Section B - Life processes 3 Nutrition Humans need a variety of nutrients to provide them with energy, to enable them to grow and develop, and to keep them healthy. These nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals, and they are contained in the food we eat. Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain or make food, The human diet The food an animal eats is called its diet. The human diet must contain the following ‘+ Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, also known as macronutrients. These are required in relatively large quantities, + Vitamins and minerals, also known as micronutrients. These are required in relatively small quantities. = Water and dietary fibre (roughage). Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and starch. They are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is always 21 Based on their chemical structure, carbohydrates can be classified into three groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. ‘+ Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrate molecules, they have the formula C,H,,0,. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars (see page 25). + Disaccharides are formed by chemically joining two monosaccharide molecules together; they have the formula C,,H,,0,,. All disaccharides are reducing sugars except sucrose, which is a non- reducing sugar. + Polysaccharides are formed by joining many monosaccharide molecules into straight or branched chains. Polysaccharides include starch, cellulose and glycogen (animal starch), single monosaccharide verescee ate mokeuks ones rialeculesjoned A \\. ae ®@e oo" ste seu monosaccharide slsaecharie puro a polysaccharide Tmokecles molecules rok condensation -jcning molecules wth te loss of water Trolls = oitivg meee by BCG Weer Figure 3.1. The three types of carbohydrates 3 Nutrition @Table 3.1. Properties of different carbohydrates CT CE Reducing sugars Have a sweet taste. Glucose (a monosaccharide) Soluble in water. Fructose (a monosaccharide) React with Benedis ‘s solution. Galactose (a monosaccharide) Maltose (a disaccharide) Lactose (a disaccharide} Non-reducing sugars | Have a sweet taste. Sucrose (a disaccharide) Soluble in water. Do not react with Benedict's solution, Starch Does not have a sweet taste. Insoluble in water. Reacts with iodine solution. Proteins Proteins are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus atoms. These atoms form small molecules known as amino acids. There are 20 different common amino acids, Protein molecules are formed by joining hundreds or thousands of amino acid molecules together in long chains. ferent amino acs peptide Inks cork ronnreoablovannies partofa 4 rat tcl) Figure 3.2 Part of a protein molecule Proteins have the following properties: * Their chemical structure can be changed by heat or certain other chemicals, i. they can be denatured. * Some are globular in structure and are soluble in water, e.g. haemoglobin and albumen, others are fibrous and are insoluble, e.g. collagen and keratin. » They react with biuret reagent. Lipids Lipids are fats and oils. They are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Their molecules have fewer oxygen atoms than carbohydrate molecules, e.g. beef fat has the formula C,H, ,0,. Each lipid molecule is made up of four smalier molecules joined together; three fatty acid molecules and Figure 3.3 A lipid molecule one glycerol molecule. ue Sees aiid molecule Lipids feel greasy, are insoluble in water and they leave a grease spot on paper. |) 3 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social BiologyRecognising carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Tests can be performed in the laboratory to identify carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Apart from the tests for lipids, the tests are usually carried out on about 2 cm’ of a solution of the test substance in a test tube. Table 3.2 Laboratory tests to identify carbohydrates, proteins and lipids TT Reducing sugars ‘Add an equal volume of Benedict's solution An orange-red precipitate and shake, Heat the mixture. forms. Non-reducing sugars Adda few drops of dilute hydrochloric An orange-red precipitate acid and heat for 1 minute. Add sodium forms. hydrogencarbonate until effervescence stops. Add an equal volume of Benedict's solution and shake. Heat the mixture. Starch ‘Add a few drops of iodine solution and Solution turns blue-black, shake. Protein—the biuret Add an equal volume of sodium hydroxide Solution turns purple. test solution and shake. Add drops of dilute copper sulfate solution and shake. Or add an equal volume of biuret reagent and shake, Lipid—the emulsion Place 4cm’ of ethanol in adry test tube. A milky-white emulsion forms. test Add 1 drop of test substance and shake. ‘Add an equal volume of water and shake. Lipid—the grease Rub a drop of test substance onto A translucent mark (grease spot) spot test absorbent paper. Leave for 10 minutes, remains. Reducing sugars form an orange-red _—_ Starch turns iodine solution precipitate with Benedict's solution blue-black Figure 3.4 Laboratory tests to identify reducing sugars and starch 3 Nutrition po)Sources and functions of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are organic compounds which supply the body with energy and the materials for growth and repair. Table 3.3. Sources and functions