Class Xii P.ed (Notes)

SUBJECT: - PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CLASS :- XII
[ NOTES]
By Satish Singh
Chapter 1(Planning Sports)
Meaning and Objectives of Planning
Planning is a process of setting objectives and deciding how to accomplish them.
Planning in sports is required because there is a definite time frame for achieving the
objectives and the resiilts are also known very clearly and in definite terms.
Objectives of planning are given below.
1. Timely achievements of targets.

2. Improving the percentage of success.
1. Finding out the causes of failure.

2. Deciding the appropriate time duration of a programme.
3. Distribution of work according to the ability of the people involved.
4. Remaining within the budget while achieving the required targets.
Various Committees and their Responsibilities
1. Committee for Publicity Its main duty is to advertise the sports events.
2. Transport Committee Its main responsibility is to make necessary
arrangements for transportation.
3. Grounds and Equipment Committee This committee is responsible for
making the grounds or laying out the track and field. , .
4. Refreshments and Entertainment Committee This committee takes the
charge of supplying refreshments and drinks to the guests, officials,
competitors etc.
5. Reception Committee The members of this committee are responsible to
welcome the chief guests at the opening and closing ceremonies. .
6. Committee on Entries and Programmes This committee sends entry forms
to the various institutions early. It also arranges seats for guests and
spectators. It sometimes also prepares fixtures of teams participating in
the competition.
7. Committee for Officials This committee selects various officials such as
referees, judges, umpires etc.
8. Announcement Committee This committee is responsible for making all
the announcements during the period of sports events,
9. First Aid Committee This committee provides first aid to the victim or
affected sportsman/athlete.
For successful organisation of the sports meet, committees are formed under three
heads These are Pre-meet committees like publicity, ground and equipment, reception
committee During meet committees like refreshment, transport committee and Post-
meet committees like award committee.
Tournaments
A tournament is a competition held among various teams in a particular activity
according to a fixed schedule where a winner is decided.
There are various methods for organising a tournament which depends upon various
factors such as
• The number of participating teams Facilities of ground, equipment and

number of officials available
• Days in which the tournament is to be completed
Importance of Tournaments
1. Development of Sports Skills Various skills of sports are developed in

tournaments.
2. Helpful in Selection of Players Good players can be selected easily by
observing their performance in the tournament.
3. Development of National and International Integration It not only develops
the integration of national and international level but also gives sense of
unity and brotherhood.
4. Development of Social Qualities Social traits such as respect, brotherhood,
discipline, sympathy, tolerance etc are developed among participants
through tournaments.
Types of Tournament
1. Knock-out or Elimination tournament

2. League or Round Robin tournament
3. Combination tournament
4. Challenge tournament
1. Knock-out or Elimination Tournaments

A single elimination tournament (also called an Olympic system tournament) or a
knock-out tournament is a type of elimination tournament where the loser of each
bracket is immediately eliminated from the tournament. In such tournaments, if the
number of competitors or competing teams are not a multiple of 2 (i.e. 4, 8, 16,..) then
some teams may be given a ‘bye’ and some teams are given ‘seeding’.
Seeding is a procedure by which good teams are placed in fixtures in such a way that
stronger teams do not meet each other at the very start of a tournament.
Bye is a privilege given to a team which is decided generally by seeding it or by draw of
lots.
Advantages of Knock-out Tournaments
1. Minimum number of officials are required in organising tournaments.

2. Owing to less number of matches so it takes less time to complete the
tournaments.
3. It helps in enhancing the standard of sports.
Disadvantages of Knock-out Tournaments
1. Good teams can get eliminated because of their poor performance even in
first round.
2. There are maximum chances of weak teams to enter into the final round.
2. League or Round Robin Tournaments

A league tournament, also called as round robin tournament, is a type of tournament in
which each contestant meets all other contestants in turn. In this type of tournament,
there has to be sufficient time to complete the tournament.
There are two types of league tournaments
1. Single league
2. Double league
In a single league round robin schedule, each participant plays with every other
participant once. If each participant plays with others twicely, this is frequently called a
round robin double league tournament.
1. Single League Number of matches =N(N−1)2 (N = Number of teams)

2. Double League Number of matches = N (N-1) (N = Number of teams)
Fixture
Any tournament whether it is knock-out or league, is arranged according to a set
procedure which is known as fixture. For knock-out tournament, the procedure to draw
fixture is through bye and seeding. For league tournaments, the procedure to draw
fixture is through staircase and cyclic method.
Fixture is the process of arranging the teams in systematic order in various groups for
competition in a physical activity. In other words, it is the set-up of various teams for
competitive matches where they play in a systematic order as per the fixture schedule.
The success of a tournament depends upon planning of suitable fixture. Tournaments
are played in various forms of fixtures.
Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

