M1

Syllabus
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Signals
➢ Physical quantity that carries information.

➢ It is described as a function of one or more independent variables.
➢ Eg.: speech signal, ecg signals, temperature variations, etc.
➢ Depending on the number of variables signals are classified as:
i. 1-dimensional signal: function of a single variable. Eg: speech signal represented

by f(t).
ii. Multidimensional signal : function of more than 1 variable.
➢ Eg. of 2 dimensional signal – image signal represented by f(x,y)
➢ Eg. of 3 dimensional signal- Video signal represented by f(x,y,t)
➢ Mainly 2 types of signals- Continuous time signals (analog signals) & discrete time
signals

Continuous time signals:
➢ These signals are defined over continuous independent variables.
➢ They are continuous in time and amplitude.
➢ Generally denoted by x(t).
➢ They are difficult to analyze, as they carry a huge number of values. In order to
store these signals , we require an infinite memory.

Discrete time signals:
➢ These signals are defined for only discrete values of time denoted by n.
➢ Discrete time signals are defined for only integer values of n.
➢ Obtained by sampling continuous time signals.
➢ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑛𝑇 , where T is the sampling time.
➢ They are continuous in amplitude and discrete in time and is denoted by x[n]

➢ In the above example, the sampling time interval was T=1sec, which means
samples are taken after every 1 sec to form the discrete time signal.
➢ When n=0, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑛𝑇 𝑥 0 = 𝑥(0)
n=1, x 1 = 𝑥 1
n=2, 𝑥 2 = 𝑥(2)
n=3, 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 3 and so on
➢ If T=2, samples will be taken after every 2 units of time
➢ When n=0, 𝑥 0 = 𝑥(0)
n=1, 𝑥 1 = 𝑥 2
n=2, 𝑥 2 = 𝑥(4)
n=3, 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 6 and so on

Representation of discrete time signals
Consider a signal x[n] with values x[-2]=-3, x[-1]=2, x[0]=0, x[1]=3, x[2]=1 &
x[3]=2.
1. Graphical Representation
2. Functional Representation
−3, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −2
2, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −1
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝑥𝑛 =
3, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
2, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3

3. Tabular Representation
4. Sequence Representation
𝑥 𝑛 = {−3, 2, 0, 3, 1, 2}

Elementary signals
➢ They are the building blocks for the construction of more complex signals. Also
called standard signals.

1. Unit Step Function
➢ Exists only for positive values of time and is zero for negative time. If a step
function has unit magnitude it is called unit step function.
1, 𝑡 >0
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡 < 0
1, 𝑛≥0
𝑢[𝑛] = ቊ
0, 𝑛<0

2. Unit Impulse Function :
➢ Continuous time unit impulse function is also called Dirac delta function.
➢ It is only defined at t=0.
∞, 𝑡=0
𝛿 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡≠0
Properties of continuous time unit impulse function
∞
1. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
2. It is an even function of time, ie, 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿 −𝑡
∞ ∞
3. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0 ; ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 0
1
4. 𝛿 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡
𝑎
5. 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 ;𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑥 0

➢ Discrete time unit impulse function is also called unit sample sequence.
➢ It is defined only at n=0.
1, 𝑛=0
𝛿[𝑛] = ቊ
0, 𝑛≠0
Properties of discrete time unit impulse function
1. 𝛿 𝑛 = u n − u[n − 1]
2. σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛0 ]

∞
Q. Evaluate the following: a) ‫׬‬−∞ 𝜹 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒅𝒕
∞
b) ‫׬‬−∞ 𝜹 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 + 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝒅𝒕 c) σ∞
𝒏=𝟎 𝜹 𝒏 + 𝟒 . 𝒏𝟐
Soln:
∞
a) ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 + 2 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
Property used is ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 ; 𝑡0 = −2 ; −2 lies between −∞ and ∞
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 + 2 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = x 𝑡0 = 𝑒 −2(−2) = 𝑒 4
∞ ∞
∞
b) ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 + 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 sin 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 sin 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡0 |𝑡 + sin 2𝑡0 |𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4

0 =0 0 =2

c) σ∞
𝑛=0 𝛿 𝑛 + 4 . 𝑛 2
Property used is σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛] 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑥[𝑛0 ]
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑛2 ; 𝑛0 = −4 ; −4 does not lie between 0 and ∞
σ∞ 2
𝑛=0 𝛿 𝑛 + 4 . 𝑛 = 0

10
Q. Evaluate the following integral ‫׬‬−10 cos( 𝜋𝑡 ) 𝛿 2𝑡 − 10 𝑑𝑡
Soln:
10
‫׬‬−10 cos( 𝜋𝑡 )𝛿 2𝑡 − 10 𝑑𝑡 Properties used:
10 1
1. 𝛿 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡
= න cos( 𝜋𝑡 ) 𝛿 2(𝑡 − 5) 𝑑𝑡 𝑎
∞
−10 2. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0
1 10
= ‫ ׬‬cos( 𝜋𝑡 ) 𝛿(𝑡 − 5)𝑑𝑡
2 −10
1 1
= cos 𝜋5 = −
2 2

3. Unit Ramp Function
Amplitude increases linearly with time. Unit ramp function has unit slope.
𝑡, 𝑡≥0
r 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡 < 0
r 𝑡 =t.u(t)
𝑛, 𝑛≥0
r[𝑛] = ቊ
0, 𝑛 < 0

4. Sinusoidal Signal
➢ Continuous time sinusoidal signal,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡 + 𝜑
A- amplitude
ω- angular frequency in radians
𝜑- phase angle in radians
➢ Time period of a continuous time
sinusoidal signal is given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋/ω
➢ Discrete time sinusoidal signal,
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑛 + 𝜑
➢ Period of a discrete time sinusoidal
2𝜋
sequence is N = . k
ω

5. Real Exponential Signal
➢ Continuous time real exponential signal is given by,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡
➢ A and 𝛼 are real numbers. A is the amplitude of the exponential signal measured at t=0.
𝛼 can be either positive or negative.

➢ If 𝛼 = 0, 𝑥 𝑡 is of constant amplitude for all values of time
➢ If 𝛼 > 0, 𝑥 𝑡 is a growing exponential signal.
➢ If 𝛼 < 0, 𝑥 𝑡 is a decaying exponential signal.

➢ The discrete time real exponential signal is given by,
x[n]= 𝑎𝑛 for all n
➢ Given below are discrete time exponentials signals for different values of a

6. Complex Exponential Signal
➢ Continuous time complex exponential signal is given by,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡
➢ A is the amplitude and 𝑠 is a complex variable defined as 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝜎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

➢ Depending on values of 𝜎 & 𝜔, we get different waveforms.

➢ The discrete time complex
exponential signal is given by
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0 𝑛+𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜑 + 𝑗𝑎𝑛 sin 𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜑
➢ For |a|=1, the sequence is sinusoidal

➢ For |a|>1, the amplitude of the
sinusoidal sequence grows
exponentially
➢ For |a|<1, the amplitude of the
sinusoidal decays exponentially

Basic Operations on Signals
➢ A signal may undergo several manipulations on both the independent variable

(time) as well as the amplitude. The different operations include:
1. Time Shifting
2. Time Reversal
3. Time Scaling
4. Amplitude Scaling
5. Signal Addition
6. Signal Multiplication

1. Time Shifting
➢ Represented by 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇) or 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

➢ If T or k is positive, shift is towards right by T (k) units and results in signal delay.
➢ If T or k is negative, shift is toward left and it results in signal advance.

2. Time Reversal
➢ Also called time folding
➢ Obtained by folding the signal about t=0 (or n=0)
➢ Denoted by x(-t) or x[-n]

3. Time Scaling
➢ 2 types- time expansion & time compression
➢ Expressed as 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 for coninuous time signals and 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛 .
➢ If a >1, it is time compression by factor a and if a<1 it is time expansion by
factor a.

4. Amplitude Scaling
➢ Amplitude scaling can be represented as

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑡
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑥[𝑛]
➢ If A > 1, then it is known as amplification and if A < 1, it is known as attenuation.

5. Signal Addition
➢ The sum of 2 signals 𝑥1 𝑡 & 𝑥2 (𝑡) can be obtained by adding their values at every
instant of time. Similar is the case for subtraction.
➢ Given 𝑥1 𝑡 & 𝑥2 (𝑡). Find 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡)

6. Signal Multiplication
➢ The multiplication of 2 signals 𝑥1 𝑡 & 𝑥2 (𝑡) can be obtained by multiplying their
values at every instant of time.

Q. Plot the given signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 1 + 2𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 3 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 5 .

Q. Given the signal x(t). Sketch the following signals. (i) 2𝑥(−2𝑡 + 3)
(ii) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 0.5 + 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5
Soln:
3
i) 2𝑥(−2𝑡 + 3) = 2𝑥 −2 𝑡 −
2

(ii) 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 0.5 + 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5 = 𝑥 𝑡 [𝛿 𝑡 − 0.5 + 𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5 ]
𝛿 𝑡 − 0.5 + 𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5

𝑥 𝑡 [𝛿 𝑡 − 0.5 + 𝛿 𝑡 + 0.5 ]

Q. Observe the given signal and sketch the following. (i) 𝑦 𝑛 = −2𝑥 −2𝑛 + 1
𝑛
𝑖𝑖 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑥[ − 2]
2
1
Soln: (i) 𝑦 𝑛 = −2𝑥 −2[𝑛 − ]
2

𝑛 1
ii) 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑥 −2 = 𝑥[ [𝑛 − 4]
2 2

Q. Sketch the signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑟 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑟 𝑡 − 3 + 𝑟(𝑡 − 4)

1 5
HW Q1. For the signal x(t) shown, find the following a) 𝑥( 𝑡 − 2) b) 𝑥( 𝑡)
2 3
Soln:
1 1
a) 𝑥 𝑡 −2 =𝑥 𝑡−4
2 2
5
b) 𝑥( 𝑡)
3
1, −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
HWQ2. A signal is given by 𝑥 𝑡 = ൜ . Sketch 𝑥(3𝑡 + 2) & 𝑥(−2𝑡 − 1)
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
HWQ3. For the given signal x(t), plot x(3-3t)

Soln: The signal to be drawn can be represented as
x(-3(t-1))

Classification of Signals
1. Causal and Non Causal signals

2. Even and Odd Signals
3. Periodic and Non-periodic signals
4. Energy and Power signals
5. Deterministic and Random Signals

1. Causal and Non Causal Signals
➢ A signal is said to be causal if 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0.
➢ For discrete time signals, x[n] is causal if x[n]=0 , for n<0.
➢ A causal signal does not exist for negative values of time, and an anti causal signal
does not exist for positive values of time.
➢ A signal that exist for both positive as well as negative time is non causal.

Q. Check whether the following signals are causal or not.
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 1
x(t) exists only for positive values

of time. Therefore, causal.

2. 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 2𝑡
cos 2t exists for time −∞ to ∞. Therefore
non causal.
3. 𝑥 𝑡 = 2𝑢(−𝑡)
x(t) exists for only negative values of
time. Therefore anti causal.
1 𝑛 1 𝑛
4. 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛+2 − 𝑢 𝑛−4
4 2
The signal exists for both positive and
negative values of time. Therefore non
causal.

×

2. Even and Odd Signals
➢ A signal is said to be even or symmetric if it

satisfies the condition:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛
➢ A signal is said to be odd or antisymmetric if it

satisfies the condition:
−𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
−𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛

Even and odd parts of a signal
➢ A signal is given by
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 −−− −(1)
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 −−− −(2)
➢ Adding these 2 equations, we get
2𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 =
2
➢ Subtracting (1) & (2), we get
2𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 =
2
Same applies for discrete time signals also.

Q. Find even and odd components of the following signal. (a) 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝒕
(b) 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 (c) 𝒙 𝒏 = {−𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟏, −𝟑}
Soln:
(a) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑡 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 =
𝑗2𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑡 2
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
2 2 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 =
2
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑡
𝑥0 𝑡 = = = 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 𝑒 𝑗θ + 𝑒 −𝑗θ
2 2 cos θ =
2
(b) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 𝑒 𝑗θ − 𝑒 −𝑗θ
sin θ =
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(−𝑡) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(−𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠2(−𝑡) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(−𝑡) 2𝑗
sin(−θ) = − sin θ
= −𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
cos(−θ) = cos θ

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 2 cos 2𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = = = cos 2𝑡
2 2
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 2 sin 2𝑡 + 2 sin 2𝑡 cos 2𝑡 = sin 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡 cos 2𝑡
𝑥0 𝑡 = =
2 2
(c) 𝑥 𝑛 = {−2, 5, 1, −3} 𝑥 −𝑛 = {−3, 1, 5, −2}
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 −𝑛 1
𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = = [−2, 2, 2, 2, −2] = [−1, 1, 1, 1, −1]
2 2
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑛 1
𝑥0 𝑛 = = [−2, 8, 0, −8, −2]= [−1, 4, 0, −4, −1]
2 2

3. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
➢ A signal which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called a periodic signal,
and signal which does not repeat itself at regular intervals is called a non periodic or
aperiodic signal.
➢ A signal is periodic if and only if
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
➢ The smallest value of T which satisfies the above condition is called the fundamental
time period of the signal.
1
➢ Fundamental frequency is given by 𝑓 =
𝑇
2𝜋
➢ Angular frequency is 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇
2𝜋
∴𝑇 =
𝜔

➢ For a discrete time periodic signal
𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁] = 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛, where N is the fundamental time period of the signal
2𝜋
∴𝑁 = .k
𝜔
k 𝜔
➢ For a discrete time signal to be periodic = should be rational.
𝑁 2𝜋

Q. Check whether the given signals are periodic or not. If periodic , determine
the fundamental period.
𝝅
(i) sin (12𝜋𝑡 + ) (ii) 𝑒 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 (iii) cos2t+sin 3𝑡 (iv) 3sin 10𝜋t+4 cos 20 𝜋 t
𝟐
(v) sin 𝜋𝑡. u(t) (vi) sin (0.02𝜋n) (vii) cos (𝑛/6) cos (n𝜋/6)
(viii) 1+𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛/3 − 𝑒 𝑗4𝜋𝑛/7 (ix) 8 cos 4t cos6t
Note:
a) sin 𝜔0 𝑡 , cos 𝜔0 𝑡, sin (𝜔0 𝑡 +θ) , cos(𝜔0 𝑡 +θ) & 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 individually are periodic, but
when combined may not be periodic. They will be periodic only if ratio of their time
period is rational. Fundamental Time period is LCM of individual time periods.
b) sin 𝜔0 𝑛 , cos 𝜔0 𝑛 & 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 may not be periodic. These signals are periodic only if
k 𝜔0
= is rational
𝑁 2𝜋
𝝅
(i) sin (12 𝝅𝒕 + ) (iii) cos2t+sin 𝟑𝒕
𝟐
Since it is a sinusoidal signal, it is periodic. The signal is of the form 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡

𝜔 = 12 𝜋 𝜔1 = 2
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
𝑇= = = 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔 12𝜋 6 𝑇1 = = =𝜋
𝜔1 2
(ii) 𝒆𝒋𝟒𝝅𝒕 𝜔2 = 3
Since it is a complex sinusoidal, it is periodic. 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇2 = =
The general form of a complex sinusoid is 𝜔2 3
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝜋
Ratio of 2 periods =𝑇1 /𝑇2 = 2𝜋 = 3/2
𝜔=4𝜋 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
𝑇= = = Since the ratio is not a rational number,
𝜔 4𝜋 2
the signal is non periodic

(iv) 3sin 10𝝅t+4 cos 20 𝝅 t 𝐿𝐶𝑀 1,1
𝑇= = 1/5
𝐻𝐶𝐹 5,10
The signal is of the form 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡
2𝜋 2𝜋 1 (v) sin 𝝅𝒕. u(t)
𝜔1 = 10𝜋 , 𝑇1 = = =
𝜔1 10𝜋 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
𝜔2 = 20𝜋 , 𝑇2 = = =
𝜔2 20𝜋 10
1/5
Ratio of 2 periods =𝑇1 /𝑇2 = =2
1/10
Since the ratio is a rational number × =
(ratio of 2 integers), the signal is periodic.
Fundamental Period= LCM(𝑇1 , 𝑇2 )
Non periodic
1 1 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
= 𝐿𝐶𝑀 , =
5 10 𝐻𝐶𝐹 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

(viii) 1+𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒏/𝟑 − 𝒆𝒋𝟒𝝅𝒏/𝟕
(vi) sin (0.02𝝅n)
𝜔 = 0.02𝜋
𝑘 𝜔 0.02𝜋 1
= = =
𝑁 2𝜋 2𝜋 100
Since k/N is rational, the signal is periodic. 𝑁1 = 1 2𝜋
Fundamental period, N=100 𝑘2 𝜔2 1
= = 3 = (rational),𝑁2 = 3
𝑁2 2𝜋 2𝜋 3
(vii) cos (𝒏/6) cos (n𝝅/6)
𝑘3 𝜔3 4𝜋
= 7 2
=
1 1 𝜋
{cos[ + ]n + cos
1 𝜋
[ − ]n} 𝑁3 2𝜋 = = (rational),𝑁3 = 7
2 6 6 6 6 2𝜋 7
1 𝜋
𝑘1 𝜔1 [ + ] All signals are individually periodic. Hence
= = 6 6 (not rational)
𝑁1 2𝜋 2𝜋 the entire signal is periodic.
Thus non periodic Fundamental Period, N=LCM(𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 )=21

(ix) 8 cos 4t cos6t
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = 1/2{cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)}
1
= 8. [cos10t + cos 2t]
2
= 4cos10t + 4cos2t Fundamental Period= LCM(𝑇1 , 𝑇2 )
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇1 = = = 𝜋/5 𝜋 𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝜔1 10 𝐿𝐶𝑀 , = =𝜋
5 1 𝐻𝐶𝐹 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇2 = = =𝜋
𝜔2 2
𝜋/5
Ratio of 2 periods =𝑇1 /𝑇2 = =1/5
𝜋
Since the ratio is rational, the signal periodic

4. Energy and Power Signals
➢ The equations for total energy and average power of a signal is given
For continuous time signals For discrete time signals

∞ ∞
𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
−∞
𝑛=−∞
1 𝑇 𝑁
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑃 = Lt ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

➢ For an energy signal, the total energy is finite and average power is zero.
ie, 0 < E < ∞ and P=0
➢ Non periodic signals are examples of energy signals.
➢ For power signal, the average power is finite and the total energy is infinite .
ie, 0 < P < ∞ and E= ∞
➢ Periodic signals are examples of power signals.
➢ No signal can be both energy and power signal
➢ The signals that do not satisfy the above properties are neither energy nor power
signals.

How to distinguish between energy and power signals
a) If t → ±∞ and amplitude → 0, then it is an energy signal.

b) All finite duration signals and finite amplitude signals are energy signals
c) If signal has constant amplitude over infinite time, then power signal.
d) All periodic signals are power signals.
Q. Classify as energy, power or neither energy nor power. Find the power and total
energy of the signals.
(i) 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝜽) (ii) 𝑨𝒆𝒋𝟓𝒕 (iii) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕(𝒕/𝝉) (iv) u[n]
𝟏
(v) ( )𝒏 𝒖 𝒏 (vi) 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(t) (vii) t.u(t) (viii) 8 cos 4t cos6t
𝟐

(i) 𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝜽)
1 𝑇 𝐴2 𝑇 𝐴2
Average Power, P = Lt ‫𝑥| ׬‬ 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = Lt න 1. 𝑑𝑡 − 0 = Lt 𝑡 𝑇
−𝑇
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ 4𝑇
1 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න |A sin (𝜔0 𝑡 + θ) |2 𝑑𝑡 𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑃 = Lt [2𝑇] =
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2
∞
𝐴2 𝑇
= Lt න sin 2 (𝜔0 𝑡 + θ) 𝑑𝑡 Total Energy 𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 −∞
∞
𝐴2 𝑇 1 − cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2θ) 𝐸 = න |A sin (𝜔0 𝑡 + θ) |2 𝑑𝑡
= Lt න 𝑑𝑡 −∞
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 2
∞
1 − cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2θ)
𝐴2 𝑇 𝑇 𝐸= 𝐴2 න 𝑑𝑡
= Lt න 1. 𝑑𝑡 − න cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2θ)𝑑𝑡 −∞ 2
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 −𝑇 −𝑇 𝐴2 ∞ ∞
(Integration of cosine function over one full 𝐸= න 1. 𝑑𝑡 − න cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2θ)𝑑𝑡
2 −∞ −∞
cycle is always zero)

𝐴 2 ∞ 𝐴2
𝐸= න 1. 𝑑𝑡 − 0 𝑃 = Lt 𝑡 −𝑇𝑇
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
2 −∞
𝐴2
𝐴2 𝑃 = Lt [2𝑇] = 𝐴2
= 𝑡 ∞
=∞ ∴ Power Signal 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−∞
2 ∞
Total Energy 𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝒊𝒊 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆𝒋𝟓𝒕 −∞
1 𝑇 ∞
2
Average Power, P = Lt ‫𝑥| ׬‬ 𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = න |𝐴𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
−∞
𝑇
1
𝑃 = Lt න |𝐴𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 ∞ ∞
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
𝐸 = 𝐴2 න |𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2 න 1. 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
𝐴2 𝑇 𝑗5𝑡 2 𝐴2 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡 = Lt න 1. 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝐴2 ∞
𝐸= 𝑡 −∞ = ∞ ∴ Power Signal
2

𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭(𝐭/𝝉) 𝜏
𝑃= =0
∞
∞
𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝜏/2
𝐸=න 1. 𝑑𝑡
−𝜏/2
1 𝑇
P = Lt ‫׬‬−𝑇 |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 𝜏/2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝐸= 𝑡 −𝜏/2 =𝜏
1 𝜏/2
𝑃 = Lt න 1. 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝜏/2 Power is 0 and energy is finite
1 1
𝑃 = Lt 𝑡
𝜏/2
= Lt [𝜏] ∴ Energy Signal
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝜏/2 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇

𝒊𝒗 𝒖 𝒏
1+0 1
𝑃= =
2+0 2
∞
𝐸 = ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=−∞
𝑁 ∞
1
𝑃 = Lt ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2 𝐸 = ෍1 =∞
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=0
𝑁
1 Power is finite and energy is infinite
𝑃 = Lt ෍1
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=0 1 ∴ Power Signal
1 𝑁[1 + ]
𝑁
𝑃 = Lt [𝑁 + 1] = Lt 1
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞
𝑁[2 + ]
𝑁

𝟏 𝒏 𝑁
𝒗 ( ) 𝒖𝒏 1 𝑛
𝟐 𝑃 = Lt ෍ 1/4
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=0
1 𝑁+1
1 1 − ( )
𝑃 = Lt . 4 =0
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 1
1−
𝑁 ∞
4
∞ 𝑛 2
1 1
𝑃 = Lt ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2 𝐸 = ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2 = ෍ 𝑢𝑛
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 2
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
𝑁 𝑛 2 ∞ 𝑛 2 ∞
1 1 1
𝑃 = Lt ෍ 𝑢𝑛 𝐸=෍ = ෍ 1/4 𝑛
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 2 2
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑁 1
1 2𝑛 = = 4/3
𝑃 = Lt ෍ 1/2 1 ∴ Energy Signal
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 1−
4
𝑛=0

𝒗𝒊 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 u(t) 1 𝑒 −6𝑇 − 𝑒 −0
𝑃 = Lt
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6
1 1 − 𝑒 −6𝑇
𝑃 = Lt =0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 6
∞ ∞
𝑇
𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
1 −∞ −∞
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 ∞
∞ 𝑒 −6𝑡
𝑇 𝐸 = න 𝑒 −6𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 =
1 −6
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑒 −3𝑡 u(t) |2 𝑑𝑡 0 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
−6𝑡 𝑇 𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 −0 1 − 𝑒 −∞ 1
1 𝑇 −6𝑡 1 𝑒 𝐸= = =
𝑃 = Lt න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇→∞
Lt −6 6 6
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0 2𝑇 −6 0 ∴ Energy Signal

Eg for neither energy nor power:
x(t)=𝒆−𝟑𝒕 1 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
As t→ −∞,
amplitude tends to ∞ 1 𝑇 2 1 𝑡3
𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = Lt
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 3
0
1 𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑃 = Lt . = =∞
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 3 6
(vii) x(t)=t.u(t)
∞ ∞
As t→ ∞, amplitude 𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = න |𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
tends to ∞
∞ ∞
𝑇 𝑡3 Neither
1 𝐸 = න 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = = ∞ power nor
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 0 3
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 0
energy

(viii) 8 cos 4t cos6t
In general, for an individual continuous
1 time sine or cosine wave given by
= 8. [cos10t + cos 2t]
2 A sin (wt+𝜃) or A cos(wt+ 𝜃), the power
= 4cos10t + 4cos2t 𝐴2
of the signal is
2
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇1 = = = 𝜋/5
𝜔1 10 Therefore power of 4cos10t + 4cos2t =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝐴12 𝐴22 42 42
𝑇2 = = =𝜋 + = + = 16
𝜔2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜋/5
Ratio of 2 periods =𝑇1 /𝑇2 = =1/5 Energy = ∞
𝜋
Since the ratio is rational, the signal periodic. Therefore, power signal.

