Philosophy

- Comes from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom)
- The ancient Greeks used this term to refer to “love of wisdom” and
soon applied it to the study of discipline that uses human reason to
investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which govern
all things.
- Study of general and fundamental questions about existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
- A way of thinking about the world, the universe, and society.
- The ideas in philosophy are often general and abstract.
- Study of humans and the world by thinking and asking questions.
- Both a science and an art.
- Tries to answer important questions by coming up with answers about
real things and asking “why?”

NOTABLE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

PYTHAGORAS - A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with formulating
the Pythagorean Theorem.

HERACLITUS - Proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or

plan which he called logos.

DEMOCRITUS - Devoted himself to the study of the causes of natural

phenomena.

EPICURUS - Believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life of happiness.
SOCRATES - "Father of Philosophy". Was considered the foremost philosophers
of ancient time. He was credited with formulating the Socratic method which means
the examining of topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and
analyze his knowledge regarding the topic.

PLATO - A student of Socrates, he wrote down his mentor's teaching and

incorporated some of his own ideas into them. Plato's most significant ideas included
Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exist is based on an idea or
template that can only be perceived in mind. He is also known for his dialectic
method which is a method inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in an
attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Founded his academy, an institution of higher
learning.

ARISTOTLE - He attended the academy of Plato and was prominent, as well. For
him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what
we can sense and perceive. His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal
process of analyzing reasoning which give rise to deductive reasoning: the process
by which specific statements are analysed to reach a conclusion or
generalisation.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE FROM

PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW

Holistic thinking
- refers to a perspective that considers large scale patterns in
systems. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and
ability to get the general sense or impression regarding a situation.
- “holistic thinking" refers to big picture mentality. In which a person
recognizes the interconnectedness of various elements that form larger systems,
patterns and objects. Thinking holistically is the opposite of analyzing something,
which involves breaking down a larger system into its details.

Point of View
- Describe the perception of an event or phenomenon and how exactly it is
viewed.
-It is often shaped by an individual's beliefs or experience.

PARTIAL THINKING -focuses on specific aspects of the situation. The

partial view is an important component of analytical thinking, as an individual focuses on
certain areas or aspect of a problem in order to understand it.

Though partial thinking is useful, philosophy utilizes holistic thinking in making sense of
problems and issues related to the human experience. People tend to apply an analytical
perspective when looking at problems or situations. A holistic view gives rise to more
appreciative perspective about life , as we are able to look at life in its totality.
 We all have the tendency to philosophize since we have the tendency to wonder and
doubt.

Philosopher
- a good communicator who can clearly and adequately present his or
her ideas

Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives. Because it
involves an evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person to make better decisions
and act accordingly to situations with the help of various philosophical skills. On life
perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking which greatly influences a
person's view of life, challenges, and relationships. In doing philosophy, a holistic
perspective on the subject is always required. Failure to do so or only using a partial point of
view-may lead to illogical or incorrect conclusions.

Plato
- Traced man’s need to philosophize to his sense of wonder. Whenever
we are confronted with an experience, we always wonder how it came
about.

RENE DESCARTES
- A French Philosopher that traced the need to philosophize to doubt. In
life, we will be faced with several ideas and arguments which present
themselves as "truths". A critical and questioning perspective is
necessary to determine if indeed these ideas or views are correct or
true.

Karl Jaspers
- A Swiss-German philosopher that saw the need to philosophize
because of experience. These experiences limit situation, philosophy
provides us a means to understand adverse or challenging conditions,
and to rise above them and gain new knowledge or perspective.
 The need to philosophize is driven by the love for wisdom. To love wisdom is to
have an insatiable desire for truth. Philosophy itself is a distinct area of knowledge
with its own goals, concerns, and ways of doing things.

Branches of Philosophy

AESTHETICS LOGIC EPISTEMOLOGY

-Is the branch of Philosophy -Branch of Philosophy which -Discusses the nature of
which deals with beauty and deals with correct knowledge and knowing.
what makes things “beautiful” reasoning

ETHICS POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY METAPHYSICS

-The branch which deals -studies governments and deals
with moral questions and -is a branch which deals with
with questions of justice, power
dilemmas. questions regarding reality
and the rights and obligations
and existence.
of citizens.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

-is an area in philosophy that
understand the human person
from a philosophical perspective.

DOING A PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION ON A

SITUATION FROM HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE

REFLECTION
- Requires a person to be willing to examine one’s thoughts,
feelings, and action and to learn more about one’s life and
experiences.
 HUMAN SELF- REFLECTION
- Is the capacity of humans to exercise introspection and to attempt
to learn more about their fundamental nature and essence.

Philosophy has an important place in our daily lives. Engaging in philosophical reflection
leads to the development of beneficial skills that individuals can apply in everyday
situations.

Reflection is vital in ensuring that our actions and decisions are well thought out and
are done with due regard for their implications and consequences on ourselves, others,
and our surroundings. When we reflect, we can judge whether our actions or decisions are
reasonable or not. Doing Philosophy enables a person to engage in critical analysis and
interpretation of concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems. Doing Philosophy
also improves problem-solving and decision making. The ability to analyze a problem
or dilemma, identify the significant aspects, and come up with alternative solutions is
an important skill learned through philosophy. in the process of doing philosophy, it is
critical to have a holistic point of view-the perception of looking at all aspects of a
situation first before making a conclusion. Wisdom as it refers to a person's ability to
apply knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound choices and judgment is the
intended product of philosophizing. Finally, knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to self-
development.

Module 2
METHOD OF PHILOSOPHIZING

PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD OR PHILOSOPHICAL

METHODOLOGY
- Study of how to do philosophy
 Truth
- (In metaphysics and the philosophy of language) is the property of
sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are
said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what
the case is.
- It is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or
fidelity to an original or standard. Truth is also sometimes defined in
modern contexts as an idea of "truth to self", or authenticity.

Propositions
-is a statement about the world or reality. Propositions may or may not
carry truth.

Knowledge
- is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the
product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts.

Facts
- are propositions or statement which are observed to be real or truthful.

Claim
- is a statement that is not evidently or immediately known to be true.
This means that any claim can be proven by verification and
experimentation.

Therefore, truthful statements can be considered as based on facts. There are

several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a
basis for determining truth. But as a philosopher, we do not assume that every
statement is true. Remember the famous French philosopher, Rene Descartes traced
the need to philosophize to doubt.
 systematic doubt
- In philosophy, it is employed to help determine the truth. This means
that every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is scrutinized
and analyzed.
Philosophers are always engaged with the concept of truth. Philosophers
consider truth as a kind of quality or value. Knowledge is the clear awareness
and understanding of something, since it is true knowing that we are able to
determine what is true.

Doubt
- has a very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to
discover the truth. In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to
help determine the truth.

Belief
- is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one's senses.
- Another basis for determining truth is a belief or statement is true if it is
based on facts.
Getting consensus or having people agree on a common belief is another way of
determining what is true. Although this approach has certain limitations. Getting everyone to
agree on something may not take that belief true. Philosophers also believe that claims and
belief should also be subjected to test to determine truth. In determining truth requires also
that a person can prove a statement through an action.

FACT
- something concrete that can be proven. You can find facts in legal
records, scientific findings, encyclopedias, atlases, etc. In other words,
are the truth and are accepted as such.
OPINION
- less concrete
- a view formed in the mind of a person about a particular issue. in other
words it is what someone believed or thinks, and it is not necessarily
the truth. Facts are the same for everybody but opinions can differ
quite widely.
- Examples are: Ann can have the opinion that Italian food tastes best,
while Joe has the opinion that French food is ideal.
- Sue can have the opinion that reading is boring, while Mike can have
the opinion that reading is fun.
- Penny can have the opinion that cold weather is better, while Tim can
prefer hot weather.

The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not be disputed but the conclusion
Itself could still be contested or questioned. To judge the truthfulness of belief, we
must also consider things such a person's experiences and views. Facts are
statements that are observed to be real or truthful. Claims are statements that require
further examination to determine their truthfulness. Some arguments may contain
fallacies. We must be aware of the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the
validity of arguments.

Opinions are often influenced by bias. We must be aware of bias so that we can
objectively and critically examine points of view.

Meaning
Term
Opinions are statements that go beyond providing
facts.
Conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.
Beliefs are statements that expresses
convictions that are not easily and clearty
explained by facts.
Explanations are statements that assume the claim to
be true and provide reasons why the
statement is true.
 Arguments are series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader or listener
that a claim or opinion is truthful.
Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
Bias is disproportionate weight in favor of or
against an idea or thing, usually in a way
that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or
unfair.

OPINION
- Opinion is something intermediary between knowledge and
ignorance. While Public opinion is the intermediate faculty which
seizes the things that float between the two extremes (Plato)
- Opinion applies to what, being true or false, may be other than it is: in
fact, opinion is the apprehension of an immediate and unnecessary
premise (Aristotle)
- Opinion, founded in the probable, perhaps also the name of knowledge
(Leibniz)
- Opinion is a belief that is conscious of being insufficient both
subjectively and objectively (Kant)
- An opinion gives for truth something that has been said, although
sometimes they are absurd words, which mean nothing, impossible to
understand (Hobbes)
- Public opinion is the convergence of the opinions of the greatest
number of people in a community, so that they form a common and
dominant feeling, exerting diffuse pressure (Freud)