In a knock-out tournament, the fixtures are drawn by the following methods
1. Seeding Method
Seeding is a procedure by which good teams are placed in fixtures in such a way that
stronger teams do not meet each other at the very start of a tournament. It is done to
overcoine the drawbacks of a single knock-out tournament. Seeding can be done only if
the standards of the teams are known before the start of the tournament. The draw may
result between the strong competitors at early level competition, so they are ‘seeded’ to
prefvent this.
Thus, the top competitors will not meet until the quarter final, semi final or final round.
Seeding is used to ensure that-players or teams of recognised outstanding abilltytlo not
confront each other in the early rounds. It represents the tournament committee’s
subjective rating of the various players, and chances of winning the tournament.
Special Seeding
It is a method of seeding in which the players or teams directly participate in the quarter
final or semi-final matches thus avoiding their participation in the initial rounds.
2. Bye Method
Bye means the avoiding of playing a match in the first round of the tournament. It is a
privilege given to a team which is decided generally by seeding it or by draw of lots.
Some teams may get bye in first round, by which they get promoted to higher round
competition.
This may be given as a reward for their some previous achievements. Byes can be
applied equally to single person competitions and team sports as well as to single
game eliminations and best of series elimination. Byes are given in 1st round only. The
number of byes that should be given in a tournament is decided by finding the
difference between the number of teams and the next power of two.
Example : (N – 1) if 20 teams are participating, then 19 matches (20 – 1) =19 will be
played.
Method of Drawing Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

In order to draw fixtures in a knock-out tournament, following things are essential to
calculate
1. Total Number of Matches It means the total number of matches that will be played
during the entire tournament. The number of matches to be played is calculated by
subtracting 1 from total number of teams (N – 1).
Suppose total teams are 11 so matches to be played during the tournament are 10 (11
– 1).
2. Number of Rounds It means the total number of rounds that should be played during
the tournament. Rounds will include the initial rounds, quarter finals, semi finals and
finals. If the number of teams is a power of 2, then number of rounds will exactly be
multiple of 2 up to that number.
Example :
If number of teams is not a power of 2, then number of rounds will be equal to the
multiple of next power of two.
Example :
The next power of 2 after 21 is 32 which is 25.
3. Number of teams in each half All the teams are divided into two halves for the sake
of convenience. If the number of teams is even, then the number of teams in upper and
lower half will be equal i.e Total teams 20 then apply the formulae N2
Number of teams in upper half
N2=202=10
Number of teams in lower half
N2=202=10
If the number of tearms is odd ,then applyN+12 for upper half and N−12
Example : Total teams = 15
N+12=15+12=8
N−12=15−12=8
4. Number of byes Teams getting the byes do not play in the initial round. They are
given by subtracting the number of teams by the next power of 2.
Example 1 : Total number of teams =19
Next power of two after 19 = 32
Power of two – 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32
therefore number of byes will be 32 – 19 =13
Example 2 : Total number of teams =12

therefore number of byes 16 – 12 = 4
Hence, 13 teams in example 1 and 4 teams in example 2 will not play the match in 1st
round.
5. Number of byes in upper and lower half

For calculating how many teams in upper and lower half will get byes, the method is as
follows
Number of byes in upper half = Nb−12
Number of byes in lower half= Nb+12
Total number of byes = 13
Number of byes in upper half= 13−12=6
Number of byes in lower half= 13+12=7
6. Method of fixing byes The number of the teams are placed in upper and lower half
according to the draw of lots or using other methods. Then following procedure is
adopted for fixing the byes.
The last team of lower half gets first bye.
The first team of upper half gets second bye.
The first team of lower half gets third bye.
The last team of upper half gets fourth bye.
The second last team of lower half gets fifth bye.
Like this the order continues.
7. Method of Seeding It is done to prevent the strong teams from competing with each
other in the initial round. Therefore the strong teams are placed in the position where
they will get bye i.e. placing the strong teams on the last position of lower half or first
position of upper half.
Example : Total no. of teams = 6
No. of byes 8 – 6 =2
Seeding = Last of lower half and first of upper half.
Number of matches 6 – 1 = 5
Examples
Example 1 A fixture of 19 teams on knock-out basis.
Total matches = N – 1 = 19 – 1 = 18
N+12=19+12=202=10 teams
N−12=19−12=182=9 teams
Total number of byes
= Next power of two – Total number of teams = 32 – 19=13 byes
Number of byes in upper half
Totalnumberofbyes−12
i.e[Nb−12]=13−12=122=6byes
Number of byes in lower half
=Totalnumberofbyes+12
[Nb+12]=13+12=142=7byes
Example 2 A fixture of 12 teams where 4 teams getting special seeding.
Total number of teams =12
Number of teams m upper half = N2=122=6
Number of teams in lower half = N2= 6
Teams setting special seeding = 4
Number of matches = 12 – 1 = 11
Fixture
Team number 1,2, 11 and 12 do not play the match initially as they get special seeding.
• Winner of each bracket enters the next round while losers are eliminated.
For example, Team 3 and 4 play match number 1. If 3 wins, then 4 is
eliminated from the tournament.
• If the number of teams/ players is odd, then number of teams in upper half
and lower half each is N+12
• Teams getting special seeding do not play initial rounds just like byes
Fixtures in League Tournaments

The three methods used for drawing up fixtures are
1. Staircase method
2. Cyclic method
3. Tabular method
Note We will cover in detail the first two methods because these two methods are
included in syllabus.
1. Staircase Method
In this method, the fixtures are made like a staircase. It is arranged in sequential form,
there is no bye, no problem of odd or even and therefore it is easiest to arrange. An
example will illustrate this method.
Example : Draw up a fixture of 9 teams on Round Robin basis using staircase method.
The number of teams = 9
Thus, number of matches
N(N−1)2=9(9−1)2=9×82=36matches
The fixture is given below
2. Cyclic Method
In this method, if the number of teams is even (i.e. 4, 6, 8, ….), team 1 is fixed on the top
right side and the other teams move in clockwise direction down one side of a rectangle
and up on the other side. In such a case, the number of rounds will be N-1 if there are N
teams participating. However, if the number of teams is odd (i.e. 3, 5, 7,….), a ‘bye’ is
fixed at the top and all teams follow it in sequence. In such a case, the number of
rounds will be N.
Example 1 Fixture of 6 teams on cyclic method.