HW Q. Sketch the following signals and classify as energy, power or neither
energy nor power. Also find energy and power.
(i) (1+𝑒 −6𝑡 )𝑢 𝑡 (ii) u(t) - u(t - 4) (iii) (2+𝑒 4𝑡 ) u(t) (iv) 𝑒 −|𝑡|
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐧 ∶ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
𝑇
1 𝑇 1
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = Lt න |𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
1 𝑇
= Lt න |1 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0

∞
1 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න 1 + 2𝑒 −6𝑡 + 𝑒 −12𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = න |𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0 −∞
∞
1 2𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑒 −12𝑡 𝑇 = න |1 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃 = Lt [𝑡 + + ]0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 −12 0
1 𝑒 −6𝑇 𝑒 −12𝑇 𝑒0 𝑒0 ∞
𝑃 = Lt [𝑇 − − −0+ + ] =න 1 + 2𝑒 −6𝑡 + 𝑒 −12𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 3 12 3 12
0
1 𝑒 −6𝑇 𝑒 −12𝑇 1 1 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑒 −12𝑡 ∞
𝑃 = Lt . 𝑇[1 − − + + ] = [𝑡 − − ]0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 3𝑇 12𝑇 3𝑇 12𝑇 3 12
1 1 𝑒 −∞ 𝑒 −∞ 𝑒0 𝑒0
𝑃 = . 1−0−0+0+0 = =∞− − −0+ + =∞
2 2 3 12 3 12
∞
𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 Power is finite & energy is infinite.
−∞ ∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

(iv) 𝑒 −|𝑡|
1 0 𝑡2 𝑇
For t > 0, x 𝐭 = 𝒆−𝒕 & t < 0, x 𝐭 = 𝒆𝒕 𝑃 = Lt න |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡 + න |𝑒 −𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡

𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 0
1 0 2𝑡 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 0
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
1 𝑇
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
1 𝑇 −|𝑡| 2
𝑃 = Lt න |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇

5. Deterministic and Random Signals
➢ A signal exhibiting no uncertainty of its magnitude and phase at any given instant of
time is called a deterministic signal.
➢ It has a regular pattern and can be completely represented by mathematical
equations.
Eg: x(t)=cos (wt) or x[n]=cos [wn]
➢ A signal characterized by uncertainty about its occurrence is called a random signal.
➢ A random signal cannot be represented by any mathematical equation.
Eg: thermal noise generated in an electric circuit.

Systems
➢ Defined as an entity which acts on an input and transforms it into an output signal.

Classification of Systems
1. Linear and Non Linear System

2. Time Invariant and Time Varying System
3. Causal and Non causal System
4. Static (memoryless) and Dynamic (memory) System
5. Stable and Unstable System
6. Invertible and Non Invertible System

1. Linear and Non Linear System
➢ A system which obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity is called a

linear system.
➢ A system which do not obey these 2 principles is called non linear system.
➢ Superposition property: If a system produces an output 𝑦1 𝑡 for an input 𝑥1 (𝑡)

and an output 𝑦2 (𝑡) for an input 𝑥2 (𝑡), then it must produce an output 𝑦1 𝑡 +
𝑦2 (𝑡) for an input 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 .
➢ Homogeneity property: If a system produces an output 𝑦 𝑡 for an input 𝑥(𝑡),
then it must produce an output 𝛼𝑦 𝑡 for an input 𝛼𝑥 𝑡 .

➢ Combining both properties we can say that a system is linear, if an arbitrary
input 𝑥1 𝑡 produces an output 𝑦1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 produces an output 𝑦2 (𝑡),
then the weighted sum of the inputs 𝛼𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 , where 𝛼 and b are
constants should produce an output 𝛼𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡
𝑇 𝛼𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝛼𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡
Q. Check whether the following systems are linear or not.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑡
a) + 2𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡) b) 2 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) c) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
d) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 e) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 +
2𝑥 𝑛−2

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑡
a) + 2𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Let an input 𝑥1 (𝑡) produce an output 𝑦1 (𝑡)

𝑑 2 𝑦1 (𝑡) Since weighted sum
+ 2𝑡𝑦1 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥1 (𝑡) of inputs produce
𝑑𝑡
weighted sum of
Let an input 𝑥2 (𝑡) produce an output 𝑦2 (𝑡) output, the system is
𝑑 2 𝑦2 (𝑡) linear
+ 2𝑡𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Linear combination of these equations:
𝑑 2 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑎 + 𝑎2𝑡𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏 + 𝑏2𝑡𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑
𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 + 2𝑡 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 [𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ]
𝑑𝑡
Weighted sum of o/p Weighted sum of o/p Weighted sum of i/p

𝑑𝑦 𝑡
b) 2 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Let an input 𝑥1 (𝑡) produce an output 𝑦1 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡)
2 + 5𝑦1 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
The system is non
Let an input 𝑥2 (𝑡) produce an output 𝑦2 (𝑡) linear
𝑑𝑦2 (𝑡)
2 + 5𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑥2 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Linear combination of these equations:
𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑎2 + 𝑎5𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏2 + 𝑏5𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
2 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 + 5 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Weighted sum of o/p Weighted sum of o/p Not a Weighted sum of i/p

c) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 2 )
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑥(𝑡 2 )
For an input 𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥1 (𝑡 2 )

𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥2 𝑡 2
Weighted sum of output is:
𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡 2 )
Output due to weighted sum of inputs is:
𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑇[𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ] = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡 2 )
Weighted sum of o/p = o/p due weighted sum of i/p. ∴ Linear system.

d) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡

𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥1 𝑡

𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥2 𝑡
𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑒 𝑥2 𝑡
Output due to weighted sum of inputs is:

𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑇[𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +𝑏𝑥2 𝑡
Weighted sum of o/p ≠ o/p due weighted sum of i/p. ∴ Non linear

1
e) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 +
2𝑥 𝑛−2
1 Output due to weighted sum of inputs is:
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇[𝑥[𝑛]] = 𝑥 𝑛 +
2𝑥 𝑛 − 2
For an input 𝑥1 [𝑛] 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛
1 1
𝑦1 [𝑛] = 𝑥1 𝑛 + = [𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 ] +
2𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 2[𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 ]
For an input 𝑥2 [𝑛] Weighted sum of o/p ≠ o/p due weighted sum
1
𝑦2 [𝑛] = 𝑥2 𝑛 + of i/p. ∴ Non linear
2𝑥2 𝑛 − 2
1 1
𝑎𝑦1 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑦2 [𝑛] = 𝑎 𝑥1 𝑛 + + 𝑏 𝑥2 𝑛 +
2𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 2𝑥2 𝑛 − 2

2. Time Invariant and Time Varying Systems
➢ Property of a system which makes the behavior of the system independent of

time.
➢ A system is said to be time invariant or shift invariant if its input–output
characteristics do not change with time, ie, a time shift in input should result in a
corresponding time shift in the output.
If 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 , then 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇 → 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 .
➢ A system not satisfying the above requirements is called a time varying system.

➢ Let x(t) be the input and x(t-T) be the input delayed by T units.
➢ 𝑦 𝑡 =𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 be the output for an input x(t).
➢ Output due to delayed input, 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇
➢ The output delayed by T units is, 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑦(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑡−𝑇
➢ If 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇
➢ ie, if delayed output = output delayed due to input for all possible values of t, the
system is time invariant.
➢ For discrete time invariant systems, 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑦[𝑛, 𝑘]

Q. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not:
a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡) b) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 10 𝜋𝑡
Output due to delayed input Output due to delayed input
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝑇[𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇 ] = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇 sin 10 𝜋𝑡
Output delayed by T units Output delayed by T units
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = (𝑡 − 𝑇)2 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇 sin 10 𝜋(𝑡 − 𝑇)
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇)
∴ Time variant system. ∴ Time variant system.

c) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−2𝑡) 𝑛
d) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥
2
Output due to delayed input
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝑥(−2𝑡 − 𝑇) Output due to delayed input
𝑛
𝑦[𝑛, 𝑘] = 𝑇[𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]] = 𝑥[ − 𝑘]
Output delayed by T units 2
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑥 −2 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑥(−2𝑡 + 𝑇)
Output delayed by k units
𝑛−𝑘
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑦 𝑛−𝑘 =𝑥
2
∴ Time variant system. 𝑦[𝑛, 𝑘] ≠ 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘]
∴ Time variant system.

e) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2 𝑛 − 2 Note: If all the coefficients of a
differential equation are constants, then
Output due to delayed input the system is time invariant.
𝑦[𝑛, 𝑘] = 𝑇[𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]] = 𝑥 2 𝑛 − 2 − 𝑘 Eg: 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑡
+ 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Output delayed by k units Eg. for non causal system:

𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥2 𝑛 − 𝑘 − 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑡
+ 5𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘]
Here the coefficient of y(t) is 5t which
∴ Time invariant system. is not a constant, but a function of time.

3. Causal and Non Causal Systems
➢ A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time depends
only on the present and past values of the input but not on the future values of
input.