of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids a Carbohydrates Sugars: fruits, cakes, * To provide energy (16 k] g-): energy is easily released sweets, jams when respired Starch: yams, «+ For storage: glycogen granules are stored in many cells. potatoes, rice, pasta, bread Proteins Fish, lean meat, + To make new cells for growth and to repair damaged milk, cheese, eggs, __ tissues. peas, beans, nuts * To make enzymes that catalyse (speed up) reactions in the body. ‘+ To make hormones that control various processes in the body. ‘+ To make antibodies to fight disease. * To provide energy (17 kJ g”): used only when stored carbohydrates and lipids have been used up. Butter, vegetable + To make cell membranes of newly formed cells. oils, margarine, + To provide energy (39 kJ g”): used after carbohydrates nuts, fatty meats: because their metabolism is more complex and takes longer. * For storage: fat is stored under the skin and around organs. + For insulation: fat under the skin acts as an insulator. Vitamins and minerals Vitamins are organic compounds and minerals are inorganic substances. They are only required in small amounts by the human body, but they are essential for healthy growth and development. © Vitamins required include: + Vitamins A, D, E and K, which are fat soluble + Group B vitamins and vitamin C, which are water soluble. + Minerals required include calcium, iron, phosphorus, iodine, sodium, potassium and fluorine. Table 3.4 Some important vitamins and minerals required by the human body Liver, cod liver oil, yellow and ‘* Helps to keep the skin, cornea and orange vegetables and fruits, e.g. mucous membranes healthy. carrots and pumpkin, green leafy * Helps vision in dim light (night vision). vegetables, e.g. spinach Strengthens the immune system. Vitamin B, Whole-grain cereals and bread, * Aids in respiration to produce energy. brown rice, peas, beans, nuts, Important for the proper functioning of yeast extract, lean pork the nervous system. [2 ) 3 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social BiologyVitamin C West Indian cherries, citrus fruits, * Keeps tissues healthy, especially the skin raw green vegetables and connective tissue, + Strengthens the immune system. + Helps the body absorb iron in the ileum. Vitamin D Oily fish, eggs, cod liver oil. + Promotes the absorption of calcium and ‘Made in the body by the action of phosphorus in the ileum, sunlight on the skin * Helps build and maintain strong bones and teeth. * Strengthens the immune system. Calcium Dairy products, e.g. milk, cheese * To build and maintain healthy bones and (Ca) and yoghurt, green vegetables, teeth. e.g. broccoli * Helps blood to clot at cuts. Iron Red meat, liver, eggs, beans, nuts, * To make haemoglobin, the red pigment in (Fe) dark green leafy vegetables red blood cells which transports oxygen around the body for use in respiration. Vitamin and mineral deficiency diseases A shortage or lack of any of the essential vitamins or minerals in the diet can lead to health problems and certain deficiency diseases. Table 3.5 Some vitamin and mineral deficiency diseases Deficiency of + Poor vision in dim light. * Increase the intake of foods blindness vitamin Vision adapts slowly between Fich in Vitamin A. bright and dim conditions. _ # Take vitamin A supplements. Rickets Deficiency + Soft, weak, painful, deformed + Increase the intake of foods inchildren) of Vitamin bones, especially limb bones. rich in vitamin D and calcium. Dand/or * Bow legs + Take vitamin D and calcium calcium supplements. + Increase exposure to sunlight. ‘Anaemia Deficiency of |* A reduced number of red * Increase the intake of foods iron blood cells in the blood. rich in iron. * Pale complexion. + Take iron supplements. * Tiredness. * Increase the intake of foods + Lack of energy. rich in vitamin C. Water Water is essential in the diet since the human body is about 63% water. * Water acts as a solvent to dissolve chemicals in cells so that they can react. + Water acts as a solvent to dissolve substances so that they can be transported around the body, e.g. products of digestion are dissolved in blood plasma. * Water acts as a solvent to dissolve waste substances so that they can be excreted from the body, e.g. urine contains dissolved urea. 2 Nutrition (3)+ Water acts as a reactant, e.g. in hydrolysis which occurs during digestion of food + Water acts as a coolant, removing heat from the body when it evaporates from sweat. Dietary fibre (roughage) Dietary fibre is food that cannot be digested. It consists mainly of the cellulose of plant cell walls, lignin of plant xylem vessels, husks of brown rice and bran of wholegrain cereals. Fruits, vegetables and grains are excellent sources of dietary fibre. Dietary fibre adds bulk to the food which stimulates peristalsis (see page 34) so that food is kept moving through the digestive system This helps prevent constipation and reduces the risk of colorectal (bowel) cancer. | Figure 3.5 Fruit and cereals are rich in dietary fibre Constipation and diarrhoea Constipation is a condition of the bowels (colon and rectum) in which the faeces are dry and hard, difficult and often painful to pass, and passed infrequently. Diarrhoea is a condition in which faeces are passed frequently and in a liquid form. Itis usually a symptom of gastroenteritis (see page 126) Table 3.6 