SCHOOL OF PHYSICS – LEVEL 200 PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT SLIP

FOR ZCT 293/2 AND ZCT 294/2

Instructions to student: Please make sure you fill in the form completely.
Instructions to lecturer: Kindly record the numerical marks in the rubric assessment
form, not here.
PARTICULARS
Name: LUAY CHEE YI
Matric no.: 161864
Group: W6
Expt. Code: 2MP1
Expt. Title: BACKSCATTERING OF BETA PARTICLES
Lecturer in charge: DR NURUL HASHIKIN AB. AZIZ
Report due date: 8 November, 2023

Experiment (√) Lab Report Grade (√)

1 √ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ A ☐ A- ☐ B+ ☐ B ☐
4 ☐ 5 ☐ 6 ☐ B- ☐ C+ ☐ C ☐ C- ☐
D+ ☐ D ☐ D- ☐ F ☐

Date Received (Stamp) Comments

Click or tap here to enter text.
BACKSCATTERING OF BETA PARTICLES

By

LUAY CHEE YI

2023

Second Year Laboratory Report

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................3
LIST OF TABLE CAPTIONS..........................................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURE CAPTIONS.........................................................................................4
ABSTRACTS....................................................................................................................5
1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................6
1.1 Backscattering of β-particle.....................................................................................6
1.2 Objective..................................................................................................................6
2.0 THEORY.....................................................................................................................7
2.1 Backscattering Theory.............................................................................................7
2.2 Thickness of the Backscatter Material......................................................................7
2.3 Atomic Number Z of the Backscatter Material........................................................8
2.4 Statistics in Radiation Physics.................................................................................8
2.5 Geiger-Müller Tube.................................................................................................9
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY....................................................................11
Part A: Operating Voltage (Vo) of Geiger-Müller Tube..............................................11
Part B: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Thickness of Backscatter
Material........................................................................................................................12
Part C: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Atomic Number Z...........13
4.0 RESULTS..................................................................................................................14
Part A: Background Count for Operating Voltage (Vo) of Geiger-Müller Tube.........14
Part B: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Thickness of Backscatter
Material........................................................................................................................16
Part C: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Atomic Number Z...........18
Calculate percentage difference for K 1, K 2, n and m................................................19
5.0 DISCUSSIONS.........................................................................................................21
6.0 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................23
7.0 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................24
APPENDIX.....................................................................................................................25
LIST OF TABLE CAPTIONS
Table 1: Data table for Part A..........................................................................................14
Table 2: Data table for part B..........................................................................................16
Table 3: Data table for part C..........................................................................................18

LIST OF FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1: Backscattered electrons......................................................................................6
Figure 2: Beta particles backscattering..............................................................................7
Figure 3: Geiger–Müller tube............................................................................................9
Figure 4: The characteristic curve of a Geiger-Müller tube..............................................9
Figure 5: Experimental setup for Geiger-Müller Tube....................................................11
Figure 6: Sr-90 radioactive source is placed with its label upwards...............................11
Figure 7: Experimental setup for backscattering count with variation of backscattering
material............................................................................................................................12
Figure 8: Set of aluminium and lead plates with different thickness..............................12
Figure 9: Experimental setup for backscattering count with variation of atomic number.
.........................................................................................................................................13
Figure 10: Graph of count rate, R (s−1) against voltage (V).........................................14
Figure 11: Graph of backscattering count, N against aluminium thickness (mm)..........17
Figure 12: Graph of backscattering count, N against lead thickness (mm).....................17
Figure 13: Graph of count, N against atomic number, Z.................................................19
ABSTRACTS

This study explores the behaviour of backscattering count readings in Geiger-

Müller (G-M) tube experiments, focusing on the influence of varying parameters. Part
A investigates the background count rate with different operating voltages, revealing a
threshold and plateau region. In Part B, the impact of backscatter material thickness on
count readings is examined, with surprising results of either constant or decreasing
counts. Part C explores the influence of atomic number (Z) on backscattering counts,
finding a similar trend to Part B. The findings challenge initial hypotheses and suggest
that factors such as material thickness, atomic number, and experimental setup may
impact backscattering behaviours. These results offer valuable insights into the
complexities of G-M tube experiments and underscore the need for further research to
refine our understanding of these phenomena.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Backscattering of β-particle

When a β-particle enters a material, its path can be deflected when it interacts
with the nuclei of the material. The β-particles are oppositely charged to the positively
charged nucleus and thus an attractive force exists between the two. A primary electron
(an electron from the incoming beam) is deflected by the electrostatic field of the
positive nucleus. Elastically scattered electrons tend to be scattered at higher angles.
The deflections that result also dependent on the initial energy of the β-particles but the
effect is of a general scattering of the particles. All these processes happen many times
as the electron travels through solid. This usually has the effect of changing the forward
direction of a β-particle by a few degrees, but occasionally if the β-particle is suitably
orientated in relation to the nucleus, the β will be deflected through a value of around
180◦ resulting in it exiting the material from the same side as it entered. It is this
phenomenon that is known as backscattering. The image below shows a basic scheme of
an electron deflection.

Figure 1: Backscattered electrons.

1.2 Objective

1. Change in backscattering intensity as a function of thickness of the

backscattering material.
2. Change in backscattering intensity as function of the atomic number of the
backscattering material.
2.0 THEORY

2.1 Backscattering Theory

When an incident beam of highly energetic electrons strikes a metal target, a

complicated set of physical phenomena is initiated. The electrons penetrate the metal
and lose energy, roughly in proportion to path length in the metal. Some of these
electrons are deflected as they approach the nuclei of the metal atoms by an amount
predicted from the Rutherford scattering formula. Also, some of the surface electrons of
the target material are energized by the passing primary electrons. As a result of these
encounters, electrons will reemerge from the metal on the entrance side of the foil.
These back-directed electrons belong to two groups. One group is composed of primary
electrons that have been turned around and are referred to as backscattered electrons.
The other group are secondary electrons ejected from the surface of the target metal by
acquiring energy from the incoming primary electrons.

Figure 2: Beta particles backscattering.

The phenomenon of backscattering in the experiment is complicated not only by

the continuous loss of energy suffered by the incident electrons but also by the
numerous collisions which can occur before an electron reemerges from the material.
For these reasons, and because of the mathematical complexity of the Rutherford
scattering function, there exists no satisfactory theory for multiple backscattering.
There are three main factors that influence beta backscatter. The initial energy of
the beta particle, the atomic number (Z) of the backscatter material and the thickness of
the backscatter material. However, the effect of initial energy of the beta particle is not
investigated in this experiment.
In this experiment Sr90 source is used. The radionuclide undergoes decay to
produce beta particles. The beta particles emitted are directed at the backscatter material.
The nuclear reaction for this decay is:
90 90 0
38 Sr → 39Y +−1 β (1)

2.2 Thickness of the Backscatter Material

The mass per unit area (thickness x density) or the thickness of the irradiated
material only influence the back scattering factor up to saturation value. The maximum
back scattering is practically attained at a mass per unit area which is smaller than half
range of the Beta particle in the material, because large layer thicknesses lead to
absorption of the scattered electrons. The saturation value is less than 200 mg/cm 2 for all
materials.
 The relation of intensity of backscatter beta particles collected and thickness of
backscatter material can be expressed as follow:

I =K 1 d
n (2)

Where
I = Intensity
d = Thickness of backscatter material

2.3 Atomic Number Z of the Backscatter Material

With increasing atomic number Z of the material, the chance that a collision
results in a scattering of the Beta particle increases too. Backscattering occurs, when the
angle of deflection is greater than 90 ° . The backscattering rate is predominately
dependent on the atomic number Z of the backscattering material. With an atom of high
atomic number, the scattering occurs at a large angle and little loss of energy. The
backscattering factor is approximately proportional to the square root of atomic number.
Atomic number Z of backscatter material can be related to intensity of backscatter
beta particles collected by following equation:
m
I =K 2 z (3)

Where
I = Intensity
z = Atomic number

2.4 Statistics in Radiation Physics

Radioactive decay and most other nuclear reactions are random and spontaneous
events. The radiation activity is unpredictable thus it is only best to describe in term of
statistic. This is due to the continuous change in the activity within a specific
measurement (due to the half-life of the radionuclide) and a fluctuation in the decay rate
between measurements due to the random nature of radioactive decay. Hence, the
radiation count 𝑁 from a single measurement can be expressed as:

N ± σ=N ± √ N (4)

where 𝜎 = √ N represents one standard deviation using Poisson statistics

Since a sample is counted for a specified period of time (𝑡), the results are
reported in units of inverse time, i.e. counts per minute (cpm) or counts per second
(cps). Thus, the equation for count rate is

N √N
t
±
t
=R ±
R
t √ (5)

where 𝑅 = 𝑁/𝑡 is the count rate, or counts per unit time.

The range of values 𝑁 ± 𝜎 will contain the true mean 𝑁 mean within 68%
probability. We can also say that the interval 𝑁mean ± 𝜎mean has 68% probability of
containing our single measurement 𝑁. Thus, we can interchange 𝑁mean and 𝑁 in the
statement.

2.5 Geiger-Müller Tube

The Geiger-Müller tube, also known as the G-M tube, serves as the detection
component within the Geiger counter device, which is employed for identifying
ionizing radiation. This device operates as a gaseous ionization detector, capitalizing on
the Townsend avalanche phenomenon to generate a readily detectable electronic signal
even from a single ionizing event caused by a radiation particle. It is utilized for
detecting various types of radiation, including gamma radiation, X-rays, and alpha and
beta particles.

Within the tube, there is argon gas maintained at low pressure, and one end is
sealed with a thin mica 'window' that allows both alpha particles and beta and gamma
radiation to enter the tube. When a charged particle or gamma radiation penetrates the
tube, the argon gas undergoes ionization, initiating a chain reaction of ion production
between the electrodes. For a brief moment, the gas becomes conductive, resulting in a
transient current pulse within the circuit. This circuit is equipped with either a scaler or
a ratemeter. The scaler tallies the pulses and displays the cumulative count, while the
ratemeter indicates the number of pulses or counts per second. The entire device is
commonly referred to as a Geiger counter.

Figure 3: Geiger–Müller tube.

Figure 4: The characteristic curve of a Geiger-Müller tube.

1. Low voltage
At a very low applied voltage, the count rate is negligible. The tube cannot
operate in this region.
2. Starting voltage, V s
It is defined as the lowest voltage that applied to the counter tube when the
pulses can be detected.

3. Threshold voltage, V t
Beyond the starting voltage, the count rate is increasing rapidly until it reaches
the threshold voltage, V t . This is denoted as the beginning of the Plateau region
when the circuit is still operating in a normal condition.

4. Plateau region
In the plateau region, the increase of applied voltage will result in the negligible
increase of the count rate.

5. Operating voltage, V o
The operating voltage is the applied voltage which is in the middle of the Plateau
region.

6. Breakdown voltage, V a
A breakdown voltage is the end of the Plateau region before reaching the
discharge region.

7. Discharge region
This region is the final region where the applied voltage increases rapidly and its
value is large enough to cause the atoms inside the tube to self-ionise Operating
a G-M tube in this region will quickly ruin the tube.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

Part A: Operating Voltage (Vo) of Geiger-Müller Tube

The Geiger-Müller Tube is switched on for a few minutes before the experiment started
to warm it up. A radioactive source of Sr-90 is placed at a suitable distance from the
window of the G-M tube with the labelling side facing downwards. Then, the applied
voltage is increased by 25 V each time from a range of 750 to 1200 V. For each
measurement, the total count of beta particles collected at G-M tube is measured for a
period of 60 s. The experiment is repeated with same voltage for three times and
recorded in order to calculate its mean. The standard deviation for each measurement is
determined. When the plateau region is reached, the threshold voltage (𝑉t, the beginning
of the plateau) and its corresponding count rate (𝑅t) are recorded. As the experiment
progressed, the breakdown voltage (𝑉a) and its corresponding count rate (𝑅a) are
recorded. A graph of count rate vs. the applied voltage is plotted to determine the
Plateau region, the region between 𝑅t and 𝑅a corresponding to the voltages 𝑉t and 𝑉a
respectively. The operating voltage of G-M tube can be determined from the plateau
region using following equation:

V t +V a (6)
V o=
2

The background count rate at operating voltage Vo is determined.

Figure 5: Experimental setup for Geiger-Müller Tube.

Figure 6: Sr-90 radioactive source is placed with its label upwards.

Part B: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Thickness of Backscatter
Material

The voltage applied is set to operating voltage V o . A radioactive source of Sr-90 is

placed near the GM window tube and total beta particle count, C o is recorded under
period of 60 s without any backscatter material. A known thickness of aluminium plate
is placed underneath the source to minimize air gaps so beta particle has sufficient
energy to travel to G-M tube. The count reading is recorded for three times and its mean
is determined. The experiment is repeated by using different thickness of aluminium
plates and followed by lead plates. The background count has to subtracted from the
total counts. A graph of count reading, C against thickness of backscatter material is
plotted to investigate the saturation value of C. Then, the percentage of beta particle
backscattered, % is calculated. A graph where the intensity I follows the equation (2) is
plotted.

Figure 7: Experimental setup for backscattering count with variation of backscattering

material.

Figure 8: Set of aluminium and lead plates with different thickness.

Part C: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Atomic Number Z

The voltage applied is set to operating voltage V o . A known thickness of aluminium

plate is placed underneath the source to minimize air gaps so beta particle has sufficient
energy to travel to G-M tube. The count reading is recorded for three times and its mean
is determined. The experiment is repeated by using different backscatter material with
different atomic number Z. The background count has to subtracted from the total
counts. A graph of count reading, C against thickness of backscatter material is plotted
to investigate the saturation value of C. Then, the percentage of beta particle
backscattered, % is calculated. A graph where the intensity I follows the equation (3) is
plotted.

Figure 9: Experimental setup for backscattering count with variation of atomic number.
4.0 RESULTS

Part A: Background Count for Operating Voltage (Vo) of Geiger-Müller Tube

Table 1: Data table for Part A.

Count, N Count Standard Standard

rate, R error of error of
−1
Voltage (s ) count count rate
(V) First Second Third Mean (S . E .C ) (S . E .R )
725 2724 2689 2659 2690.67 44.84 18.782 0.3130
750 2850 2632 2613 2698.33 44.97 76.031 1.2672
775 2718 2676 2762 2718.67 45.31 24.828 0.4138
800 2781 2845 2763 2796.33 46.61 24.882 0.4147
825 2813 2977 2861 2883.67 48.06 48.680 0.8113
850 3019 2842 2984 2948.33 49.14 54.118 0.9020
875 2971 2985 2952 2969.33 49.49 9.563 0.1594
900 3052 3123 2982 3052.33 50.87 40.704 0.6784
925 3064 3172 3006 3080.67 51.34 48.639 0.8107
950 3214 3088 3127 3143.00 52.38 37.242 0.6207
975 3198 3100 3172 3156.67 52.61 29.311 0.4885
1000 3204 3168 3127 3166.33 52.77 22.244 0.3707
1025 3115 3240 3142 3165.67 52.76 37.975 0.6329
1050 3229 3185 3276 3230.00 53.83 26.274 0.4379
1075 3273 3286 3268 3275.67 54.59 5.364 0.0894
1100 3290 3312 3312 3304.67 55.08 7.333 0.1222
1125 3322 3292 3260 3291.33 54.86 17.901 0.2983
1150 3272 3323 3302 3299.00 54.98 14.799 0.2466
1175 3280 3352 3299 3310.33 55.17 21.543 0.3591
1200 3352 3357 3380 3363.00 56.05 8.622 0.1437
1000 134 121 120 125.00 2.08 4.509 0.0752

Plateau region
Working voltage (V)

Count Rate, R (𝒔^(−𝟏)) against Voltage (V)

58.00 Breakdown
56.00 voltage
Count Rate, R (𝒔 ^(−𝟏))

Threshold voltage
54.00
52.00
50.00 Plateau region
48.00
46.00
44.00
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Voltage (V)

Figure 10: Graph of count rate, R (s−1) against voltage (V).

Method to sketch error bar in the graph
To obtain the error bar of the graph, standard error is needed in order to sketch it with
least square fitter. The formula used to find standard error in Microsoft Excel is (further
details in APPENDIX):

S . E .=
√ σ
n

Relationship of standard error of count (S . E .c ) and standard error of count rate

(S . E .c .r . )
S . E .c is first obtained from the data of count above in Table 1 before S . E .c. r . can be
found. Their relationship can be expressed as followed:

S . E .c =
√ σN
nN

S . E .C =
√ ∑ ( N−N )2
nN (n N −1)

Therefore, S . E .C .R . can be expressed as below too:

S . E .C .R .=
√ ∑ (R−R)2
n R (n R −1)

√
2
∑ ( Nt − Nt )
S . E .C .R .=
n R (nR −1)
The time interval t used in the experiment is 60.0 s and n N =nR , thus:

√
2
N N
∑ ( 60 − )
60
S . E .C .R .=
n N (nN −1)

S . E .C .R .=
1
60 √ ∑ ( N −N )2
n N (n N −1)

The calculations are done by using Microsoft Excel which further details can be
reviewed in APPENDIX. After the standard error S . E .C .R . is calculated, graph of count
rate ( s−1) against voltage (V) with error bars can be plotted.

Based on Figure 10 above,

Voltage corresponding to each point in the graph

V t =950 V
V a =1025V

V t +V a
V o=
2
950+1025
V o=
2
V o =987.5 V

Due to apparatus limitation, it is not possible to apply a working voltage of 987.5 V as

the apparatus has a voltage interval of 25 V. Hence, a higher value of 1000 V is applied
instead. At this operating voltage, the background count rate found is 125 s−1.

Geiger region
−1
Ra =52.76 s
−1
Rt =52.38 s

The Geiger region is the region between Rt and Ra corresponding to the voltages V t and
V a respectively.

Part B: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Thickness of Backscatter

Material

Table 2: Data table for part B.

Count, N
Thickness (m)
First Second Third Mean Subtract background count
0.04778 3127 3226 3180 3177.67 3052.67
0.05963 3236 3179 3262 3225.67 3100.67
0.07630 3205 3178 3182 3188.33 3063.33
0.09556 3218 3221 3195 3211.33 3086.33
0.12148 3333 3147 3152 3210.67 3085.67
0.15519 3118 3234 3119 3157.00 3032.00
0.19111 3220 3216 3111 3182.33 3057.33
0.21852 3176 3141 3164 3160.33 3035.33
0.23889 3164 3157 3172 3164.33 3039.33
0.31444 3175 3126 3173 3158.00 3033.00
0.10847 3167 3096 3162 3141.67 3016.67
0.16667 3193 3172 3135 3166.67 3041.67
0.32028 3128 3031 3039 3066.00 2941.00
0.65564 3111 3146 3106 3121.00 2996.00

Count rate, Standard error of Standard error of count

Thickness R count rate
(m) −1
(S . E .C ) (S . E .R )
(s )
0.04778 50.88 28.603 0.4767
0.05963 51.68 24.511 0.4085
0.07630 51.06 8.413 0.1402
0.09556 51.44 8.212 0.1369
0.12148 51.43 61.184 1.0197
0.15519 50.53 38.501 0.6417
0.19111 50.96 35.685 0.5948
0.21852 50.59 10.269 0.1711
0.23889 50.66 4.333 0.0722
0.31444 50.55 16.010 0.2668
 0.10847 50.28 22.879 0.3813
0.16667 50.69 16.954 0.2826
0.32028 49.02 31.086 0.5181
0.65564 49.93 12.583 0.2097

Colour Material Density g/(cm^3)

Aluminium Aluminium 2.7
Lead Lead 11.34

Count, N against Aluminium Thickness (mm)

3200

3150

3100
f(x) = 3006.76298089027 x^-0.00831112243457511
Count, N

3050

3000

2950

2900
0.00000 0.05000 0.10000 0.15000 0.20000 0.25000 0.30000 0.35000

Aluminium Thickness (m)

Figure 11: Graph of backscattering count, N against aluminium thickness (mm).

Count, N against Lead Thickness (mm)

3200

3150

3100
Count, N

3050

3000 f(x) = 2961.7502481045 x^-0.00887446225184022

2950

2900
0.00000 0.10000 0.20000 0.30000 0.40000 0.50000 0.60000 0.70000

Lead Thickness (mm)

Figure 12: Graph of backscattering count, N against lead thickness (mm).

Calculate K 1 and n values for different materials
Based on Figure 11 and Figure 12, the value of K 1 and n for different materials can be
found by using equation (2) above:
 n
I =K 1 d

Compare equation (2) and the curve equation in order to obtain K 1 (Al) and n Al for
aluminium:
n Al
I =K 1 (Al) d
−0.008
y=3006.8 x

K 1 (Al) =3006.8, n Al =−0.008

Compare equation (2) and the curve equation in order to obtain K 1 (Pb) and n Pb for lead:

nPb
I =K 1 (Pb) d
−0.009
y=2961.8 x

K 1 (Pb)=2961.8 , n Pb=−0.009

Part C: Variation Of Backscattering Count Reading with Atomic Number Z

Table 3: Data table for part C.

Count, N
Atomic Number, Z
Subtract
(Material) First Second Third Mean
background count
13
3089 3208 3098 3131.67 3006.67
(Aluminium)
26
3095 3160 3128 3127.67 3002.67
(Iron)
29
(Copper)
3087 3094 2990 3057.00 2932.00
82
(Lead)
3071 3118 3014 3067.67 2942.67

Count Standard error of Standard error of

Atomic Number, Z rate, R count count rate
(Material) −1
(S . E .C ) (S . E .R )
(s )
13 50.11 27.050 0.4508
(Aluminium)
26 50.04 13.269 0.2211
(Iron)
29 48.87 23.731 0.3955
(Copper)
82 49.04 21.262 0.3544
(Lead)
 Count, N against Atomic Number, Z
3200

3150

3100
Count, N
3050

3000
f(x) = 3093.88976796253 x^-0.0119424840257551
2950

2900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Atomic Number, Z

Figure 13: Graph of count, N against atomic number, Z.

From Figure 13 above, the value of K 2 and m for different materials can be found by
using equation (3) above:
m
I =K 2 z

Compare equation (2) and the curve equation in order to obtain K 2 and n for aluminium:
m
I =K 2 z
−0.013
y=3093.9 x

K 2=3093.9 , m=−0.013

Calculate percentage difference for K 1, K 2, n and m

| | | |
n1−n2 K −K 1(Pb )
Percentage difference of K 1 (Al) ∧K 1(Pb) = × 100 %¿ 1 (Al) × 100 %
n1 +n 2 K 1 ( Al)+ K 1(Pb)
2 2

| |
3006.8−2961.8
¿ ×100 %
3006.8+ 2961.8 ¿ 1.51 %
2

| | | |
n1−n2 K −K 2
Percentage difference of K 1∧K 2 = × 100 %¿ 1 (average) ×100 %
n1 +n 2 K 1 (average) + K 2
2 2

| |
3006.8+2961.8
−3093.9
2
¿ ×100 %
3006.8+2961.8 ¿ 3.61 %
+3093.9
2
2
 | | | |
n1−n2 n −n
Percentage difference of n Al ∧nPb= × 100 %¿ Al Pb × 100 %
n1 +n 2 n Al + nPb
2 2

| |
−0.008−(−0.009)
¿ × 100 %
−0.008+(−0.009) ¿ 12.0 %
2

| | | |
n 1−n2 n −m
Percentage difference of n∧m= ×100 %¿ average ×100 %
n1 + n2 naverage +m
2 2

| |
−0.008+(−0.009)
−(−0.013)
2
¿ ×100 %
−0.008+(−0.009) ¿ 41.86 %
+(−0.013)
2
2

5.0 DISCUSSIONS

For part A to determine the background count of operating voltage for a Geiger-
Müller (G-M) tube, a graph of count rate ( s−1) against voltage (V) is plotted based on
the data in Table 1. The voltage applied ranged between 725 V to 1200 V. The count
rate starts to increase rapidly until it reaches threshold voltage V t at 950 V. Beyond the
threshold, further increase in voltage will result in a negligible increase in the count rate
as it has entered Plateau region. When the voltage is further increased past breaking
voltage at V a =1025V , count rate continues to increase steadily. This is due to the
voltage is large enough to cause the atoms to self-ionise. Thus, the Geiger region is said
between Rt =5 2.38 s−1 and Ra =52.76 s−1 which corresponding to V t =7 5 0 V and
V a =1025V . The operating voltage V o can be obtained at the midpoint between starting
voltage V s and breaking voltage V a . It is found to have a value of 987.5 V. At this value
of operating voltage, it is obtained that the background count rate is 125 s−1.

In part B of experiment to investigate variation of backscattering count reading

with thickness of backscatter material, Figure 11 and Figure 12 are plotted based on
Table 2. From the calculations done, it is obtained that the values of
K 1 (Al) =3006.8 mm−1 which has small percentage difference of merely 1.51 % with
−1
K 1 (Pb)=2961.8 mm . K 1 of aluminium and lead are quite similar suggesting they might
be actually the same. Furthermore, it is found that n Al=−0.008 ¿ nPb =−0.009 and has a
percentage difference of 12 %. This indicates that aluminium has higher efficiency to
backscatter the electrons than lead. In both of these graphs, it can be seen that
backscatter electron count decreases slightly or can be even considered almost constant
with the increases in backscatter material thickness either it is aluminium or lead. This
phenomenon seems rather counter-intuitive as it rejects the hypothesis that backscatter
electrons count increases gradually with thickness of backscatter material and
eventually saturated at a value of C. There are several explanations that can interpret
such an observation. One of the possibilities is that the backscatter count rate has
already reached the saturation value C at the very beginning of this experiment due
to the backscatter material used is overly thick. This statement suggests that when
looking at the graph, especially at larger values along the x-axis and y-axis, the trend
appears nearly constant. In this context, small decreases in the count can be considered
insignificant and may be attributed to other errors or factors affecting the experiment.
For example, error may arise when the backscattered electrons are blocked by the Sr-90
metal which is placed between backscatter material and GM tube. On the other hand,
there is a possibility that this negligible decreases in backscatter count actually bring
significant scientific explanations behind it. In this case, we can offer explanations such
as increased absorption, increased inelastic scattering and escape possibility.
Firstly, the electrons have to penetrate deeper into the material as the material thickness
increases before they can interact with the atoms. With a thicker sample, more electrons
may be absorbed, which means fewer electrons will be available for backscattering.
Besides, electrons can undergo inelastic scattering events, where they lose some of their
energy to excite or ionize atoms in the material. With a thicker sample, there are more
opportunities for inelastic scattering, and this can reduce the number of electrons
available for backscattering. Lastly, there may be a higher probability that electrons will
undergo interactions in thicker samples that cause them to lose their energy and become
trapped within the backscatter material rather than being able to escape as backscattered
electrons. In either scenario of backscatter electrons count stay constant or decrease,
further and better experimental setup needed to be carried out to investigate this
phenomenon. Thinner backscatter materials can be applied and the effect of secondary
electrons ejected from the surface of the target metal by acquiring energy from the
incoming primary electrons can be taken into account.

For part C to investigate variation of backscattering count reading with atomic

number Z, four materials with different atomic number are used. From the calculations
done, it is obtained that the values of K 2=30 93 . 9 mm−1 which has small percentage
−1
difference of merely 3.61 % with K 1 (average )=29 84.3 mm . K 1 and K 2 are quite similar
suggesting they might be actually the same. Moreover, it is found that m=−0.013 which
shows significant percentage difference of 41.86 % from n average=−0.0085 . This
significant difference suggests that atomic number, Z is a bigger factor affecting
backscattering count than thickness of backscatter material. From Figure 13, it can be
observed that backscatter count decreases slightly with the increases of atomic number,
Z. This result also defies the hypothesis that backscatter count increases with atomic
number, Z until a saturated value. It is also possible however small that backscatter
count rate has already reached the saturation value C at the beginning of the
experiment as we are likely to see a constant graph when the axis scale is large enough.
In another context, the decreases in backscatter electrons count may be due to factors
such as increased stopping power and energy threshold. The stopping power of a
material is generally greater in materials with higher atomic numbers. This means that
electrons are more likely to lose energy and not backscatter in materials with higher
atomic numbers. Besides, the probability of backscattering can also be influenced by the
energy of the incident electrons. At very high energies, electrons may be more likely to
backscatter, regardless of the atomic number of the material. However, at lower
energies, the atomic number of the material becomes more critical in determining the
likelihood of backscattering. There may also be some sources of error that effects the
results such as composition variability. The composition of materials can vary even
within a sample, which can affect backscattering. Inhomogeneities or impurities in the
material can lead to variations in backscattering behaviour, regardless of the average
atomic number. Moreover, the uneven surface of the backscatter materials can deflect
the electrons in a wrong direction away from GM-tube.