Q. Check whether the following systems are causal or not:
a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 4) 3𝑡
b) 𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
For t= -2, 𝑦 −2 = 𝑥 2 (−2) + 𝑥(−6) 0
2 For t= 0, 𝑦 0 = න 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑝 0 − 𝑝(−∞)

For t= 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥 (0) + 𝑥(−4)
−∞
For t= 2, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (2) + 𝑥(−2) 3
For t= 1, 𝑦 0 = න 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑝 3 − 𝑝(−∞)

For all values of t, output depends only −∞
on present and past values of input. For some values of t, output depends on
future values of input.
∴ Causal system. ∴ Non Causal system.

c) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡/2) For some values of t, output depends
on future values of input. ∴Non Causal
For t= -2, 𝑦 −2 = 𝑥(−1)
For t= 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥(0) e) 𝑦[𝑛] = sin[𝑥 𝑛 ]
For t= 2, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(1)
For n=−2, 𝑦[−2] = sin[𝑥 −2 ]
For some values of t, output depends on
future values of input. ∴Non Causal system For n= 0, 𝑦[0] = sin[𝑥 0 ]
d) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡) For n= 2, 𝑦[2] = sin[𝑥 2 ]
For t= 𝜋, 𝑦 𝜋 = 𝑥 sin 2𝜋 = 𝑥(0) For all values of t, output depends only on

For t= -𝜋, 𝑦 −𝜋 = 𝑥 sin(−2𝜋) = 𝑥(0) present values of input. ∴ Causal system.

4. Static and Dynamic Systems
➢ A system is said to be static or memoryless if the response is due to the present

input alone, ie, the output at any instant of time depends only on the input applied
at that instant and not on the past or future values of input.
➢ A system is said to be dynamic or memory system the response depends on the past
or future inputs.
➢ Any continuous time system represented by a differential equation or any discrete
time system represented by a difference equation is a dynamic system.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡
➢ Eg: y t = + 2𝑥(𝑡) & 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥[𝑛 − 2]
𝑑𝑡 2

Q. Check whether the following systems are static or dynamic:
a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 4)
Output depends on past values of input. ∴ Dynamic system.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡
b) y t = + 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
Differential equation. ∴ Dynamic system
c) y n = 𝑥 2 [𝑛]
Output depends only on present values of input. ∴ Static system.

5. Stable and Unstable Systems
➢ A bounded signal is a signal whose magnitude is always finite.

➢ A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable, if and only if
every bounded input produces a bounded output.
➢ Let the input signal x(t) be bounded (finite), ie,
𝑥 𝑡 ≤ 𝑀𝑥 < ∞ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑥 is a positive real number.
➢ Then if y(t) is also bounded, ie,
𝑦 𝑡 ≤ 𝑀𝑦 < ∞ , then the system is BIBO stable.

Q. Check whether the following systems are stable or not:
𝑡
a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡) c) 𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
Take x(t) as a bounded input , Eg: u(t) Take x(t) as a bounded input , Eg: u(t)
( r(t) and 𝛿 𝑡 are not bounded) 𝑡 𝑡
The magnitude of u(t) is 1. 𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = න 1 𝑑𝜏 = [𝜏]𝑡0 = 𝑡
𝑒 𝑥(𝑡) when x(t) is of finite magnitude will −∞ 0
always be finite. ∴ y(t) is also bounded. If t → ∞, y(t) → ∞. ∴Unstable system
∴ Stable system
d) y(t)=(t+5) u(t)
b) y[n]=n.x[n]
Take x[n] as any bounded input. Eg: u[n] & 𝛿[n] y(t) = t. u(t)+5u(t) (input u(t) is bounded)
But as n→ ∞, y[n] → ∞. ∴Unstable system As t → ∞, y(t) → ∞. ∴Unstable system

e) y[n]=x[n]+1/4 x[n-3] g) 𝑦[𝑛] = 2𝑛 𝑥[𝑛]
Take x[n] as any bounded input. Eg: u[n] and
Take x[n] as bounded input.
𝛿[n].
Hence magnitude of x[n] will be bounded. Eg: First take 𝛿[n].
Shifted version of a bounded signal will also ▪ Magnitude of 2𝑛 𝛿 𝑛 = 1 as 𝛿 [n]
be bounded. only exists at n=0
▪ Take x[n] as u[n], we get 2𝑛 𝑢[𝑛]
∴ Stable system
▪ It is an increasing exponential starting
𝑑
f) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 at n=0
𝑑𝑡
Take x(t) as u t ▪ In this case, output not bounded.
𝑑
𝑢 𝑡 =𝛿 𝑡 ∴ Unstable system
𝑑𝑡
∴Unstable system

HW Q. Check whether the following systems are linear, time invariant,
causal, static and stable.
1. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 | 𝑥 𝑛 |
2. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
3. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 . 𝑥 𝑛 − 2
1
4. 𝑦[𝑛] = ( )𝑛 𝑥[𝑛]
2

6. Invertible and Non Invertible Systems
➢ If a system has a unique relationship between its input x(t) (or x[n]) and output
y(t) (or y[n]), the system is known as invertible.
➢ Eg: y(t)= 3x(t) is an invertible system
➢ y[n]= 2𝑥 2 [𝑛] is a non invertible system. (x[n] & -x[n] will give the same output,
so no unique relation between input & output).
➢ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑇 −1 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑇 −1 𝑇 𝑥[𝑛]

Discrete Time Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
Representation of discrete time signals in terms of impulses

➢ Consider the discrete time signal given by 𝑥 𝑛 = {3, 1, −2, 2, 2}
➢ This signal can be drawn as follows:
➢ The signal can also be represented in terms of impulses:
𝑥 𝑛 = 3. δ 𝑛 + 1 + 1. δ 𝑛 − 2. δ 𝑛 − 1 + 2. δ 𝑛 − 2 + 2. δ 𝑛 − 3
= x −1 δ 𝑛 + 1 + 𝑥 0 δ 𝑛 + 𝑥[1]δ 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥[2]δ 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥[3]δ 𝑛 − 3

∞
Therefore, in general 𝑥 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑘]δ 𝑛 − 𝑘 , where x k can be taken as weights.

𝑘=−∞

Discrete Time Impulse Response and Convolution Sum
➢ The output of system is given by y 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
➢ In an LTI discrete time system,
∞ ∞
𝑦 𝑛 =𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 =𝑇 ෍ 𝑥[𝑘]δ 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑇 {δ 𝑛 − 𝑘 }
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞
∞ ∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍ ℎ 𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛]
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞
➢ This is called the convolution sum and h[n] is the impulse response of the system.
➢ h[n-k] is the response of the system to time shifted impulse.
➢ Hence if we know the impulse response of the LTI system, then we can find the
response of the system to any other input.

➢ A LTI system is characterized completely by its impulse response h[n].
➢ Steps in Convolution:
1. Define the limits of y[n].

2. Change axis of x[n] & h[n] from n to k.
3. Time reverse or fold h[k] to get h[-k].
4. Shift the folded sequence to get h[n-k].
5. Multiplication of x[k] & h[n-k].
6. Summation.
7. Increment value of n to find the next y[n] and follow the steps 4 to 6.

Q. What is the output of an LTI system with impulse response h[n]={1,2,1}
to the input x[n]={2,3,-2}? Use graphical method.
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛]

∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛−𝑘
𝑘=−∞

y[n] will range from n= -1 to n=3
(sum of lower limits of x[n] & h[n] to
sum of upper limits of x[n] & h[n]
∞
𝑦[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
𝑦 −1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −1 − 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 + 1]
𝑘=−∞
=2

∞
𝑦 0 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −𝑘
𝑘=−∞
=7

∞
𝑦 1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 1−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 1]
𝑘=−∞
=6

∞
𝑦 2 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 2−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 2]
𝑘=−∞
= -1

∞
𝑦 3 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 3−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 3]
𝑘=−∞
= -2
𝑦 𝑛 = {2,7,6, −1, −2}
Number of samples in y[n] or length of linear convolution

=L(length of x[n]) + M( length of h[n]) -1
= 3+3-1=5

1 2 1
2 2 4 2 y[n]= {2,7,6,-1,-2}
3 3 6 3
-2 -2 -4 -2

Q. Find the output of the LTI system with impulse response
𝟏, 𝒏 = −𝟐, 𝟎, 𝟏
𝒉 𝒏 = 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟐 to an input 𝒙 𝒏 = ቐ 𝟐, 𝒏 = −𝟏
𝟎, 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛]
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛−𝑘
𝑘=−∞

y[n] will range from n= -2 to n=3
(sum of lower limits of x[n] & h[n] to
sum of upper limits of x[n] & h[n]
∞
𝑦[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
𝑦 −2 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −2 − 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 + 2]
𝑘=−∞
=1

∞
𝑦 −1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −1 − 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 + 1]
𝑘=−∞
=1

∞
𝑦 0 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −𝑘
𝑘=−∞
=0

∞
𝑦 1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 1−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 1]
𝑘=−∞
=2

∞
𝑦 2 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 2−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 2]
𝑘=−∞
=0

∞
𝑦 3 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 3−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −[𝑘 − 3]
𝑘=−∞
=1
𝑦 𝑛 = {1,1,0,2,0,1}
Number of samples in y[n] or length of linear convolution

=L(length of x[n]) + M( length of h[n]) -1
= 4+3-1=6

Q. Find the convolution of the following sequences using matrix multiplication
method. h[n]={1,-2,3,1} to the input x[n]={2,-3,-2}.
Soln:
First check length of x[n] and h[n].
1. If both sequences are of the same length, take any one sequence and append zeros so
that the length of the sequence becomes L+M-1.
2. If both sequences are of different length, take the smallest sequence and append zeros
so that the length of the sequence becomes L+M-1.
3. After checking these 2 conditions, form a matrix using the modified sequence so that
the number of rows is equal to L+M-1 and number of columns is equal to the length of
the other sequence.
4. Then multiply the matrix with the unmodified sequence to get the output.