Common causes and effects of constipation and diarrhoea 2 Constipation + Not eating enough dietary fibre. * Bloating. + Not drinking enough water or other fluids. + Abdominal pain. * Not exercising or being inactive + Haemorthoids (piles). + A change in diet or daily routine. + Faecal impaction. * Ignoring the urge to defaecate + Colorectal (bowel) cancer * Stress, anxiety or depression, and certain medications. Diarrhoea + Being infected with certain viruses, e.g. norovirus. * Dehydration * Being infected with certain bacter * Electrolyte imbalance. e.g, Salmonella, E.coli, Shigella «+ Impaired kidney function * Being infected with an intestinal parasite, kidney failure). e.g, Giardia, + Malnutrition in severe * Conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome, cases. colorectal cancer, coeliac or Crohn's disease Food poisoning, i.c. eating contaminated food, is a common way of becoming infected with pathogens that cause diarrhoea. Chances of getting food poisoning can be reduced by practising good food hygiene when preparing food + Wash hands, utensils and food preparation surfaces regularly © Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before cooking or eating. + Keep uncooked foods, especially meat, poultry and fish, separate from ready-to-eat foods. * Cook food thoroughly, especially meat, poultry and fish. * Defrost frozen food thoroughly and safely, ic. in a refrigerator, before cooking. 2) 3 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social BiologyA balanced diet Humans must consume a balanced diet each day. This must contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre in the correct proportions to supply the body with enough energy for daily activities and the correct materials for growth and development, and to keep the body in a healthy state. balanced diet should contain a variety of foods selected from each of the six different Caribbean food groups shown in Figure 3.6. Fach group contains foods that supply similar nutrients, proportions. The sector indicates the relative amount of each group that should be eaten daily. Energy requirements The amount of energy required Figh¥e 3.6 The six Caribbean food groups daily from the diet depends on a person’s age, occupation and gender (sex). In general, daily energy requirements + Increase as age increases up to adulthood. They then remain fairly constant up to old age when less energy is required daily. + Increase as activity increases, e.g. a manual labourer requires more energy than a person working in an office. = Are higher in males than in females of the same age and occupation, + Increase in a female when she is pregnant or breastfeeding, Malnutrition Malnutrition occurs when a person's diet does not contain the right amount of nutrients. Malnutrition can be caused by eating a diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, known as undernutrition, or are in excess, known as overnutrition. Malnutrition can lead to several serious conditions. Obesity Obesity is characterised by an excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body. Itis generally caused by the excessive consumption of energy rich foods high in sugar and/or fat, especially animal fat, and a lack of physical activity. Obesity increases a person's risk of hypertension (high blood. pressure), heart disease, stroke, diabetes, osteoarthritis and some cancers (see page 121). 2° Natron poAnorexia Anorexia is a serious mental health condition where a person keeps his or her body weight as low as possible by eating very little, vomiting, using laxatives and exercising excessively. It mainly affects girls and young women, and can eventually lead to death, Bulimia Bulimia is an eating disorder and mental health condition where a person tries to control his or her weight by repeating a cycle of binge eating followed by purging, The person eats large quantities of food very quickly and then induces vomiting or takes laxatives to get rid of the food. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) Protein-energy malnutrition (PFM) refers to a group of related disorders, including kwashiorkor and marasmus, which are caused by an inadequate protein or energy intake. Both disorders mainly affect young children in developing countries. + Kwashiorkor is caused by a severe shortage of protein in the diet. Its symptoms include loss of muscle mass, failure to grow, oedema (swelling) of the abdomen and legs, changes in skin and hair pigmentation, and fat accumulation in the liver. + Marasmus is caused by a severe shortage of protein and energy rich foods such as carbohydrates in the diet. Its symptoms include low body weight, thin face with sunken eyes, ribs and shoulders clearly visible through the skin, thin arms and legs with very little muscle and fat, dry skin and brittle hair. Body mass index (BMI) Body mass index can be used as an indicator of body fat. It compares the mass of a person, determined by weighing the person, to his or her height using the following formula: body mass (in kilograms) body mass index (kg per m’) = —__body mass (in kilograms) _ ay BP eight (in metres) x height (in metres) Table 3.7 Body mass index for adults 18.4 and below Underweight 185 to 249 Healthy weight 25.0 029.9 Overweight 30.0 039.9 Obese 40.0 and above Severely obese | 20) 3 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology