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Chapter 4 (4.5 ASK,PSK, PCM,DPCM,DM- features ,DSSS, FHSS - 2mks)

ASK,PSK

DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Need:-The Digital data which is a bit stream, data stream /string of 1’s & 0’s can be easily
transmitted over copper wire with two voltage levels [+ve & -ve] or [+ve &0], optical fibre….

But to transmit this data through open space using antenna needs modulation of digital data onto a
sinusoidal carrier wave, such as the o/p of PCM system.

The AM, FM & PM are used for modulation of analog signals. Similarly for modulation of digital
signal switching [keying of amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier is done according to the
data].

Types-
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These ASK, FSK & PSK techniques use a pair of signal to represent binary 1 & o. So they are
also called as binary (2-ary) shift keying system [BASK, BFSK & BPSK].

Coherent/synchronous and non-coherent/asynchronous detection methods

Coherent systems need carrier phase information at the receiver and they use matched filters to
detect and decide what data was sent, while non-coherent systems do not need carrier phase
information/recovery and use methods like square law to recover the data.

Coherent methods- require complex receiver design but have less probability of error.

Eg- BPSK, QPSK, QAM, M-ary PSK systems

Non coherent methods-Are less complex to design , but has more probability of error.

Example -BASK,BFSK, M-ary FSK, DPSK, DEPSK systems.

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BASK: Binary Amplitude Shift Keying- In this, the amplitude of carrier ( Fc) is switched
between two levels ON & OFF [binary data b(t) 1 & 0].
ASK generator/transmitter

To the product modulator, apply two inputs i.e. the carrier signal A* Cos wct & the digital
information b(t). At the output at which the carrier amplifier is switched ON & OFF.

This was the earliest form of digital modulation technique used in wireless telephone & is
the simplest form.
BASK equation/mathematically described as,
VASK(t) = b(t)* Sinwct (w= 2πfc)
Where Vask = A. Sinwct ; b(t)=1 A = amplitude
Vask = 0 ; b(t)=0
The expression indicates that ASK can be achieved by product modulator/multiplier.
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# FSK: Frequency Shift Keying-# FSK: Frequency Shift Keying- In this, the frequency
of carrier is switched between two frequencies, the binary 1 is represented by high
frequency carrier and binary 0 is represented by low frequency carrier as shown below-

Vbfsk(t) = A.Sinw1t+A.Sinw0t (w=2πf)

Where, Vbfsk(t) = A.Sinw1t , b(t)=1 (high frequency)
Vbfsk(t) = A.Sinw0t , b(t)=0 (low frequency)

BFSK Transmitter
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# PSK: Phase Shift Keying-If the carrier phase is switched between two levels of phase shift,
PSK waveform is achieved.

The generation of BPSK balanced modulator/product modulator/multiplier with

sinusoidal carrier & data bit streams as i/p are applied, acting as a multiplier as shown

Output modulated signal will be-

Vbpsk(t) = A.Sin [Wct+ Ѳ (t)], where (Ѳ (t)= phase shift)
Vbpsk(t)= A. sin [Wct+ 0] , for data =1
Vbpsk(t)= A. sin [Wct+ π] , for data=0 (that is phase shift of π/180 °)
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These ASK, FSK & PSK techniques use a pair of signal to represent binary 1 & o. So
they are also called as binary (2-ary) shift keying system [BASK, BFSK & BPSK].

PCM

ADC - SAMPLING (PAM) AND QUANTIZATION (PCM)

Fs >2Fm - sampling theorem
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PCM,DPCM,DM-features
Pulse modulation may be used to transmit analog information such as continuous speech or
data . It is a system in which continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals .
Information regarding the signal is transmitted only at the sampling times , together with
any synchronizing pulses that may be required. At the receiving ends , the original
waveform may be reconstituted from the information regarding the samples , if these are
taken frequently enough.
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Pulse Modulation Continuous Wave Modulation

It may be analog and digital in nature It is only analog in nature
Its input signal can be analog or digital Its input signal is only analog l
Its carrier is a high frequency train of Its carrier is a high frequency sine wave
digital pulses signal
Sampling and Quantization technique is Sampling and Quantization technique is not
used used
Resultant Modulated signal is in the form Resultant Modulated signal is in the form
of pulses of continuous sine wave
Effect of ISI may takes place Effect of ISI is absent
Noise Distortion is less. Noise Distortion is more.
Bandwidth requirement is large. Bandwidth requirement is less.
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PAM –Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PCM Transmitter

LPF - To make it band limited i.e. To pass only required information signal and reject the other
noise signal and reject the other voice signals.

S/H- Used to sample the signals at the rate of Fs . This sampling frequency should be at least
2Fmax.
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It converts continuous time varying signal into discrete levels/amplitudes.

Q level quantize- it will convert this random discrete level/ values into pre defined fix levels
called quantization levels by rounding off sampled values to nearest value quantization level.
Thus , indeterminate sample values are now assigned fixed quantization level.

Binary encoded digitized- encoder generates a binary code corresponding to the quantization level
in which will be transmitted for each sampling interval

Parallel to serial converter-

To transmit on transmission line separately, they are converted into binary serial bit stream to
generate single baseband signal using PISO register
Signaling rate r of PCM is:- R=nFs & BW of PCM is r/2 ie. nFs/2

PCM receiver-
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Regenerator:
At the receiver input, the received signal is heavily distorted such a signal is not possible to be
directly decoded, because decoder requires clean bits. The function of regeneration circuit reshapes
the pulses and removes the noise.

SIPO Converter
It used to convert the serial data into parallel bit stream.

DAC :
The regenerated pulses are regrouped into code - words and fed to the DAC. The original
quantized samples are produced by DAC.

S / H Circuit:
The output the DAC is given to the S / H Circuit. Its function is to recreate staircase approximation
of the signal.

LPF :
It is reconstruction filter. The output of the S / H Circuit is fed to the LPF, whose cut-off frequency
is equal to the measured bandwidth. The output of the LPF is a continuous signal waveform with a
reduced quantization noise. Thus, the original signal is received.

Advantages :
1. Because of the repeaters, bit stream can accept high level of noise/ cross talk/ distortion.
2. higher data rates can be achieved.
3. Not affected by the fluctuations in the medium / channel.

Disadvantages :
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1. The bandwidth requirement is large.

2. High signaling rate.

Applications 1. in telephone with advance fiber optic system

2. In space communication.

Digital/Differential Pulse Code Modulation: (DPCM)

TRANSMITTER

In delta modulation and adaptive delta modulation, present sample is compared with the previous
sample. But as any of the signal does not change fast, two values, that is present and previous does
not differ by large amount, carrying same information. Thus, resulting in generation of redundant
information after decoding at the receiver end. So, this redundancy has to be reduces which
decreases overall bit rate and number of bits required to transmit one sample is reduced. This type
digital pulse code modulation scheme is called as the DPCM.This works on the principle of
prediction.

RECEIVER

The decoder reconstructs the Quantizer over signal from incoming binary signal. The P.F. output
and quantity error signals are added to give the quantized version of the original signal. The Signal
at the receiver differs from the actual signal by the amount of quantization error which
permanently introduced in the reconstructed signal.
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Advantages :
→ Requires smaller bandwidth than PCM.
→ Simple in construction.
→ Bits are less as compared to PCM
Disadvantages :

→ Slope overload
→ Quantization noise.

Digital Modulation: (DM)- 1 bit PCM

TRANSMITTER

The input analog signal is sampled and converted into PAM signal and given it to the one input of
the comparator. This PAM signal represents current sample. At the output of the DAC, analog
value available represent previous sample value. Thus, comparator compares current sample with
previous sample and encodes it into signal bit that if current sample value is greater than previous
sample value, the comparator produces logic at the output On other hand, if the current sample
values are less than the previous sample value. Thus, we get logic 0 at the output.
Up - down counter is incremented OR decremented depending on whether the previous sample
values is larger / smaller than the current sampled value. Up - down counter is located at rate
equaled to sampled rate.
Therefore, up - down counter is updated after each comparison. Thus, in Delta Modulation we
transmit one bit from each sample value. Hence, bit rate of DM is less than PCM.
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RECEIVER

In delta modulation Receiver is identical to the Delta Modulation Transmitter.→ Received signal
consists of sequence of one’s and zero’s. For logic 1, up - down counter is incremented by 1 and
logic 0, up - down counter is decremented by 1.
The digital output of the u - down counter is then converted into an analog signal with help of
DAC. Then, original signal is recovered via. LPF. This type digital pulse code modulation scheme
is called as the DPCM. This works on the principle of prediction.
Advantages :
→ Signaling rate and bandwidth is much smaller.
→ The transmitter and receiver circuit are very simple.
→ ADC is not required.

Disadvantages :
→ Slope overload (step size δ is too small )
→ Granular overload ( δ is too large )
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PARAMETERS PCM DM DPCM

No. of bits per N can be 4,8,16,32 N=1 N>1 but less than
sample etc PCM
Step size Depends on number Step size is fixed Step size is fixed
of Q levels
Distortions error Quantization error Slope overload and Slope overload and
granular noise Granular noise
Signaling rate and Highest Low if input is slow Lower than PCM
bandwidth varying
System complexity Complex Simple Simple
Feedback from No feedback Feedback is present Feedback is present
output
Noise immunity Very good Very good Very good
Use of repeaters Possible Possible Possible

ALSO

Characte ristics PCM DPC DM

M
Predictor No Yes No, instead single
Require me nt Delay element is used.
Advantages In PCM signal is Less bit rate Due to one bit quantization,
regenerated so effects generated so better no elaborate word-
of amplitude, phase utilization of level synchronization is
& nonlinear effects in bandwidth. necessary at the input of the
one link has no effect demodulator. This reduces
on next link. hardware complexity
compared to a PCM
or DPCM demodulator.

Spread Spectrum -DSSS, FHSS

Any communication system aims at-

 How to utilize the channel bandwidth efficiently ?

 How to minimize the amount of transmitted power ? However the efficient utilization of
bandwidth and minimizing the transmitted power are not the “only” problems faced by a
communication system. Some other problems encountered by it are as follows.
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Problems encountered by a communication system :

 In the area such as “military communication”, the information has to be “accepted”. That
means an unauthorized user is not accepted to access the information. Also he should not be
allowed to interfere the communication by any means.
 Sometimes a hostile transmitter (say used by terrorists) can “jam” the transmission. To
avoid this the channel should be “immune” to any external interference.
 Even in the non-military communications an unintentional interference is caused by a user
who is transmitting its information through a channel which is already being used.

Remedy :These problems can be successfully solved by using a technique “Spread Spectrum
Modulation”.
This signal occupies a larger bandwidth than that of a normal signal. (Therefore the name
spread spectrum).
 The spread spectrum signal invariably uses some kind of coding. The spectrum spreading at
the transmitter and dispreading (opposite to spreading) at the receiver is obtained with the
help of this code word.
 The code word associated with an SS signal is independent of the information carried by the
signal.
 The most important point is that the SS signal is “pseudo random” in nature.
 This makes it appear like “random noise”. Therefore the normal receiver cannot demodulate
the SS signal.
 Only a special designed receiver can demodulate it to recover the information.
NEED of SPREAD SPECTRUM-
1. This signal occupies a larger bandwidth than that of normal signal.
2. The spread spectrum signal invariably uses some kind of coding. The spectrum
spreading at the transmitter and dispreading at the receiver is obtained with the help of
this code word.
3. The code word associated with an ss signal is independent of the information carried by
the signal.
4. The most important point is that ss signal is pseudorandom in nature.
5. This makes it appear like random noise. Hence the normal receiver cannot demodulate
ss signal.
6. Only a specially designed receiver can demodulate it to recover the information.
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Advantages :
1. Low power density.
2. Redundancy.
3. Anti- jamming.
4. Anti- interferance.
5. Low probability of intercept.
6. Message privacy.
Disadvantages :
1. Large amount of bandwidth is required.
2. Requires synchronization
Applications :
1. Military application- resistance to jamming.
2. Secure communication.
3. CDMA in satellite communication.
4. Police radar can employ spread spectrum to avoid detection by detectors employed by
drives.
5. Low density power spectra for signal hiding.
6. LAN.
7. GPS.
8. Multipath rejection in ground based mobile station.

Applications of spread spectrum modulation :

The spread spectrum signals are used in the following applications :

 In combating the intentional interference (jamming).
 In rejecting the unintentional interference from some other user.
 To avoid the self interference due to multipath propagation.
 In low probability of intercept (LPI) signals.
 In obtaining the message privacy.

Classification of the spread spectrum modulation techniques :

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Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences :

 The PN sequence generator is as shown in fig. this is basically a shift register.

 Type D flip-flops are being connected such that the D input to a flip-flop is connected to the
Q output of the previous flip-flop.
 The input D0 of the first flip-flop has been connected to the output of a parity generator. A
parity generator generally consists of exclusive – OR gates.
 Therefore the output of the parity generator is equal to zero when an even number of inputs
are at logic zero. And the output is at logic 1 when an odd number of inputs are at logic 1
level.
 The inputs to the parity generator are the output from the flip-flops. However it is not
necessary to connect all the Q outputs to the input of parity generator.
 The character generated by a PN sequence generator depends on the number of flip-flops
used (m) and on the selection of which flip-flop outputs are connected to the inputs of parity
generator.

Definition of a PN Sequence :code

A pseudo- noise/random noise

(PN) sequence is defined as a coded
sequence of 1s and 0s with certain
auto-correlation properties.

Length of register m 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
PN sequence length N 127 255 511 1023 2047 4095 8191
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Model of Spread Spectrum Digital Communication System :

The block diagram shown in fig illustrates the basic elements of a spread spectrum digital
communication system.

Operation of transmitter :

 The information sequence at the input of the system is a binary information sequence. The
same signal is recovered at the output of the system as output data signal.
 We have already discussed the role of a channel encoder, channel decoder, modulator and
demodulator in the block schematic of digital communication system.
 In addition to these basic building blocks of a digital communication system, two additional
blocks called “pseudo-random pattern generator” are used as shown.
 One of them is connected to the modulator on the transmitter side whereas the other is
connected to the demodulator on the receiving side. Both these generators are identical to
each other.
 These generators generate a pseudorandom or pseudo noise (PN) binary sequence. It is
impressed on the transmitted signal at the modulator.
 Thus the modulated signal along with the pseudorandom sequence travels over the
communication channel. This sequence spreads the signal randomly over a wide frequency
band.
 Thus the output of the modulated signal is a spread spectrum signal.

Operation of receiver :
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 The pseudorandom sequence is removed from the received signal, by the other
“pseudorandom generator” operating at the receiver.
 Thus the pseudorandom pattern generators operate in synchronization with each other.
 The synchronization between these pattern generators operate in synchronization with each
other.
 The synchronization between these pattern generators is achieved before the beginning of
the signal transmission.
 This is done by transmitting a fixed pseudorandom bit pattern which a receiver can
recognize even in presence of interference. Once this synchronization is established, it is
possible to begin the transmission.
 Thus in the spread spectrum receiver, the receiver can demodulate the transmitted signal if
and only if a known pseudo-noise sequence has been transmitted along with the information
signal.
 Two types of interferences are present in the S.S. digital communication system namely the
narrow band or broadband interference.

Modulation Techniques :
 The modulation techniques used are :
1. Phase shift keying (PSK) and
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
 If PSK is used, then the PN sequence generated at the modulator is used along with the PSK
modulation to shift the phase of the PSD signal pseudo randomly.
 The resulting signal at the modulator output is called as a “Direct-Sequence” (DS) spread
spectrum signal.
 If binary or M-ary FSK is being used, then the frequency of the FSK signal is shifted
pseudo randomly
 The resulting signal at the output of the modulator is called as “Frequency Hopped” (FH)
spread spectrum signal.

DSSS
Operation of the Encoder (Transmitte r) :

 The input data sequence is denoted by b(t). This data sequence is first converted into an
NRZ sequence b(t) by the NRZ encoder.
 The NRZ signal b(t) and the pseudo noise signal c(t) are applied to the two inputs of a
product modulator.
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 At the output of the product modulator, we obtain the spread spectrum signal. The spectrum
of this signal is quite spread out as compared to the spectrum of b(t) which is a narrow band
signal.
 Thus a data sequence b(t) is used to modulate a wideband pseudo-noise (PN) sequence c(t)
by applying these two sequences to the product modulator or multiplier. Both sequences b(t)
and c(t) are in popular form.

 Hence if the data sequence b(t) is narrowband and the PN sequence c(t) is a wideband
sequence, then the product sequence
m(t) = c(t)*b(t)
will have a spectrum M(f) which will be nearly the same as that of the PN sequence c(t).

Thus the narrowband signal b(t) will be spread over the wideband and the PN
sequence performs the role of a spreading code.

In the channel , noise i(t) gets added to the message m(t), so o/p will be –
r(t)=m(t)+i(t)
Is transmitted to the receiver.

 Note that the transmitted signal m(t) is a baseband signal.

 The spread spectrum signal m(t) is transmitted over the channel where an additive
interference i(t) is added to it.
 The signal is received by the receiver. The received signal is therefore expresses as,

r(t) = m(t) + i(t)

= c(t) b(t) + i(t)

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Receiver :

 To recover the original sequence b(t), the received signal r(t) is applied to a demodulator as
shown in fig.
 The demodulator consists of a multiplier followed by a low-pass filter.
 The multiplier is supplied with a locally generated PN sequence which is an exact “replica”
of the PN sequence used at the transmitter.
 The receiver needs to operate in perfect “synchronization” with the transmitter.

 The demodulated signal is given by,

z(t) = c(t)*r(t)
 Substituting the expression for r(t) i.e.
r(t) = c(t) b(t) + i(t)
we get,
z(t) = c(t) [ c(t)b(t) + i(t)]

z(t) = c2 (t) b(t) + c(t) i(t)

 In above equation note that the desired signal b(t) has been multiplied by c 2 (t). We know
that,

C2 (t) = ( ± 1)2 = 1

z(t) = b(t) + c(t) i(t)

Thus the multiplier output in a receiver contains the desired signal b(t) and the product of the PN
sequence c(t) and the interference signal i(t).
 Due to the multiplication, the product signal c(t).i(t) becomes a wideband signal(noise)
whereas b(t) is a narrow band signal.
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 Hence by applying the multiplier output to a baseband (low pass) filter we can pass only
signal b(t) and attenuate the interference signal c(t) i(t) heavily.
 Thus the effect of interference signal is reduced to a great extent.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the DS-SS System:

Advantages:

1. This system has a very high degree of discrimination against the multipath signals.
Therefore the interference caused by the multipath reception is minimized successfully.
2. The performance of DS-SS system in presence of noise is superior to other systems such as
FH-SS system.
3. This system combats the intentional interference (jamming) most effectively.
Disadvantages:

1. With the serial search system, the acquisition time is too large. This makes the DSS-SS
system slow
2. The sequence generated at the PN code generator output must have a high rate. The length
of such a sequence needs to be long enough to make the sequence truly random.
3. The channel bandwidth required, is very large. But this bandwidth is less than that of a FH-
SS system.
4. The synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and
receiver.
Applications of DSS-SS system:

Some of the important applications of the DSS-SS system are as follows:

1. To combat the intentional interference(jamming)
2. To reject the unintentional interference
3. To minimize the self interference due to multipath propagation
4. In the low probability of intercept(LPI) signal
5. In obtaining the message privacy
6. Code division multiple access with DSS-SS.

FHSS
Principle of operation of (FH-SS) system:

 In this system the data is used to module a carrier. The data is modulated carrier is then
randomly hopped from one frequency to the other.
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 Due to this, the spectrum of transmitted signal is spread sequentially rather than
instantaneously.

Types of modulation:A common modulation technique used is the M-ary frequency shift keying
(MFSK). The combination of frequency hopping (FH) and MFSK is known as FH/MFSK.

Types of frequency hopping :

 Depending on the rate of frequency hopping, the FH/MFSK systems are classified into two
categories:
1. Slow frequency hopping.
2. Fast frequency hopping.

1. Slow frequency hopping :

 In slow frequency hopping the symbol rate Rs of the MFSK signal is an integer multiple of
the hop rate Rh .
 That means several symbols are transmitted corresponding to each frequency hop.
Each frequency hop => several
symbols.

i.e frequency hopping takes place slowly.

2. Fast frequency hopping :

 In the fast frequency hopping the hop rate rh is an integer multiple of the MFSK symbol rate
Rs.
 That means during the transmission of one symbol, the carrier frequency will hop several
times.

Each symbol transmission => several frequency

hops.

 Thus the frequency hopping takes place at a fast rate.

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6.10 Slow Frequency Hopping :

Fig. shows the block diagram of a slow-frequency hopping FH/MFSK transmitter.