Total number of teams = 6
Total number of matches = N(N−1)2=6(6−1)2=15
Total number of rounds = N – 1 = 5
Example 2 Fixture of 5 teams on cyclic method.

Total number of teams = 5
Total number of matches = N(N−1)2=5(5−1)2=10
Total number of rounds = 5
Deciding the Winner
The method to decide the winner in the tournaments is by calculating the percentage of
matches won.
percentage=MatchesWonMatchesPlayed×100
Intramurals
The word intramural is derived from the Latin words intra and muros, which means
‘within walls’. The teams compete within the walls of the institution e.g. inter-class or
inter-house tournament within an institution.
The objectives of intramurals are as follows
• To provide incentive, motivation and opportunity to learn various skills.

• To develop sportsman spirit among students.
• To help in recreation of the students.
• To improve-social interaction among the students.
Intramural competitions are conducted by the intramural committee of the institution.

Significance of intramurals are as follows
• It improves the sense of citizenship and adult living. ,

• It helps in selection of teams for participation in extramural tournaments.
• It brings out the hidden talent of the students.
• It develops leadership qualities in students.
• It creates recreational atmosphere among the teachers and students.
Extramurals
This encloses the activities which are performed outside the walls of the institution or
school. It means that students of two or more schools participate in such competitions.
The objectives of extramurals are
• To improve the standard of sports.

• To provide experience to students.
• To develop sportsmanship and fraternity.
• To broaden the base of sports.
• To provide the knowledge of new rules and advanced techniques.
Significance of extramurals are as follows
• They provide recreational opportunities for the campus community. ..

• They give positive experiences, regardless of race, nationality, age and
gender.
• They provide an opportunity to develop motor skills which will be beneficial
throughout life.
• They develop important values and skills such as self-esteem, social skills,
sportsmanship and self-motivation.
• They give an opportunityfor relaxation from strenuous school work and the
rapid pace of modern living.
• Specific Sports Programmes
Specific sports programmes are those which are not usually related to
competitions. The programmes have various objectives like creating awareness,
creating a sense of integration among people and raising funds for charitable
organisations. Some of these programmes are Sports day. Run for fun, Health
run, Run for specific cause. Run for unity and Run for awareness.
Chapter 2 ( Sports and Nutrition)
Balanced Diet and Nutrition

A balanced diet is that which contains the proper amount of each nutrient. A balanced
diet consists of all essential food constituents i.e. protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins
and minerals in correct proportion. Nutrition is the science that deals with food and its
uses by the body. Food supplies the energy for every action our body undertakes, from
eating bananas to running a race. Food also provides material that our body needs to
build and repair its tissues and to regulate the functions of its organs and systems. The
chemicals in food which our body needs and are essential for the growth and
replacement of tissues are called nutrients.
Macro and Micro Nutrients Macro Nutrients

The macro nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in all activities that we do. The elements
of carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are organic
compounds which are important for our digestive process. They require less water in
diet. There primary function is to provide energy to the body, especially to the brain and
nervous system. There are two main types of carbohydrates i.e. simple carbohydrates
and complex carbohydrates.
Proteins
Proteins are the basic constituents of our cells. They are large molecules, so they
cannot get directly into our blood. So, they turned into amino acid by our digestive
system. There are 23 amino acid and only 9 are available in diet. Proteins form tissues,
repair the broken tissues, regulate balance of water and oxygen etc. They are body
building foods. Foods rich in proteins are eggs, meat, fish and dairy products as well as
pulses, nuts and cereals
Fats
Fats contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. These are the most concentrated source of
energy in food. Fats have a very high energy content. Foods rich in fats are butter, oil,
sausage, cheese, fish, chocolate, olives and nuts. If we permanently take too little
exercise, we become overweight or even ill. Many fats are unhealthy such as trans-fats
in deep fried foods.
Micro Nutrients
Micro nutrients are vitamins, minerals and secondary plant compounds.
Vitamins
Vitamins are compounds of carbon which are essential for the normal growth and
working of the body. They are required in very small quantities. Many of them can be
stored in the body for months or even years but others need to be freshly absorbed
every day. There are two groups of vitamins i.e. fat soluble and water soluble
Fat Soluble Vitamins The vitamins that are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
and are soluble in fats such as vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K. The fat
soluble vitamins are explained below
• Vitamin A This is essential for normal growth of the body. Deficiency of vitamin A
leads to night blindness and also affects the kidneys, nervous system and
digestive system. Sources are milk, curd, ghee, egg yolk, fish, tomato, papaya,
green vegetables, orange, spinach, carrot and pumpkin.
• Vitamin D This is essential for the formation of healthy teeth and bones. The
presence of this vitamin in the body enables it to absorb calcium and phosphorus.
Its deficiency causes rickets, softness of bones and teeth diseases. Sources are
egg yolk, fish, sunlight, vegetables, cod liver oil, milk, cream and butter.
• Vitamin E This is essential in increasing the fertility among men and women as
well as proper functioning of adrenal and sex glands. Its deficiency causes
weakness in muscles and heart. Sources are green vegetables, sprouts, coconut
oil, dry
and fresh fruits, milk, meat, butter and maize.
• Vitamin K This is helpful in the clotting of blood. Its deficiency causes anaemia
and blood does not clot easily.
Sources are cauliflower, spinach, cabbage, tomato, potato, wheat, egg and meat.
Water Soluble Vitamins The vitamins that are composed of nitrogen, sulphur and are
soluble in water such as vitamin B complex, vitamin C.
• Vitamin B Complex There are 12 vitamins in this group, some of them are Bj, B2,
B3, B6 and B12. They are necessary for growth, proper functioning of heart, liver,
kidney and maintains smooth skin. Its deficiency causes Beri-Beri disease.
Pellagra and also decreases immunity.
Sources are wheat, milk, nuts, peas, egg yolk and sprouts.
• Vitamin B, (Thiamin) Vitamin Bt or Thiamin, helps to release energy from foods,
promotes normal appetite, and is important in maintaining proper nervous system
function.
• Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Riboflavin or Vitamin B2, helps to release energy from
foods, promotes good vision, and healthy skin. It also helps to convert the amino
acid tryptophan (which makes up protein) into niacin.
• Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Vitamin B3 or niacin works with other B-complex vitamins to
metabolise food and provides energy for the body. Vitamin B3 is involved in
energy production, normal enzyme function, digestion, promoting normal appetite,
healthy skin and nerves.
• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Vitamin B6 is a key factor in protein and glucose
metabolism as well as in the formation of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a
component of red blood cells-it carries oxygen. Vitamin B is also involved in
keeping the lymph nodes and thymus gland healthy.
• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Vitamin B12 is also known as Cobalamin, aids in the
building of genetic material, production of normal red blood cells, and
maintenance of the nervous system.
• Vitamin C Vitamin C is also called Ascorbic acid, which is a water-soluble vitamin
and cannot be stored in the body. Most plants and animals can produce their own
vitamin C but humans cannot. Vitamin C is needed for proper growth,
development, and to heal wounds. It is used to make the collagen tissue for
healthy teeth, gums, blood vessels and bones. Deficiency of vitamin C causes
scurvy.
Minerals
Minerals contain elements needed by our body in small quantities. But these are
essential for proper growth and functioning of the body. A shortage of minerals can
have severe effects on health. For example, a long-term shortage of foods containing
iodine in people leads to thyroid gland diseases. Some of the important minerals are
mentioned below
1. Iron It is important for the formation of haemoglobin. Its deficiency leads to