There will be zero count reading if alpha particles are used instead of beta
particles. Alpha particles have low penetration power compared to beta particles thus it
is likely to be stopped by the surface of the backscatter materials. Besides, alpha
particles cannot excite the electrons in an atom. Alpha particles can only be
backscattered by gold foil.

The Rutherford scattering formula are as below. It can be used to describe alpha
particles only. Thus, it is not suitable to explain the beta scattering of this experiment.

6.0 CONCLUSION

In a nut shell, the behaviour of backscattering count readings with varying

parameters in Geiger-Müller tube setups yielded unexpected results. For the variation of
backscattering count reading with thickness of backscatter material, it is discovered that
backscattering count either remains constant or decreases slightly with backscatter
material. It is unable to confirm which case is correct interpretation as both offers
sufficient arguments. However, the values of K 1 (Al) and K 1 (Pb) are able to obtained
−1
which is K 1 (Al) =3006.8 mm which has small percentage difference of merely 1.51 %
 −1
with K 1 (Pb)=2961.8 mm . Furthermore, it is found that n Al =−0.008 ¿ nPb =−0.009 and
has a percentage difference of 12 %. For the variation of backscattering count reading
with atomic number, Z, it is observed that backscattering count too encounters similar
trend to that of the one with different thickness. It is obtained that the values of
−1
K 2=30 93 . 9 mm which has small percentage difference of merely 3.61 % with
−1
K 1 (average )=29 84.3 mm . K 1 and K 2 are quite similar suggesting they might be actually
the same. Moreover, it is found that m=−0.013 which shows significant percentage
difference of 41.86 % from n average=−0.0085 . Thus, n and m are not the same thus
suggesting atomic number, Z has a bigger role in affecting count reading.

7.0 REFERENCES

1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. (2020) Principles of Physics (11th ed.). Wiley.
2. Korneff, T. (1966). Introduction to Physics (1st ed.). Academic Press.
3. Brophy, J. J. (1990). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
4. Mitchell, F. H. (1969). Concept of Physics. Addison-Wesley.
5. R.Shankar. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics: Mechanics, Relativity, and
Thermodynamics. Yale University Press.
APPENDIX

MICROSOFT EXCEL GUIDELINES

Excel Formulae
Here are some examples of formulae may use:
• Reference: type =B12 to always show what is shown in cell B12.
• Add/Subtract:type =B1+B2 or B1-B2 to add/subtract the cells B1 and B2.
• Multiply: type =J53*I53 to multiply the cells J53 × I53.
• Divide: type =1/B11 to get 1 B11.
• Exponents: type =1.0E-34 to get 1.0 × 10−34.
• Power: type =2.5^2 to get 2.5 2.
• Average: type =AVERAGE(D25:D26)to get an average value for cells D25 to D26.
• Square Root: type =SQRT(D31^2+D23^2) to get √D312 + D232.
• Absolute: type =ABS(-4.5) to get |−4.5|.
• Std. Dev.: type =STDEV.S(D1,D4) to get the standard deviation of cells D1 and D4.

The LINEST Function

The LINEST() function is used to produce some parameters for a best-fit linear
regression line, these include the
• The gradient (𝑚);
• The 𝒚-intecept (𝑐);
• The standard error of the gradient (𝜎𝑚);
• The standard error of the 𝒚-intercept (𝜎𝑐);
• The coefficient of determination (𝑟2); and
• The standard error of the 𝒚-estimate (𝜎𝑦).

The following is a step-by-step tutorial on how to use the LINEST() function:

1. Highlight the 6 empty cells in the box where the LINEST() header is found, then type
=LINEST([known_ys],[known_xs],TRUE,TRUE).
2. Replace [known_xs] and [known_ys] with your 𝑥 and 𝑦 values, e.g. E12:E23 are the
values of 1/𝑜 for Table 1. You can highlight and drag across the cells to input them too.
3. After you're done typing, press Ctrl+Shift+Enter.
4. In the future, if you want to force the line to pass through the origin (0,0), you can
replace the first TRUE with FALSE.
5. Use the Increase Decimal and Decrease Decimal buttons to select the appropriate
decimal places you want your data to show.

Calculate standard error

Standard error can be calculated with the help of Excel by following method.

Example:
Use the following command to find the standard error in G94