Examples of Fallacies
Fallacy Characteristics
Ad hominem attacking the person presenting the
argument instead of the argument itself
Appeal to force using the threat of force or an undesirable
event to advance an argument.
Appeal to emotion using emotions such as pity or sympathy
Appeal to the popular idea is presented as acceptable because
a lot of people accept it
Appeal to tradition the idea is acceptable because it has
been true for a long time.
 Begging the Question assuming the thing or idea to be proven is
true; also known as circular argument
Cause-and-effect assuming “cause-and-effect” relationship
between unrelated events
Fallacy of composition assuming that what is true of a part is true
for the whole
Fallacy of division assuming that what is true for the whole
is true for its parts

Examples of Biases
Bias Characteristics
Correspondence bias or attribution tendency to judge a person’s personality
effect by his or her actions, without regard for
the external factors or influence
Confirmation bias tendency to look for and readily accept
information which fits one's own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas or vlews that go
against it.
Framing focusing on a certain aspect of a problem
while ignoring other aspects.
Hindsight the tendency to see past events as
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to
historical events.
Conflict of interest a person or group is connected to or has
a vested interest in the issue being
discussed.
Cultural bias analyzing an event or issue based on
one's cultural standards.
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHY LEAD TO WISDOM AND
TRUTH
The methods of philosophy will help to learn the process of doing philosophy in a
systematic way. On the other hand, philosophizing is to think or express oneself in
a philosophical manner.
Although philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the subject matter of
philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics;
1. Philosophical questions have answers but the answers remain in dispute.
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith.
3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human beings.
 Critical thinking
- a method that philosophers use to address philosophical question.
- A lifelong process of self-assessment that further consists of: (Maboloc
and Pascua, 2008)
-Defining, analyzing, and devising solutions
-Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions
-Applying understanding and knowledge to new and
different problems
-Willingness to say “I don’t know.”
The attributes of a critical thinker include;
Looks for evidence to support assumption and bellefs
Adiusts opinion
Looks for proof
Examines the problem
Rejects irrelevant and innocent information

Socratic and dialectic method - are based on a

4 PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS discussion between two or more people who may carry
• Socratic differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking
• Dialectic an agreement with one another.
• Scientific Scientific method - also called the empirical method,
• Historical is a process of determining truth or knowledge through
experimentation, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.

TYPES OF REASONING
Deductive reasoning - conclusion comes
first, followed by the main points, and the last
will be supporting data, facts, examples, and
evidences. General idea comes first before
the specific or particular idea.
Inductive reasoning - supporting data,
facts, examples, and evidences come first
followed by the main points and conclusion
will be the last part.
 Module 3
HUMAN COMPOSITION OF MAN

Man
-general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race.

Human- refers to man as species - HOMO SAPIENS or MODERN HUMAN

BEINGS. The term human being is also used to differentiate man from other animals.

Person - is the personality of a human being so called "self". Refers to a

human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and
dignity above all. Philosopher refers to the human person as the totality of an
individual, possessing awareness, self-determination, and capacity to interact
with others and himself/herself. Personhood refers to the state of being a person.

Human nature - defines as the nature of humans especially the

fundamental characters and traits of humans. It refers to the characteristics that
distinguish humans from all the other creatures. These traits are expected to arise
independent of the influence of culture and society.

Terms Meaning
Self-awareness refers to the person having a clear
perception of oneself, including his
thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions.
Self determination refers to the capability of persons to make
choices and decision based on their own
preferences, monitor and regulate their
actions, and be goal-oriental and self-
directed.
Consequences is the result or effect of an action or
condition. Philosophers believe that a
person acts freely and with due regard for
the consequences of his actions.
 Externality refers to the capability of a person to
reach out and interact with others and the
world.
Dignity refers to the innate right to be valued and
respected.

LIMITATIONS CAN LEAD TO POSSIBILITIES

Transcendence - is the ability to change, be dynamic, and continually
redefining one's self which works with our facticity to create change. originated from the
word Trans, meaning "go beyond" and scandare "climb". A state of "existence above
and beyond the limits of material experience." A state of being intrinsically satisfied with
life regardless of physical and tangible factors.

refers to the things in our life that are already given - Facticity
Spatial-temporal being - as temporal beings, our most obvious
limitation is our finitude - our finite quality or state. Space (spatial) tiem (temporal).

LIMITATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSCENDENCE

Here are some limitations and possibilities for transcendence:
•may not occur to everyone •developing a positive outlook in life
•does not come at a specified period •working towards reaching a goal
•varies across all people • learning from experience
•may coincide with physical limitations of the body

POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSCENDENCE

It is also important to know that transcendence may be applied to present worries by
living in the present. This means that life is lived from moment to moment in a carefree
and cheerful manner where concerns for stress are reserved for the future, and regrets
or guilt feelings are kept in the past.
 THE HUMAN BODY IN IMPOSING LIMITS AND
POSSIBILITIES
From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body.
although it can perform many functions, also has limitations. Limits in the environment,
demographics, and society may also hinder a person from reaching transcendence.
Here are some examples:
BODILY LIMITATIONS
-mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety. intellectual disability)
-disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness)
-disease and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough)
-failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject)
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITATIONS
-socioeconomic status
- location of neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent neighborhood)
-abusive relationships (e.g. emotional abuse) negative influences (e.g. drug use)

OVERCOMING LIMITATIONS
Bodily limits can be tested by trying on new experiences and working on challenges with
increasing levels of difficulty. The human body, if given enough exposure to any
situation, can attain a goal with efficiency. Social and environmental limitations are more
difficult to overcome than bodily limitations because they involve the influence of other
people and the external world. However, with a proper mindset, clearly defined goals,
and motivation to rise above challenges, one may successfully overcome his or her
limitations.

RECOGNIZE AND EVALUATE OWN LIMITATIONS AND

POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSCENDENCE
Even though you are still young, you are not prevented from further understanding
yourself. Transcendence is even more possible when you begin to understand that you
can go beyond your limitations if you set your mind on your goals.

The terms "transcendent" and transcendental" should not be used interchangeably. According to
Immanuel Kant, "transcendent" is a term used to refer to God, while "transcendental" refers to all other
matter. While transcendence may not occur for everyone, all people have the capacity to experience it
regardless of any sociodemographic, biological, or personal factors
 Module 4
THE HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Environmental philosophy - is the discipline that studies the moral
relationships of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents.
Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment
to suit his purposes. It will enable them to become aware of their relationship and its
related issues in our society and their impact on the lives of human persons.

Paradigm shift
- a change from mythical explanation of the origins of the cosmos to a more rational
explanation.

2 Frameworks according to Payne (2010):

Anthropocentric Model - Ecocentric Model - It is the
Based on the anthropocentric model, ecological or relational integrity of
humans are superior and central to the humans that provides meaning
the universe, thus, it is human of our morals and values and it is
centered. nature centered. Devoted to preserving
the totality of Earth’s biodiversity and
the functioning of its life – supporting
system

NOTICE DISORDER IN THE UNIVERSE

Ancient Thinkers:

Anaximander - a pre-Socratic philosopher and scientist said about the creation-

Destruction. According to him, the sketch of the genesis of the world (cosmology), the
evolution of the world begins with the generation of opposites in certain region Nature. Nature is
indeterminate-boundless in the sense that no boundaries between the warm and or the moist
and dry regions are originally present within.
Pythagoras - "universe is a living embodiment of nature's order, harmony, and
beauty." he sees our relationship with the universe involving Biophilia (love of
other things) and Cosmophilia (love of other beings).

Modern Thinkers:

Immanuel Kant - "Beauty is ultimately a symbol of morality (goodness). He

believes that the orderliness of nature and the harmony of nature with our faculties
guide us toward a religious perspective."

Herbert Marcuse - said about the power of humans over nature, while George
Herbert Mead tackled about our duties and responsibilities.

SHOW THAT CARE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

CONTRIBUTES TO HEALTH, WELL BEING AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Deep ecology – is an ecological philosophy developed by Norwegian philosopher
Ame Naess in the early 1970’s asserting that all life forms have an equal right to exist
and human needs and desires have no priority over those of other organisms

Social ecology – a critical social theory founded by American anarchist and

libertarian socialist Murray Bookchin
- Conceptualized as a critique of current social, political, and anti-ecological trends, it
espouses a reconstructive, ecological, communication, and ethical approach to society.

Ecofinism - also called the ecological feminism, branch of feminism that

examines between women and nature. Francoise d’ Eaubonne in 1974 (the name
was coined by her)
- Conceptualized as a critique of current social, political, and anti-ecological trends, it
espouses a reconstructive, ecological, communication, and ethical approach to society.
- A philosophical idea that combines feminism and ecology concerns, emphasizing
that both suffer from the treatment by a mate dominated society.
- Comes from an idea that women and nature have significant connections, since
women most often have a dose of association with nature in many societies due
to the nature of their traditional

DEMONSTRATE THE VIRTUES OF PRUDENCE AND

FRUGALITY TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT
Prudence - is defined as the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance
of dangers and risks. covers good judgment, considering the consequences of an
action, using common sense and discretion, exercising caution, and conforming to
reason and decency.

Frugality - is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.
The quality of being thrifty, sparing or economical in the consumption of resources and
avoiding waste, lavishness, or extravagance.

FROMM (2013) – suggested that new society that should inspire the development
of a new human being that will nurture prudence and fairness of frugality towards
environment