anaemia and sources are meat, eggs and dry fruits.
2. Calcium It is needed for the formation of strong bones, teeth and also for clotting
of blood and muscle contraction. Its deficiency causes rickets, asthma and
sources are milk, egg yolk, cheese and orange.
3. Phosphorus It is required for development of strong bones and teeth and also for
making energy. Its sources are egg, fish, meat and unpolished rice.
4. Potassium It is important for growth and keeping cells and blood healthy. Its
deficiency weakens the muscles of the body and sources are carrot, beet root,
onion, tomato, orange and mango.
5. Sodium It is needed for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Its sources
are milk and milk products, meat and eggs.
6. Iodine It is essential for proper thyroid function. Its deficiency causes goitre and
sources are seafood and salt.
7. Fluorine It is important to make the enamel (polish) of the teeth hard and prevents
dental caries.
8. Copper It is helpful in red blood cells,connective tissue and nerve fibre formation
and functioning.
9. Zinc It is required for insulin production and also for functioning of male prostate,
digestion and metabolism.
Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Components of Diet
Food components whether they are nutritive (providing calories) or non-nutritive (not
providing calories) are needed to a multitude of food and beverages. They not only
provide a sweet flavour to foods, they are also used to preserve foods (in jams or
jellies), provide body bulk and texture (in ice-cream and baked goods), enhance other
flavours (like salty) and aid in fermentation (in’breads and pickles).
The nutritive components of diet are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and
minerals. Non-nutritive components do not contribute to the energy, calories or nutrition
of the body. Some non-nutritive components are essential for the body while others
harm the body. Colour compounds, flavour compounds, food addictives, plant
compound, water, roughage or fibre are some non-nutritive components of diet.
Eating for Weight Control

This means eating the right amount of food that contains all the essential nutrients
required by the body in proper quantities. Eating too much can lead to obesity and too
less can lead to underweight. Therefore eating the right amount will lead to healthy
weight.
A Healthy Weight
The most accurate assessment of your ideal weight takes into account the composition
of your body, how much of your weight is lean body mass (muscles and bones) and how
much is body fat. For optimum health, body fat should be no more than 20% of total
weight for men and 30% for women. A person is maintaining healthy weight or not, can
be checked with the help of BMI
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of body fat calculated on the basis of height and
weight. This method applies to both adult men and women. To calculate BMI, take the
weight in kilograms and divide it by height taken in metres. Then divide the number
once again by height. For example, BMI is to be calculated by using the body mass
index formula, for
Height = 1.70 m, weight = 70 kg
BMI calculation = Bodyweightinkg/(Heightinmetres)2
70(1.70)2=701.70×1.70=24.22
Once the BMI number is determined, the following table is used for determining whether
the person is of normal weight, overweight, underweight or obese.
BMI Weight status

Below 18.5 Underweight
18.5-24.9 Normal
25.0-29.9 Overweight
30.0 and above Obese
From the table, the score 24.22 shows normal weight status.
The Pitfalls of Dieting
People use various techniques of weight loss such as taking diet pills, fasting, reducing
calories consumption, exercise etc. There are some dangers pitfalls of dieting that need
to be checked for reducing weight in a healthy way.
The pitfalls of dieting are mentioned below
1. Eating too Little In dieting people take just 1500-1800 calories per day. But this is
not sufficient to meet the daily requirements. This may result in massive weight
loss and other related health problems.
2. More Drinking than Eating In order to reduce calorie consumption, more drinks are
taken like sweetened juices, sodas, tea and coffee with sugar. These increase the
weight.
3. Skipping Meals Not taking breakfast, lunch, dinner or proper meals reduces the
metabolic rate. Then the body starts conserving energy, the next time it gets food.
This also results in more intake of calories in next meal.
4. Intake of Labelled Foods By taking foods that are labelled as Tow fat, Tow sugar,
Tow calories’ may not produce proper results. For example, drinking more tea with
sugarfree results in more intake of tea and hence greater calorie consumption.
5. Not Performing Exercises No exercises reduce the level of metabolism drastically
and there is no burning of calories. In that case dieting will not be effective.
Food Intolerance
Food intolerance is the intolerance of certain elements in some foods that cannot be
properly processed by our digestive system. It is pretty common to have an adverse
reaction to a certain food, but in most cases it is an intolerance rather than a true
allergy. Although intolerance and allergy may have similar symptoms, a food allergy can
be more serious and it usually comes on suddenly. Features of food intolerance are as
follows
• Usually comes on gradually.

• May only happen when you eat a lot of a particular food.
• May only happen if you eat the food often.
Myths about Foods

Various food myths are prevailing in India as well as over the world. What, when and
how often to eat are questions confusing many people. People believe in these myths
because the myths seem credible. However, now that we have advanced scientific
knowledge, we can dispel these myths. The most common food related myths which
are still prevalent in contemporary society are
• Potatoes make us fat.

• Fat-free products help in reducing weight.
• Avoid eggs because they increase the cholesterol level.
• Drinking water while eating makes us fat.
• Don’t consume milk immediately after eating fish.
• Starve yourself if you want to lose weight.
• Exercising makes you eat more.
Sports Nutrition
Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition, that deals with the nutrition
requirement of sportspersons. Sports nutrition plays an important role to attain
excellence in sports. The appropriate proportion of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
fats, proteins and fibres are essential for the proper nutrition of a sportsperson. As a
result of the higher amount of physical activities in sports, athletes require more
nutrients to keep the energy level adequate. During a sports training session, an athlete
tends to lose a lot of fluids and electrolytes. Fluid loss negatively affects the sports
performance of an athlete if not replaced in time. Thus, it is vital to drink enough water
and electrolytes after a training session.
Effects of Diet on Performance

A proper diet is the intake of appropriate types and adequate amounts of foods and
drinks to supply nutrition and energy for the maintenance of body cells, tissues and
organs and to support normal growth and development. For a sportsperson athlete, it is
essential to take a balanced diet as a lot of physical activity and endurance is needed in
sports. The quality of sports diet depends on the correct proportion of carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals, salts etc, which constitute the main nutrients of diet.
Factors Affecting Diet

Several factors that affect our diet are
• Age, Sex and Body Surface Area Diet differs from age to age. Youngsters need
different types of food both in quality as well as quantity as compared to older
people who need diet in less quantity and with lesser fats.
• Types and Duration of Activity Diet also depends on types of activities that we do
and their duration.
• Eating Habits and Social Customs Eating habits and social customs also affect
the diet of an individual.
• Climate Factors Food varies in different climates, like the diet is different in
summers as compared to winters
• Health Status and Growth If you are in a good state of health then you will have
good diet, whereas an unhealthy individual cannot have a similar diet, .
Pre, During and Post-Competition Fluid and Meal Intake

Nowadays sportsmen and women follow a controlled diet, particularly on the day of
competition. Although diet doesn’t turn poor . athletes into great ones, a proper diet
makes the difference between performing poorly and tapping your full potential.
The Pre-Competition Meal

The goal prior to a competition or a training session is to maximise carbohydrate stores
in the muscles and liver and to top up blood glucose stores. This helps in
• sustaining energy
• boosting
• performance
• hydrating the body
• preserving muscle mass and
• speeding recovery after competition.
Nutrition Requirement during Competition

What you eat or drink during competition, or a training session is important under
specific circumstances. Light meals are recommended and carbohydrates should be
consumed in gel form. Sports drinks may be useful since they have electrolytes that
help speed hydration and recovery. Many endurance athletes prefer to drink water and
eat fruit and other foods to supply their energy even on really long runs. If you are
exercising intensely for longer than two hours, especially in the heat, do not rely on
water alone. This will decrease your performance and your recovery. Use commercial
carbohydrate drinks 15-20 minutes before the start of the competition.
The Post-Competition Meal

Post-workout nutrition can help you
• recover
• re-hydrate
• refuel
• build muscle and
• improve future performance.
Ideally, a large, high-carbohydrate meal should be eaten within two hours of the finish of
competition. Bananas and dried fruits are good immediately following a match, as are
sandwiches and high-carbohydrate drinks. A main meal severed hours later might
consist of bread, pasta, potatoes and rice as well as other simple sugars like cakes,
sweets and proteins. Consume carbohydrates within 15 minutes after the competition
is over. Then within 1-2 hours consume 100-200 gm carbohydrates and 20 gm proteins.
Food Supplements for Children

Food supplements, also known as dietary supplements, are nutrients that are added to
your diet. They provide vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, enzymes and other
beneficial substances. Taking a balanced diet regularly will not require the need of
taking food supplements. Food supplements are taken by children when they feel that
their diet is not proper.
Advantages of various food supplements are
• Supplements can contribute to improve muscular strength, endurance and overall

physical performance.
• Food supplements can also prevent a variety of diseases and health conditions.
• Protein supplements available as powders, shakes or bars, provide high quality
protein to your diet and boost your protein intake.
Disadvantages of various food supplements are

• Vitamin A toxicity, for example, can cause liver damage, blurred vision, headaches,
bone pain and swelling, drowsiness and nausea.
• Supplements can also interact with medications which can cause unwanted side
effects and decrease the efficacy of the medicine.
• Fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in your fat tissue if you regularly take in more
than you need.
Precautions which can be taken for food supplements are
• For optimal benefit, consult your doctor about the right dietary supplements for
you. Find out more about the supplement ingredients before you purchase the
product.
• Avoid dietary supplements with megadoses of any ingredient, particularly vitamin
A, vitamin D and iron. A megadose is one that exceeds the recommended dietary
intake. Although megadoses can be beneficial for the treatment of certain health
conditions, they can also cause toxicity symptoms.
• Finally, stop taking any supplement if you experience an unpleasant side effect
and never combine supplements with medication or other supplements without
your doctor’s recommendations.
Chapter 3 (Yoga and Lifestyle)
Asana as Preventive Measures

Asana refer to the many positions in which a person sits or stands to do yoga. It is a
Sanskrit word which means a ‘physical posture’. Various types of physical postures or
asanas means bending and stretching the body. This stimulates blood circulation,
balance the nervous system, benefits the various systems running in our body like
digestive system, nervous system, cardiovascular system, muscles, joints etc. Asanas
are beneficial for the mind, psyche and chakras (energy centres) thus preventing from
many types of lifestyle diseases. Asanas also help in receiving stress, treating anxiety
and make a person mentally rejuvenated.
Obesity
The excess weight or deposition of excess fats on body is called obesity. It leads to
various diseases like diabetes, heart diseases, hypertension, lowered pulmonary
functions, lowers life expectancy. Obesity is a condition where your Body Mass Index
(BMI) is higher than 30. There are various reasons of obesity such as lack of proper
exercise, eating habits, psychological factors, endocrine glands problems, familial
tendency. Males are at high risk during age 29 to 35 and females are at risk during the
age 45 to 49. The risk increases with age. Various asanas can be practised effectively
to reduce the weight, control obesity and achieve normal healthy condition of body and
mind. The major asanas to control obesity are Vajrasana, Hastasana, Trikonasana and
Ardha Matsyendrasana.
Their procedures, benefits and contraindications are listed below

Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]
Procedure
• It is done in sitting posture.
• Stand on the knees with the lower legs , together and stretched backwards,, the
two . big toes crossing each other.
• Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the
thighs on the calf muscles.
• Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
• Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.
Benefits
• Vajrasana modifies the blood flow in the lower pelvic region. It increases the.
efficiency of the digestive system.
• It helps to prevent acidity and ulcers by improving the digestion.
• It is a good meditative pose for those suffering from sciatica and severe lower
back problems.
• Supta Vajrasana strengthens the muscles in back, neck and chest regions. It
expands the chest and is good for lung problems.
Contraindications
• Vajrasana should not be practised by those suffering from severe knee pain.
• This asana should be avoided by recent surgery patients of legs or waist.
• If feel any pain in the ankles during Vajrasana, release the pose and massage the
ankle with the hands.
Hastasana
Procedure
• Hastasana is done in a standing posture. Start with standing in Tadasana and

twist the arms in a way that the palms are positioned away from the torso along
with thumbs facing backward. Inhale and along with it brush away your arms out
and towards the roof.
• Bring the arms parallel to one another and then without bending the shoulders
push the palms , tightly together.
• Expand the elbows completely and reach upwards. Then slightly slant your head
backwards and look at the thumbs.
• The shoulder blades need to be slithered down the spine
• Exhale along with tilting the torso towards the front from the joints of the hip into
standing in a forward bending position.
Benefits
• It stretches the complete body and provides a good massage to the arms, spine,
upper and lower back, ankles, hands, shoulders, calf muscles and thighs.
• It stretches the Organs of the stomach, and as a result enhances the digestive
system and increases the capacity of the lungs.
• This asana helps in enhancing the blood circulation of the body.
• It helps in enhancing the body postures.
• It helps in alleviating nervousness and melancholy along with providing asenSe of
Achievement.
• It helps in tightening the abdomen and helps in easing sciatica.
Contraindications
In case of shoulder or neck injuries, experiencing dizziness’ While staring’upwards and
in case of any other medical concerns.
Trikonasana [Triangle Pose]

Procedure
• This is done in a standing posture.

• Stand erect with feet about 3 feet apart with knees straight.
• Raise both the hands till they are in line with each other, parallel to the ground.
Inhale when you are raising the hands.
• Now bend towards the right and slightly bend the knees and touch the right foot
with the hands. Look up at the left hand. Exhale when you are bending down to
touch the foot. Keep the eyes open throughout the practice.
• Return to the standing position.
• Repeat this with the left hand touching the left foot.
• Practise as many rounds as is comfortable.
Beneits
• Strengthens the legs, knees, ankles, arms and chest.

• Stretches and opens the lower back region, groin area, hamstrings, calves,
shoulders, chest and spine.
• Increases mental and physical equilibrium.
• Helps improve digestion.
• Reduces anxiety, stress, back pain and sciatica Contraindications.
• Avoid doing this if suffering from migraine, diarrhoea, neck and back injuries.
• Those with high blood pressure may do this pose but without raising their hand
overhead, as this may further raise the blood pressure.
Ardha Matsyendrasana
(Half Spinal Twist Pose]
Procedure
• This is done in a sitting posture.

• Sit with legs straight and stretched in front of you.
• Bend the right leg, lift it and place it on the left side of the stretched left foot.
• Bend the left leg and bring close to the body. Place it under the right buttocks.
• Take the left arm around the right leg and grab the toes of the right leg with the
left hand.
• Now turn towards the right and simultaneously move the right hand behind the
back. Twist the back and the neck as far right as possible. Exhale while twisting
the back and neck.
• Breathe normally and slowly in this position.
• Repeat with the other leg.
Benefits
• It is one of the best poses to improve the flexibility of the spine.

• It stimulates the liver and kidneys.
• It stretches the shoulders, hips and neck.
• It energises the spine.
• It stimulates the digestive fire in the belly.
• It relieves menstrual discomfort, fatigue, sciatica and backache.
• It is therapeutic for asthma and infertility.
Contraindications
• Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation due to the strong twist in the abdomen.
• People with heart, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this asana.
• Avoid those who are having peptic ulcer or hernia.
• Those with severe spinal problems should avoid.
• Those with mild slipped disc can benefit but in severe cases it should be avoided.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a better known lifestyle disease. It has become an epidemic worldwide.
Yoga helps a lot to control and prevent this disease. Different asanas help to stimulate
the production of insuline that helps in controlling diabetes. The asanas to control
diabetes are
Bhujangasana
Procedure
• This is done in lying posture.

• Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
• Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder
level and palms on floor.
• Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor take five
breaths at least.
• Exhale slowly come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.
Benefits
• It improves the blood circulation and energises the heart.

• It decreases menstrual irregularities in females.
• It strengthens muscles of chest, shoulders, arms and abdomen.
• It is effective in uterine disorder.
• It improves the function of reproductive organ.
• It improves the function of liver, kidney, pancreas and gall bladder.
• It helps to lose weight.
• It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
• It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
• It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.
Contraindications
• Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

• Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
• Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.
Contraindications
• Avoid during pregnancy.

• People having a hernia problem and backache should not do this asana.
• Avoid those who are suffering from ulcer, heart problem or any surgeries like spine
and brain.
Paschimottanasana
Procedure
• This is done in sitting posture.

• Sit on the floor with the outstretched legs.
• Inhale and lengthen the abdomen then lift the chest.
• Exhale bend forwards from the hips. Keep the shoulders open and the head up.
• Reach forwards and hold the big toes in a lock with the middle and index fingers.
• Inhale, lengthen the torso, bring the sternum forward.
• Exhale, bring the chest and abdomen down to the thighs and the elbows out to the
sides.
• Stay in this position for 5 deep breaths and relax the muscles while exhale.
• Focus on stretching the hamstrings rather than getting the head to the knees.
Benefits
• It stretches hamstrings, spine, shoulders and hip joints.

• It massages the pancreas and improves
• It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
• It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
• It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.
Contraindications

• Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.
Pawanmuktasana
Procedure
• This is done in lying position.

• Lie flat on the back and keep the legs, straight, relax breathe .deeply and regularly.
• Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till
the thigh touches to stomach.
• Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
• Place the nose tip between the knees.
• Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i,e. Shavasana.
• This is very beneficial for stomach as The results are very impressive.
Benefits
• It cures acidity, indigestion and constipation.

• It is helpful for those suffering from. gastrointestinal problems, arthritis, pain,
heart problems and waist pain.
• It strengthens back muscle and cures back pain.
• It is very beneficial for reproductive organs and for menstruation disorder.
Contraindications
• Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip
disc and ulcer should avoid.
• During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.
digestion.
Ardha Matsyendrasana
Procedure
• This is done in sitting posture.

• Sit straight with stretching the legs in front of you then fold the left leg properly.
• Place the ankle near the hip.
• Place the right leg towards the outside of the left knee on the ground.
• Keep straight the left hand, while taking it near the outside of the right knee and
hold the right toe.
• Fold the right hand behind the back and look backwards.
• The same should be repeated in the alternate position from the other side also.
Benefits
• It increases the flexibility and function of vertebrae of the spine.

• It helps to cure constipation and indigestion.
• It increases oxygen supply to the lungs.
• It is beneficial for slipped disc patients.
• It is helpful in treatment of diabetes, constipation, cervical, urinary, spinal
problems.
Contraindications
• Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation cycle.

• People with cardiac problem, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this
asana.
• People having peptic ulcer or hernia should avoid.
• Avoid those who are having severe spinal problems and mild slipped disc.
Asthma
Asthma is a universal chronic airway inflammatory disease of the air passage caused
by excessive air sensitiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease can be managed,
controlled and cured by performing various asanas that help in curing asthma.
The asanas to control asthma are
Sukasana
Procedure
• This is done in a sitting position.