Here x[n] = {2,-3,-2} is of length L=3
h[n] = {1,-2,3,1} is of length M=4.
L+M-1=6. So append 3 zeros to x[n] to bring length to 6.
x[n]= {2,-3,-2,0,0,0}.
Now form matrix using x[n], write x[n] as the first column (number of rows=6), then
form 3 more columns by shifting x[n] circularly upward Therefore there are M=4
columns.
Multiply with h[n].
y[n] ranges from -2 to 3
2 0 0 0 2
−3 2 0 0 1 −7 y[n]={2,-7,10,-3,-9,-2}
−2 −3 2 0 −2 10
. = −3
0 −2 −3 2 3
0 0 −2 − 3 1 −9
0 0 0 −2 −2

Verification
2 -3 -2
1 2 -3 -2 y[n]= {2,-7,10,-3,-9,-2}
-2 -4 6 4
3 6 -9 -6
1 2 -3 -2
HWQ2. Find the convolution of x[n]={1,-1,1,-1} with itself. Use graphical

as well as matrix multiplication method.

𝟏 𝒏
Q. An LTI system has an impulse response 𝒉 𝒏 = ( ) 𝒖[𝒏]. Find the
𝟑
𝟏
output when the input is 𝐱 𝐧 = ( )𝒏 𝒖 𝒏 .
𝟐
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘

𝑘=−∞

For n<0, there is no overlapping between h[n-k] and x[k]
∞
∴𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛−𝑘 =0
𝑘=−∞

For n ≥ 0, there is overlapping between h[n-k] and x[k] from k= 0 to n
∞
∴𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛−𝑘
𝑘=−∞
∞
1 𝑘 1 𝑛−𝑘
= ෍ ( ) 𝑢𝑘 ( ) 𝑢[𝑛 − 𝑘]
2 3
𝑘=−∞

𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑘 1 𝑛−𝑘 1 𝑛 1 𝑘 1 −𝑘
𝑦 𝑛 = ෍( ) ( ) = ( ) ෍( ) ( )
2 3 3 2 3
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛 1 𝑘 𝑘 1 𝑛 3 𝑘
𝑦 𝑛 = ( ) ෍ ( ) (3) = (3) ෍ (2)
3 2 𝑘=0
𝑘=0
3 𝑛+1
1 𝑛 1 − ( )
=( ) . 2
3 3
1−
2
0, 𝑛<0
3
∴𝑦 𝑛 =൞ 1 𝑛 1−( )𝑛+1
2
( ) 3 , 𝑛≥0
3 1−
2

𝟏
Q. An LTI system has an impulse response 𝒉 𝒏 = ( )𝒏 𝒖[𝒏]. Find the
𝟑
output when the input is 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝒖 𝒏 − 𝒖[𝒏 − 𝟑].
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘

𝑘=−∞

∞
For n<0, there is no overlapping between h[n-k] and x[k] ∴ 𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 0

𝑘=−∞
For 0 ≤ n ≤ 2 , h[n-k] and x[k] will overlap only for k values from 0 to n
∞ 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛−𝑘 1 𝑚
∴ 𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍( ) = ෍( ) Let m=n-k
3 3
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=0 𝑚=0 When k=0, m=n
1 When k=n, m=0
1 − (3)𝑛+1
𝑦[𝑛] =
1
1−3

For n>2, h[n-k] and x[k] will overlap for values of k from 0 to 2 only
∞ 2
1 𝑛−𝑘
∴𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛−𝑘 = ෍( )
3
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=0
2 2
1 𝑛 1 −𝑘 1 𝑛 1 −1 𝑘
= ( ) ෍ ( ) = ( ) ෍ (( ) )
3 3 3 3
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
1 −1 3 0, 𝑛<0
1 𝑛 1 − (( ) ) 1
=( ) 3 1−(3)𝑛+1
3 1 −1 1 , 0≤𝑛≤2
1−( ) ∴𝑦 𝑛 = 1−3
3
1 1
(3)𝑛−2 −(3)𝑛+1
1 1 , 𝑛>0
( )𝑛−2 −( )𝑛+1 1
1−3
𝑦[𝑛] = 3 3
1
1−
3

Continuous Time Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
➢ As discussed in the case of discrete time LTI systems, a continuous time signal can
also be expressed in terms of impulses.
∞
➢ In general 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
Discrete Time Impulse Response and Convolution Sum
➢ The output of system is given by y(t) = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) ∞
➢ In an LTI continuous time system, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑇 න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

∞ ∞ −∞
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑇{ 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏} = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑇{𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 } 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞

∞
𝑦(𝑡) = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡)

−∞
➢ This is called the convolution integral and h(t) is the impulse response of the system.
➢ Hence if we know the impulse response of the LTI system, then we can find the
response of the system to any other input.

Steps in Convolution:
1. Define the limits of y(t).
2. Change axis of x(t) & h(t) from t to 𝜏.
3. Time reverse or fold h(𝜏) to get h(- 𝜏).
4. Shift the folded sequence to get h(t- 𝜏).
5. Multiplication of x(𝜏) & h(t- 𝜏).
6. Integration.

Q. Find the convolution of the following signals. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) and
𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑)
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 ∗ℎ 𝑡
∞
= න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

For t-3≤0 or t ≤ 3 there is overlapping between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏
from 𝜏 = −∞ to t-3
∞
∴𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
∞
= න 𝑒 2𝜏 𝑢 −𝜏 . 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜏 − 3)𝑑𝜏
−∞
𝑡−3 𝑡−3
𝑒 2𝜏
𝑒 2(𝑡−3) 𝑒 −2.∞ 𝑒 2(𝑡−3)
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑒 2𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = = − =
2 −∞ 2 2 2
−∞
For t-3>0 or t>3, there is overlapping between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 from 𝜏 = −∞ to 0

0
2𝜏 0
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑒 2𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑒 𝑒 2.0 𝑒 −2.∞ 1
= = − =
2 −∞ 2 2 2
−∞

Q. S𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐋𝐓𝐈 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐢𝐬 𝐱 𝐭 and impulse response is
h(t), find the output of the system.
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 ∗ℎ 𝑡
∞
= න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

For t+1< 1, ie, t < 0, there is no overlapping between
𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 . Therefore y t = 0
For t+1≥ 1 and t + 1 < 3, ie, t ≥ 0 & t < 2, there is

overlapping between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 from 𝜏 = 1 to t+1
𝑡+1
𝑡+1
𝑦 𝑡 = න 2 𝑑𝜏 = 2 𝜏 1 = 2𝑡
1
For t-1≥ 1 and t − 1 < 3,ie, t ≥ 2 & t < 4, there is overlapping
between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 from 𝜏 = 1 to 3
𝑡−1 3
𝑡−1 3 = −4𝑡 + 12
𝑦 𝑡 = න −2𝑑𝜏 + න 2𝑑𝜏 = −2 𝜏 1 +2 𝜏 𝑡−1
1 𝑡−1

For t-3≥ 1 and t-3 < 3, ie, t ≥4 & t<6, there is overlapping
between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 from 𝜏 = 𝑡 − 3 to 3
3
3
𝑦 𝑡 = න −2 𝑑𝜏 = −2 𝜏 𝑡−3 = 2𝑡 − 12
𝑡−3
For t-3> 3, ie, t > 6, there is no overlapping between 𝑥 𝜏 & ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 .

𝑦 𝑡 =0
0 , 𝑡<0
2𝑡 , 0≤𝑡<2
∴ 𝑦(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 12 , 2 ≤ 𝑡 < 4
2𝑡 − 12 , 4 ≤ 𝑡 < 6
0 , 𝑡>6

HWQ. An LTI system has an impulse response 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝒖[𝒏]. Find the
output when the input is 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒖[−𝒏].
Check text Alan V Oppenheim Page 88-89 for solution
HWQ. Find the convolution of the following signals. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 , 𝒂 > 𝟎 and
𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒖(𝒕)
Check text Alan V Oppenheim Page 98-99 for solution

Step Response of a Discrete Time LTI System
➢ The step response s[n] of a discrete-time LTI system is defined to be the response of
the system when the input is u[n]
➢ ie, s[n] = T{u[n]}
➢ The step response can be determined by 𝑠 𝑛 = ℎ[𝑛] ∗ 𝑢[𝑛]
∞ 𝑛
s n = ෍ ℎ 𝑘 𝑢 𝑛−𝑘 = ෍ ℎ 𝑘
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Q. Find the step response if the impulse response of the system is
𝒉 𝒏 = (𝟎. 𝟓)𝒏 𝒖[𝒏]
sn = ෍ ℎ𝑘
𝑘=−∞
𝑛
= ෍ (0.5)𝑘 𝑢[𝑘]
𝑘=−∞
𝑛
= ෍ (0.5)𝑘 1 − (0.5)𝑛+1
=
𝑘=0 1 − 0.5

Step Response of a Continuous Time LTI System
➢ The step response s(t) of a continuous-time LTI system is defined to be the response
of the system when the input is u(t)
➢ ie, s(t) = T{u(t)}
➢ The step response can be determined by 𝑠(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) ∗ 𝑢(𝑡)
∞ 𝑡
s(t) = න ℎ 𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞

Q. For an LTI system, the impulse response is 𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 , 𝒂 > 𝟎.
Obtain the step response of the system.
s(t) = න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
𝑡
= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
𝑡
−𝑎𝜏 𝑡 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
−𝑎𝜏 𝑒
= න𝑒 𝑑𝜏 = =
−𝑎 𝑜
𝑎
0

Properties of Impulse Response
1. Commutative:
𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)
2. Associative:
𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ1 (𝑡) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ {ℎ1 (𝑡) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡)}
This is also called Series or Cascade

Connection

3. Distributive:
𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ1 𝑡 + ℎ2 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ1 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡)
This is also called Parallel Connection.
All these properties apply for discrete

time impulse response as well.

Q. Given 𝒉𝟏 𝒏 = 𝒖 𝒏 , 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 = 𝒖 𝒏 + 𝟐 − 𝒖[𝒏] & 𝒉𝟑 𝒏 = 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟐 .
Find the overall impulse response of the system.
Soln: ℎ1 𝑛 & ℎ2 𝑛 are in parallel.

They can be combined to form
ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 𝑛
ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 𝑛 and ℎ3 [𝑛] are in

cascade. So they can be reduced to a
single block by convolution.

Overall impulse response is ℎ 𝑛 = ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 𝑛 ∗ ℎ3 𝑛
ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 +𝑢 𝑛+2 −𝑢 𝑛 ∗𝛿 𝑛−2
ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 ∗ 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 = 𝑢[𝑛]
Note:
x 𝑛 ∗ 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]

Q. Given 𝒉𝟏 𝒏 = 𝒖 𝒏 , 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 = 𝒖 𝒏 + 𝟐 − 𝒖[𝒏] , 𝒉𝟑 𝒏 = 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟐
& 𝒉𝟒 𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒏 . Find the overall impulse response of the system.
Soln: The overall transfer function can be written as

ℎ[𝑛] = ℎ1 [𝑛] + ℎ2 [𝑛] ∗ ℎ3 [𝑛] − ℎ4 [𝑛]

Overall impulse response is ℎ 𝑛 = (𝑢 𝑛 + 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 − 𝑢 𝑛 ) ∗ 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 ∗ 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
= 1 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
Note:
x 𝑛 ∗ 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]

Causality and Stability of LTI Systems
➢ An LTI system is said to be causal if

h(t) = 0, t < 0 or h[n]= 0, n < 0.
➢ An LTI system is BIBO stable if its impulse response is absolutely integrable or
summable.
∞ ∞
න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 < ∞ or ෍ ℎ 𝑘 <∞
−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Q. Check the causality and stability of the given LTI Systems.
1. ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑎 < 0.
Take a = -2.
ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
Since 𝑒 −2𝑡 is multiplied with 𝑢 𝑡 , it will only exist for positive values of t. Therefore
h(t)=0, t<0. ∴ Causal.
∞ −2𝜏 ∞
∞ 𝑒 1
For stability, ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 < ∞ න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =
−∞ −2 𝑜
2
∞ ∞ ∞
න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑒 −2𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑒 −2𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞ 0 < ∞. ∴ Stable

2. 𝒉[𝒏] = 𝟐𝒏 u[−n]
Since the signal 𝟐𝒏 is multiplied with u[−n], it will only exist for n from 0 to −∞ .
Therefore h[n]≠0, n<0. ∴ Non causal.
∞
For stability, ෍ ℎ 𝑘 <∞
𝑘=−∞
∞ 0
෍ 2𝑘 𝑢[𝑘] = ෍ 2𝑘
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞
∞ ∞
1 𝑘 1
෍ 2−𝑘 = ෍( ) = =2<∞
2 1
𝑘=0 𝑘=0 1−
2
∴ Stable.

𝒏𝝅
3. 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔( )
𝟐
4. 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝒆𝟑𝒏 𝒖[𝒏 − 𝟐]
𝑛𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) exists for n from −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞. u[n-2] exists only for n ≥ 2.
2
∴ Non causal. ∴ 𝑒 3𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 − 2 also exists for n ≥ 2.
∞
∴ Causal.
For stability, ෍ ℎ 𝑘 <∞ ∞
𝑘=−∞ For stability, ෍ ℎ 𝑘 < ∞
∞
𝑘𝜋 𝑘=−∞
෍ 𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) = ∞ ∞ ∞
2
𝑘=−∞ ෍ 𝑒 3𝑘 𝑢[𝑘 − 2] = ෍ 𝑒 3𝑘
𝑘𝜋
For odd values of k, 𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) = 0 and 𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=2
2
𝑘𝜋
for even values of k, 𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) =1 = 𝑒 6 + 𝑒 9 + 𝑒12 + 𝑒15 +……. = ∞
2
∴ Unstable. ∴ Unstable.

∞ ∞ 2
5. 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝟒𝒏 𝒖[𝟐 − 𝒏]
෍ ℎ 𝑘 = ෍ 4−𝑘 + ෍ 4𝑘
4𝑛 𝑢[2 − 𝑛] exists for n from −∞ 𝑡𝑜 2. 𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=0 𝑘=1
∞ 2
∴ Non causal. 1 𝑘
∞ = ෍ ( ) + ෍ 4𝑘
4
For stability, ෍ ℎ 𝑘 < ∞ 𝑘=0 𝑘=1
𝑘=−∞ ∞
∞ 2 1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ෍ 𝑎𝑘 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑎| < 1
෍ 4𝑘 𝑢[2 − 𝑘] = ෍ 4𝑘 1−𝑎
𝑘=𝑜
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞ ∞
1 64
0 2 ෍ ℎ𝑘 = +4 + 42 = <∞
1 3
= ෍ 4𝑘 + ෍ 4𝑘 𝑘=−∞ 1−
4
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=1
∴ Stable

Q. Determine the condition for a such that the following system is stable.
1. ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
∞
For stability, ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 < ∞
∞ ∞
න ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑒 𝑎𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞
∞
= න 𝑒 𝑎𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0
For stability a<0

Representation of LTI Systems
➢ The general representation of a continuous time LTI system is given by the

differential equation
𝑁 𝑀
𝑑𝑘𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑘 𝑥(𝑡)
෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑘 = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑘 , 𝑎𝑘 & 𝑏𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
➢ The general representation of a discrete time LTI system is given by the difference
equation
𝑁 𝑀
෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘] = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 , 𝑎𝑘 & 𝑏𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑘=0 𝑘=0

Q. Consider the system with difference equation:
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 + 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝟐 = 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝟐𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 . Find the first two output values
𝟒
𝟏
if the input is x[n]=( )𝒏 𝒖 𝒏 and the initial conditions are y[-1]=1 & y[-2]=-2.
𝟐
Soln: Given initial conditions y[-1]=1 & y[-2]=-2

1
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 2𝑥 𝑛 − 1 − 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 − 𝑦 𝑛 − 2
4
1
𝑛 = 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0 + 2𝑥 −1 − 𝑦 −1 − 𝑦 −2 −−−− − 1
4
1 𝑛
We have x[n]= ( ) 𝑢 𝑛 , 𝑥 𝑛 will only start at n=0.
2
∴ x[-1]=0
1
x[0]= ( )0 𝑢 0 = 1.
2
Substituting in (1), we get
1
𝑦 0 = 1 + 0 − 1 − . −2 = 1/2
4

