days, 10ECC exhibited the highest strain among all
the mixes, which was equal to 457 µ, corresponding to a failure
load of 2.6 kN. This increase in the microstrain in 10ECC is 5.54%
and 6.08% more than the corresponding values of CM at 28 and
91 days, respectively.

Elongation With Load

In addition to the measurement of microstrain with respect
to load as discussed in the previous section, the elongation
with respect to loading for CM as well as all the ECC mixes
(10ECC, 20ECC, 30ECC) was also measured using displacement
transducers. Figure 9 shows the comparison of the load-
elongation behavior among CM and the ECC mixes with aging.
In addition, the detailed results of current investigations on the
tensile strength-related properties of ECC mixes (first crack load,
maximum load, and elongation) are also listed in Table 4.
Compared to CM, a slight increase in elongation was observed
in all the ECC mixes (10ECC, 20ECC, and 30ECC) irrespective
of aging (14, 28, or 91 days). Moreover, the elongation increased
with increasing percentages of GBA, particularly at later ages
(28 and 91 days). Such elongation behavior clearly indicated
improved ductility of the ECC mixes containing different
percentages of GBA. At early ages (14 days), although the
elongation increased in all the ECC mixes compared to that
of CM, it decreased with increasing percentages of GBA from
10 to 20% and 20 to 30%. It is expected that the decrease in
elongation at early ages with increasing percentages of GBA
might be due to the gradually decreasing amount of cement and
eventually the occurrence of early failure at relatively smaller
loads compared to that of 10ECC. Elongation significantly
increased in all mixes with aging from 14 to 28 days, which
must be due to the increased hydration reaction with aging. More
importantly, the intensity of elongation with aging increased
with increasing amounts of GBA. For instance, the increase in
elongation with aging from 14 to 28 days was calculated as
37, 76, and 116% in 10ECC, 20ECC, and 30ECC, respectively.
This clearly indicated an improved mechanical behavior of the
FIGURE 9 | Comparison of elongation among CM and the ECC mixes at an ECC mixes with increasing amounts of GBA. However, unlike
age of: (A) 14, (B) 28, and (C) 91 days. early ages, a slight decrease in elongation was observed in all
the mixes with aging from 28 to 91 days. This must be due to
the small increase in brittleness, as the strengths of the mixes
91 days). It may be worth noting that the strain data used in increased at 91 days. A decrease in elongation by 7.43, 2.5, and
Figure 8 were directly obtained from electrical resistance strain 13% was calculated from 28 to 91 days for 10ECC, 20ECC, and
gauges (Tokyo Sokki PFL-20-11-3L) mounted on the surfaces of 30ECC, respectively. The smallest reduction in elongation in
the coupon specimens. At an age of 14 days, a slightly better 20ECC at 91 days indicated that the 20% GBA-blended ECC mix

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TABLE 4 | Comparison of the first crack load, maximum load, and maximum elongation among different ECC mixes with aging.

Mix ID First crack load (kN) Maximum load (kN) Maximum elongation (mm)

Age (days)

14 28 91 14 28 91 14 28 91

CM 0.854 0.875 0.822 2.010 2.402 2.703 8.236 13.194 11.353

10ECC 0.897 0.937 0.691 1.810 2.601 2.931 10.051 13.816 12.789
20ECC 0.878 0.967 0.763 1.802 2.311 2.599 8.994 15.813 15.418
30ECC 0.789 0.943 0.659 1.605 2.121 2.510 8.410 18.146 15.793

exhibited the best mechanical behavior in terms of its ductility compared to that of CM reduced significantly at 91 days and
among all the mixes. even turned almost identical to that of CM in 20ECC. This
All the tested ECC samples showed a continual increase is attributed to increased pozzolanic reactivity with increasing
in load-carrying capacity after the appearance of the first amounts of GBA with aging.
crack. It can be seen from the maximum load values listed in
Table 4 that the load-carrying capacity increased continuously Load Deflection Curves
with aging regardless of the mortar type (control or other To investigate the influence of GBA on ductility, the mid-span
mortars containing any percentage of GBA) and decreased with deflection of beams was measured with aging. The experimental
increasing amounts of GBA. The decrease in the maximum load- set up of flexural tests on rectangular beams with a deflection
carrying capacity is obviously due to decreased amounts of binder gauge attached to the middle bottom of the specimens is shown
with increasing amounts of GBA (10–20, then 30%). in Figure 5. The load on the beams gradually increased until
Unlike the trend of the maximum loads, the load its failure, and the deflection corresponding to the load was
corresponding to the first crack increased in mortars containing automatically logged using a data logger. Figure 11 shows a
GBA, particularly at ages of 14 and 28 days. The first crack loads comparison of the load-deflection relationship among the CM
continued increasing with aging (14–28 days) as well as with and different ECC mixes with respect to different curing ages.
increasing amounts of GBA. However, at 14 days, the trend of As mentioned earlier in Section “Materials and Methods,” nine
the increasing first crack load was rather insignificant and even identical specimens were cast for each mix to test three specimens
a decrease was observed in the mortar containing 30% GBA at each age (14, 28, and 91 days). The presented curves in
(30ECC). This must be due to the reduced hydration reaction Figure 11 are an average of three samples. It was noted that the
because of a smaller amount of cement in 30ECC, thus leading maximum deflection corresponding to the failure load ranged
to low stiffness of the mortar matrix and early cracking. At later between 3 and 6 mm depending on the type of ECC (10ECC,
ages (91 days), the first crack load compared to that of early ages 20ECC, or 30ECC) and aging (14, 28, or 91 days).
decreased in all mortars with and without GBA. The reason is
that the degree of brittleness of the cementitious composites
increased with aging. However, the lowest reduction in the first
7.00
crack load compared to that of CM was recorded in 20ECC. The
reduction in the first crack loads in 10ECC, 20ECC, and 30ECC CM
6.00
at the age of 91 days was recorded as 16, 7, and 20% of that of 10ECC
CM, respectively. 20ECC
5.00
Flexural Strength (MPa)

30ECC

Flexural Strength 4.00

Figure 10 shows the influence of different proportions of
GBA on the flexural strength of ECC mixes with aging. The 3.00
flexural strength closely followed a trend similar to that of the
compressive strength where the flexural strength of the ECCs 2.00
containing GBA remained lower than that of the CM at early
ages (14 days). The trend of gradual reduction with increasing 1.00
percentages of GBA at early ages demonstrated decreased
pozzolanic activity with increasing GBA. This trend of decreasing 0.00
flexural strength in the ECCs with increasing percentages of GBA 14 28 91
Age (day)
continued at 28 days as well, except in 10ECC. Like compressive
strength, the flexural strength of 10ECC exceeded that of CM
FIGURE 10 | Comparison of flexural strength with aging among CM and the
at both 28 and 91 days by 6.6 and 4%, respectively. Moreover, ECC mixes containing different percentages of GBA.
the reduction in the flexural strengths in 20ECC and 30ECC

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

gradually with increasing amounts of GBA in all the studied

mixes. At any particular load level, deflection in the ECC mixes
increased with increasing amounts of GBA. However, the load-
deflection behavior of 10ECC was almost identical to that of
CM. Moreover, the load-deflection behavior of ECCs containing
GBA significantly improved with aging from 14 to 28 days
and from 28 to 91 days. From Figures 11B,C, it can be seen
that the resistance to deflection as well as the load-carrying
capacity of 10ECC is greater than those of CM at both 28 and at
91 days. Similar to 10ECC, specimen 20ECC exhibited identical
or slightly better load-deflection responses than that of CM at
later ages. Considering the above discussion, the use of 10% GBA
is recommended in producing sustainable ECCs as it exhibited
the highest ductility among all the ECC mixes used in this study.

CONCLUSION
This research was carried out to study the potential use of GBA
as a partial substitute for cement to produce an economical and
sustainable ECC. For this purpose, three different percentages
of GBA were selected (10ECC, 20ECC, and 30ECC) to evaluate
the improvement in their mechanical performance factors, such
as strength, deflection, ductility, first crack load, maximum
loads, and elongation behavior. Considering the current findings,
the following are the main conclusions drawn from this
experimental study.

1. The results indicated that the compressive strength of

ECC mixes gradually decreased with increasing amounts
of GBA. The addition of GBA in ECCs reduced the
compressive strength at early ages (14 days), which,
however, was enhanced significantly at later ages. The
mix containing 10% GBA (10ECC) exhibited the highest
compressive strength among all the other ECC mixes,
including CM, at the age of both 28 and 91 days. The
compressive strength of 10ECC in comparison to that of
CM was found to be higher, almost 3 and 7% higher at 28
and 91 days, respectively. The other ECC mixes with high
amounts of GBA (20ECC and 30ECC) produced slightly
higher strengths than that of CM only at 91 days.
2. Direct tensile and flexural strength trends similar to that
of compressive strength were observed for all the mixes
except that both 20ECC and 30ECC possessed slightly
smaller tensile strengths than that of CM at 91 days.
However, the flexural strengths for 20ECC and 30ECC are
almost identical and only slightly smaller than that of CM
at 91 days. Moreover, it was observed that the influence of
FIGURE 11 | Comparison of the load-deflection behavior among the CM and
increasing the amount of GBA on the reduction in tensile
ECC mixes at an age of: (A) 14, (B) 28, and (C) 91 days. and flexural strengths decreased with aging from 14 to
28 and then from 28 to 91 days. Like with compressive
strength, 10ECC demonstrated higher direct tensile and
flexural strengths than those of CM. The results indicated
At early ages such as 14 days, the maximum deflection among 8.33 and 7.4% higher tensile strengths, and 6.6 and 4%
all the ECC mixes occurred in CM, while at the same age, both higher flexural strengths than those of CM at 28 and
the failure load as well as its corresponding deflection decreased 91 days, respectively.

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Amin et al. ECC Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

3 A comparable tensile load-to-strain relation among the DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

ECC mixes containing 10 and 20% GBA (10ECC and
20ECC) and CM was observed irrespective of aging. At The datasets generated for this study are available on request to
later ages (28 and 91 days), in particular, 10ECC exhibited the corresponding author.
the highest failure load with the highest corresponding
tensile strain. Consequently, it may be worth noting
that the ECC mixes (10ECC and 20ECC) demonstrated
acceptable ductility and toughness behavior for their
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
potential sustainable engineering applications. MNA, MA, RK, and KK contributed to the design of this
4 The direct tensile tests showed a continuous increase research and critically analyzed and discussed the results of this
in load-carrying capacity after the appearance of a first research. DS, SA, and SK contributed to the methodology and
crack in all the mixes. Moreover, it was noticed that the performance of the experiments, including collecting bagasse ash
elongation in all the GBA-blended ECC mixes increased (BA) and other ingredients, burning BA, sieving and grinding
significantly with increasing amounts of GBA and with BA, and mixing, casting, demolding, and curing the specimens,
aging, particularly, at later curing ages. performing XRD analysis and mechanical testing, and preparing
5 The load-deflection results indicated that the failure load the initial draft. MNA, MA, and RK reviewed, edited, and
as well as its corresponding deflection decreased gradually prepared the final draft of this manuscript.
with increasing amounts of GBA. At any particular
load level, deflection in the ECC samples increased
with increasing amounts of GBA. However, the load-
deflection behavior of 10ECC is almost identical to that of FUNDING
CM. Moreover, the load-deflection behavior of the ECCs
containing GBA significantly improved with aging, for This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research
instance, from 14 to 28 days and from 28 to 91 days. (DSR) at King Faisal University (KFU) through “Nasher grant
In comparison to those of CM, the ECC with 10% GBA number 186251.” The funds for OAP were also covered by DSR
demonstrated greater resistance to deflection as well as through the same “Nasher grant number 186251.”
higher load-carrying capacity at both 28 and at 91 days.
Moreover, the ECC containing 20% GBA also exhibited
identical or slightly better load-deflection responses than ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
that of CM at later ages.
6 Considering the above discussion and the most important The authors acknowledge the Deanship of Scientific Research
findings of this study, 10% GBA can be considered at the King Faisal University for the financial support under
as the optimum replacement of cement in producing Nasher Track (Grant No. 186251). The authors are also highly
a sustainable ECC as it exhibited improved strengths grateful to Dr. Muhammad Adil and Dr. Sajad Wali, Department
(compressive, tensile, and flexural), better resistance to of Civil Engineering UET Peshawar, for their support in
deflection, and improved ductility compared to those of all material procurement and facilitation during the testing phase
the ECC mixes used in this study. of this research.

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