Operation of the FH/FMSK Transmitte r :

 The binary data sequence b (t) is applied to the M-ary FSK modulator the output of which
goes to the input of the mixer.
 The other input to the mixer block is obtained from a digital frequency synthesizer. The
mixer consists of a multiplier followed by a band pass filter.
 At the multiplier output we get the two input frequencies, their sum and their difference
frequency components.
 The bandpass filter is designed to select only the sum frequency component rejecting all
other component. This sum component of frequency is then transmitted.
 Successive K-bits of the input binary data sequence will form one symbol. M such symbols
can be transmitted using the M-ary FSK system with M = 2k
 The M-ary FSK modulator will assign a distinct frequency for each of these M symbols.
 Thus the frequency of mixer input obtained from MFSK modulator is changing
continuously.
 The other input to the mixer is obtained from the digital frequency synthesizer. The
synthesizer output at a given instant of time is the “frequency hop”.
 Each frequency hop is mixed with MFSK signal to produce the transmitted signal as
explained earlier.
 The frequency hops at the output of the synthesizer are controlled by the successive bits at
the output of the PN code generator.
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 The output bits of the PN generator change randomly. Therefore the synthesizer output
frequency will also change randomly.
 Hence the frequency hops produced will vary in a random manner.
 If the number of successive bits at the output of PN generator is “n” , then the total number
of frequency hops will be 2n
 The total bandwidth of the transmitted FH/MFSK signal is equal to the sum of all the
frequency hops.
 Therefore the bandwidth of the transmitted FH/MFSK signal is very large of the order of
few GHz.
FH/MFSK Receiver:
 Due to the large bandwidth occupied by the FH/MFSK signal the coherent detection of this
signal is possible within each hop.
 This is because for coherent detection, the phase synchronization of the locally generated
carrier with the transmitted carrier is essential.
 But the frequency synthesizers used in FH/MFSK receiver are unable to maintain this phase
coherence over successive hops.
 Therefore most frequency hop spread spectrum systems use the non-coherent M-ary
modulation schemes.
 The block diagram of an FH-MFSK receiver is as shown in fig.

Operation of FH/MFSK RECEIVER :

 The received signal is applied ta a mixer. The other input to the mixer comes from a digital
frequency synthesizer.
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 This signal synthesizer is driven by a PN code generator which is synchronized with the PN
code generator at the transmitter and generates the same code sequence.
 Therefore the frequency hops produced at the synthesizer output will e identical to those at
the synthesizer output at the transmitter.
 At the output of the multiplier we get the input signals, their sum and difference (as far as
frequency is concerned).
 Out of these frequency components, the difference frequency component is selected by the
bandpass filter that follows the multiplier.
 This difference signal is the MFSK signal. Thus the mixer removes the frequency hopping.
 The MFSK signal at the mixer output is then applied to a non-coherent MFSK demodulator.
At the output of the MFSK detector we obtain the digital modulating signal b(t).
 The coherent M-ary FSK detector can be implemented by using a bank of M, non coherent
matched filters.
 Each matched filter is matched to one of the tones of the MFSK signal. The largest output
out of the M available output of filters is selected to obtain the digital modulating signal.

Fast Frequency Hopping :

 As explained earlier, the fast FH/MFSK system is different than the slow FH/MFSK system.
 Because in the fast FH/MFSK system, there are multiple hops for each M-ary symbol.
Hence each hop is a “chip”.
Chip rate Rc = Rate of hopping Rh

 The fast frequency hopping is used for defeating a smart jammer who tries to interfere the
transmission.
 Before the jammer could understand the frequency band which is being used by the
transmitter, the transmitted signal is hopped to a new carrier frequency.
 The principle of fast frequency hopping is illustrated in fig.6.11.1(on next page).
 The data sequence used for the fast hopping is same as the one used for the slow hopping.
 The number of bits per MFSK symbol=K=2. Therefore the number of MFSK tones = 2 k = 4.
 The length of PN segment per hop i.e. n=3. Therefore the total number of frequency hops =
23 = 8
 The PN sequence decides the hopping frequency (shown by dotted lines in fig 6.11.1(a).
Two successive input binary bits 0 1 form the first symbol.
 During this symbol duration the PN sequence (3 digit) has two distinct values viz.01 and
110.
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 Therefore one symbol duration corresponds to two frequency hops. As shown in

fig.6.11.1(b)
The frequency of the MFSK modulator for symbol 01 is f2 and the outputs of the synthesizer
corresponding to 001 and 110 outputs of the PN sequence generator are say FH1 andFH6.
 Therefore the transmitted frequencies are (FH1 + f2 ) and ( FH6 + f2 ). The operation for the
first symbol 01 is summarized below.
Receiver used for Fast Hopping :

 For the recovery of the data, at the receiver, non-coherent detection is used.
 But the detection procedure is very much different from that used for a slow FH/MFSK
system.
 In practice the following two procedures are considered:
1. In this procedure, a separate decision is made on the K frequency hop chips received.
Then the estimation of the dehopped MFSK symbol is done based on the simple rule
based on majority vote.
2. In the second procedure, for each FH/MFSK symbol likelihood functions are computed
as functions of the total signal received over K chips and the largest one of them is
selected.
 The receiver based on the second procedure minimizes the average probability of error.
Hence practically it is preferred.