1
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 2𝑥 𝑛 − 1 − 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 − 𝑦 𝑛 − 2
4
1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑦 1 = 𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 0 − 𝑦 0 − 𝑦 −1 −−−− − 2
4
1
We have x[n]= ( )𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
2
1 1 1
∴ x[1]=( ) 𝑢 1 = .
2 2
Substituting in (2), we get

1 1 1
𝑦 1 = + 2 − − . 1 = 7/4
2 2 4

𝟏
Q. Consider the LTI system with difference equation: 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝟏 = 𝒙 𝒏 .
𝟐
Find the impulse response of the system assuming zero initial conditions.
1
Soln: Given initial conditions are 0. 𝑛 = 3, 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2
2
1 1 1 1
𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑦 𝑛−1 =0+ . =
2 2 4 8
We have x[n]= δ 𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑛 = 0
∴ x 0 = δ[0]=1, Similarly when we substitute for all
1
For all other values of n, x[n]= δ 𝑛 =0 values of n , we get y[n]=( )𝑛
2
𝑛 = 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0
1
+ 𝑦 −1 =1-0 =1 Since the output only exists for
2 values for n≥ 0,
1 1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑦 1 = 𝑥 1 + 𝑦 0 = 0 + = 1/2 1 𝑛
2 2
ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛 = ( ) 𝑢[𝑛]
1 1 1 2
𝑛 = 2, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 1 = 0 + . ( ) = 1/4
2 2 2
Correlation of Signals
➢ It is a measure of similarity between 2 signals.

➢ Correlation between 2 signals 𝑥1 𝑡 & 𝑥2 𝑡 is defined as
∞
𝑟 𝜏 = න 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
𝑟[𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥1 𝑛 𝑥2 [𝑛 − 𝑙]
𝑛=−∞
➢ 𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 is the lag (shift) parameter.
➢ Correlation is of 2 types – Auto correlation & Cross correlation

Auto Correlation
➢ It is the measure of similarity of one signal with the time shifted version of the
same signal.
➢ Auto Correlation of a signal x 𝑡 is defined as
∞
𝑟𝑥𝑥 𝜏 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝑟𝑥𝑥 [𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑙]

𝑛=−∞

Cross Correlation
➢ It is the measure of similarity of one signal with the time shifted version of the
other signal.
➢ Cross Correlation between a signal x 𝑡 and y(t) is defined as
∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝜏 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞ ∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 [𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑙 𝑦[𝑛]

𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
➢ xy indicates x[n] is the reference and y[n] is the shifted sequence

➢ Similarly,
∞ ∞
𝑟𝑦𝑥 [𝑙] = ෍ 𝑦 𝑛 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑙] = ෍ 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑙 𝑥[𝑛]

𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
➢ If the shift is 0, then

∞
𝑟𝑦𝑥 0 = ෍ 𝑦 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑥𝑦 0
𝑛=−∞
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = 𝑟𝑦𝑥 −𝑙

Relation between Correlation & Convolution
➢ Convolution of x[n] and h[n] is given by 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘]

∞
𝑘=−∞
𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ −𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=−∞
∞
𝑥 𝑙 ∗ ℎ −𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ −(𝑙 − 𝑘) −−−− −(1)

𝑘=−∞
➢ Cross Correlation between x[𝑛] and h[n] is defined as
∞ ∞
𝑟𝑥ℎ [𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑙] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 ℎ[−(𝑙 − 𝑛)] −−− −(2)
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
➢ Comparing (1) and (2), 𝑟𝑥ℎ 𝑙 = 𝑥 𝑙 ∗ ℎ −𝑙

Q. Find the cross correlation of 2 sequences given by x[n]={1,3,2} and
y[n]={1,2,3}.
Soln: ∞ ∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = 𝑥 𝑙 ∗ 𝑦 −𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 −(𝑙 − 𝑘) = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 − 𝑙
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 − 𝑙
𝑘=−∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 −2 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 + 2
𝑘=−∞
=3

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 −1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 + 1
𝑘=−∞
= 11

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 0 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘
𝑘=−∞
= 13

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 − 1
𝑘=−∞
=7

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 2 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 − 2
𝑘=−∞
=2
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = {3, 11, 13, 7, 2}

Q. Compute the autocorrelation of the signal 𝐱 𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒖[𝒏] for 0<a<1.
∞ ∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = 𝑥 𝑙 ∗ 𝑥 −𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 −(𝑙 − 𝑘) = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑙
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Case: 1 When l is negative, ie, l<0, x[k] is shifted towards the left by l units.
There will be overlap between x[k] and x[k-l] from k=0 to ∞.
∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑙
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘−𝑙
𝑘=0
∞
= 𝑎−𝑙 ෍ 𝑎2𝑘
𝑘=0
−𝑙
1
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 =𝑎 . 2
−−−−− −(1)
1−𝑎

Case: 2 When l is positive, ie, l > 0, x[k] is shifted towards the right by l units.
There will be overlap between x[k] and x[k-l] only from k=l to ∞.
∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑙
𝑘=−∞
∞
= ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘−𝑙 Let m=k-l, k=m+l

𝑘=𝑙
When k=l, m=0
∞ ∞ When k=∞, m= ∞
= ෍ 𝑎𝑚+𝑙 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑙 ෍ 𝑎2𝑚
𝑚=0 𝑚=0
𝑙
1
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 =𝑎. −−−− −(2)
1 − 𝑎2
𝑎|𝑙|
Combining both (1) and (2), 𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑙 =
1−𝑎2

Orthogonality of Signals
➢ Orthogonality refers to the property that allows transmission of more than one
signal over a common channel with sufficient detection.
➢ Orthogonal signals are mutually independent signals.
➢ Discrete Domain: 2 signals 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . 𝑥𝑁 & 𝑦 = 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … . 𝑦𝑁 are
orthogonal if their dot product is zero.
𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑥1 . 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 . 𝑦2 + ⋯ … + 𝑥𝑁 . 𝑦𝑁 = 0
➢ Continuous domain: If 2 signals x(t) & 𝑦(𝑡) are non periodic, then they are
∞
orthogonal if ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇
➢ If the signals are periodic, then they are orthogonal if ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0 , where T
is the time period.

Q. Check whether the given signals are orthogonal or not.
1. 𝑥 = 1,2,3 & 𝑦 = {4,5,6}
1.4 + 2.5 + 3.6 = 32 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
2. 𝑥 = 1,1, −1 & 𝑦 = {−1,1,0}
1. −1 + 1.1 + −1.0 = 0 , 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

Q. Check whether 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟑 & y 𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓𝒕𝟐 + 𝟗𝒕 − 𝟏𝟕 are orthogonal or not
in the time interval -1 to 1.
1 1
න 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 2𝑡 + 3 . 45𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 − 17 𝑑𝑡
−1 −1

1
= න(90𝑡 3 + 18𝑡 2 − 17𝑡 + 135𝑡 2 + 27𝑡 − 51 ) 𝑑𝑡

−1
= න(90𝑡 3 + 153𝑡 2 + 10𝑡 − 51 ) 𝑑𝑡

−1
1
90𝑡 4 153𝑡 3 10𝑡 2
= + + − 51𝑡
4 3 2 −1
= 0, 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

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Syllabus

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➢ Physical quantity that carries information.

➢ Eg.: speech signal, ecg signals, temperature variations, etc.

➢ Depending on the number of variables signals are classified as:

i. 1-dimensional signal: function of a single variable. Eg: speech signal represented

➢ Eg. of 3 dimensional signal- Video signal represented by f(x,y,t)

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➢ They are continuous in time and amplitude.

➢ Generally denoted by x(t).

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➢ Discrete time signals are defined for only integer values of n.

➢ Obtained by sampling continuous time signals.

➢ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑛𝑇 , where T is the sampling time.

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➢ It is only defined at t=0.

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= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡0 |𝑡 + sin 2𝑡0 |𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4

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𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑛2 ; 𝑛0 = −4 ; −4 does not lie between 0 and ∞

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𝛼 can be either positive or negative.

➢ If 𝛼 > 0, 𝑥 𝑡 is a growing exponential signal.

➢ If 𝛼 < 0, 𝑥 𝑡 is a decaying exponential signal.

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𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝜎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

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➢ For |a|=1, the sequence is sinusoidal

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➢ A signal may undergo several manipulations on both the independent variable

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➢ Represented by 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇) or 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

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➢ Amplitude scaling can be represented as

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HWQ3. For the given signal x(t), plot x(3-3t)

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1. Causal and Non Causal signals

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