Advantages and Disadvantages of FH-SS System :

Advantages :
1. The synchronization is not greatly dependent on the distance.
2. The serial search system with FH-SS needs shorter time for acquisition.
3. The processing gain PG is higher than that of DS-SS system

Disadvantages :
1. The bandwidth of FH-SS system is too large (in GHz).
2. Complex an expensive digital frequency synthesizers are required to be used.
Comparison of Slow and Fast Frequency Hopping :

Sr. Slow frequency hopping Fast frequency hopping

No.
1. More than one symbols are transmitted More than one frequency hops are
Per frequency hop required to transmit one symbol
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2. Chip rate is equal to the symbol rate Chip rate is equal to the hop rate.
3. Symbol rate is higher than hop rate Hop rate is higher than symbol rate
4. Same carrier frequencies is used to transmit One symbol is transmitted over multiple
one or more symbols Carriers in different hops.
5. A jammer can detect the signal if the A jammer can detect this signal
Carrier frequency in one hop is known. because one symbol is transmitted using
more than one carrier frequencies.

Summary of Applications of Spread Spectrum Technique :

Some of the important applications of the spread spectrum technique are as follows:

1. For combating the intentional interference (jamming): This can be used in military
applications as well as other commercial applications to avoid the intentional interference.
2. For reducing the unintentional interference as explained in section 6.3.
3. For suppressing the interference due to multipath reception as explained in section 6.3.
4. In the low probability of intercept (LPI) application as explained in section 6.3.
5. Due to large bandwidth of a spread spectrum signal, the “fading”(specially the frequency
selective fading) does not affect the entire spectrum.
6. In fact a small portion of the complete spectrum is affected in the fading process. Therefore
the spread spectrum signals are used in the mobile communication.
7. Due to the use of pseudo-noise code sequence, the spread spectrum signal as noise. Thus the
SS communication is a “secured” communication.
8. The spread spectrum signals are used in the RADAR and other navigation systems for
ranging or distance measurement. We know that wideband signals are “time limited”.
Therefore they can be used for the measurement of time delays very precisely.
9. The most important application of the spread spectrum technique is code division multiple
access (CDMA). This is a multiuser communication system in which many users can access
the available channel bandwidth simultaneously. To avoid their interference each user is
allotted a particular code sequence, using the PN code generators. These code sequences are
used by the receivers to detect their signals in presence of other unwanted signals. CDMA is
used for the cellular mobile telephone systems.

Comparison of DSS-SS and FH-SS :

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ALSO

DSSS FHSS
1. Definition : PN sequence of large 1. Definition : Data bits are transmitted in
bandwidth is multiplied with narrow different frequency slots which are
band information signal. changed by PN sequence.
2. chip rate =1/TC. 2. chip rate=max(Rh , Rs).
3. Application with large multipath delays : 3. FH system can provide the same
DS represents a reliable mitigation mitigation only if the hopping rate is
method as such signal render all multipath faster than symbol rate and if the
signal copies that are delayed by more hopping bandwidth is larger.
than one chip time
from direct signal as invisible to the
receiver.
4. For commercial applications 4. Implementation of FHSS radio can be
implementation of DSSS radios with costly and complex due to need of
large gap can also be costly due to high speed frequency synthesizers.
need of high speed circuits.
5. DSSS radios encounter 5. FHSS suffers from burst error.
more randomly distributed
MWN 4.5 IF6I Nirmala K

error that are continuous and

lower level.

6. Modulation Technique : BPSK. 6. Modulation Technique : M-ary FSK.

7. Long acquisition Time. 7. Short acquisition time.
8. DSSS is distance dependent. 8. In FHSS, effect of distance is less.
9. Processing gain is less. 9. Processing gain is higher.
10. Bandwidth required is less than FHSS 10. Bandwidth of FHSS system is too
system. high.
11. Effect of fading is more. 11. Effect of fading is less.