• Sit cross legged on the floor or any other flat surface.
• Bring one foot over the opposite knee. Place both the palms on your knees and
close your eyes.
• Breathe slowly and concentrate on the breathing pattern.
• Continue breathing in the same way for 5 minutes.
Benefits
• It helps to make the back stronger and elongate the knees and ankles.
• It is beneficial for opening the muscles of groin, hips and the outer thighs.
• It relieves from physical and mental tiredness and eliminates worries from the
person’s mind.
• It can relive from backache as well as pain.
• It is a good posture to sit for a long time.
Contraindications
• In case of severe knee and back injury, it is required to sit over the folded blanket
or take the assistance of the bolster or pillow.
• If face difficulties in this pose then try placing the blanket or bolster under the
thighs.
Chakrasana
Procedure

• Lie down properly and look upward.
• Bring the feet closer to the hips and bend knees upward; keep a distance of about
one foot between the feet.
• Bring up the hands near to the ears and put the palms on the ground as the fingers
facing on the shoulders.
• Gradually, lift up the body in air by balancing on feet and rotate the head backward
along with hands slowly.
• Reach the final position by stretching the whole body to forming a position look
like a semi-circle.
• Now maintain this position as longer as possible. To reach the normal position,
slowly lower down the body to touch the ground and release the hands and feet.
Benefits
• It helps to strengthen liver, pancreas, kidneys and heart.

• It is good for infertility, asthma and osteoporosis.
• It strengthens arms, shoulders, hands, wrists and legs buttocks, abdomen and
spine.
• It stretches the chest and lungs.
• It helps to stimulate the thyroid and pituitary glands.
• It helps to increase energy and counteracts depression.
Contraindications
• Those who are suffering from diarrhoea, heart problems and hernia should avoid
this.
• Avoid those who have wrist, ankles and spine pain.
• Hypertension or hypotension person should avoid this asana.
Gomukhasana [Cow Face Pose)

Procedure
• This is a sitting asana.

• Sit erect and stretch both legs together in front, hands by the side, palm resting on
the ground, fingers of the hands together.
• Fold right leg at the knee and place it on the ground by the side of the left buttock.
• Bringing the left leg from above the right leg, place it on the ground by the side of
the right buttock.
• Now place the palms on the knee one above the other and sit erect.
• After some time return to the original position.
• Change the position of the legs i.e. by placing the right knee above and the left
knee down and repeat this as much as you can.
Benefits
• It helps to stretch and strengthen the muscles of the ankles, hips and thighs,
shoulders, triceps, inner armpits and chest.
• It is helpful in the treatment of sciatica.
• It enhances the workings of the kidneys by stimulating it, thus helping those
suffering from diabetes.
• Regular practice can reduce stress and anxiety.
Contraindications
• Those who are suffering from shoulder, knee or backpain should avoid this.
• People suffering from any kind of knee injury/problem avoid this.
Parvatasana (Mountain Pose)

Procedure
• it down on the floor in a cross legged position or Sukhasana and Padmasana
(lotus ppse).
• Bring the hands in the front and interlock the fingers.
• Breathe out and move the hands over the head. Keep the fingers interlocked and
hands stretched upwards.
• Pull the torso in upward direction and stretch.
• Hold this position for a little longer and breathe
normally.
• Bring down the hands as in original position. Unlock the hands and keep them
aside and stretch the legs in the front and relax.
Benefits
• It helps to improve the blood circulation around the body.

• It reduces mental fatigue and improves the memory.
• It reduces muscle pain, especially in back and neck regions.
• It helps to reduce the problems of carpal tunnel syndrome, rheumatic stiffness.
• It helps in stimulating the synthesis of growth hormone.
Contraindications
• Don’t bend the elbow or overstrain the knees.

• Avoid any forward movement.
• Avoid hunching of the back during sitting position.
• People with hunch back, stiff shoulder should avoid.
Bhujangasana
Procedure

• Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor and take
five breaths at least.
• Exhale slowly and come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.
• It is equally effective in all the cases.
Benefits
• It gives a good stretch to the lungs, shoulders, chest and abdomen.

• It is helpful in stress release.
• It is known to open up the lungs and the heart i.e. it helps protect from diseases of
bronchiatis.
• It relieves sciatica and asthma.
Contraindications
• Avoid if suffering from hernia, back injuries, carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Avoid if undergone recent abdominal surgeries.
Paschimottasana
Procedure
• This is done in sitting position.

• Sit straight with the legs together by stretching in front. Keep the head neck and
spine erect.
• Place the palms on the respective knees.
• Now bend the head and trunk slowly forward and catch the toes with the thumb,
index and middle fingers without bending knees.
• Take a deep breath and exhale slowly.
• Bend the arm and try to touch the elbow on the floor.
• After few seconds slowly return to your starting position.
• Breathe normally.
Benefits
• It relieves stress and relaxes the mind.

• It removes anxiety, anger and irritability.
• It stretches the spine and brings flexibility.
• It helps to remove constipation and digestive disorder.
• It is useful for increasing height.
• It is helpful for women after childbirth.
Contraindications

• Ulcer patients also avoid this practice.
Matsyanasana
Procedure

• Sit and fold both the legs together.
• Slowly lie down on the back and hold the elbows.
• Place the palms next to ears, towards the shoulder blade.
• Raise the trunk and head then press palms and waist and place the crown of the
head on the floor.
• Place both the hands on the thighs then relax the elbow on the floor and try to hold
the toe with the fingers.
• Crown of head and lower body on the floor making an arc shape on the back.
Maintain this pose at least 50 or 100 counts.
• Now carefully release the fingers from the toes, push the palms on the floor then
raise the head and the shoulder blades and take rest. Straighten the legs and take
a position of Savasana.
Benefits
• It reduces headache caused by stiffness of the neck.

• It refreshes back muscles and the spinal cord.
• It cures asthma and respiratory disorders.
• It will be helpful to take deep sleep or normal sleep and get emancipate from
insomnia due to work stress.
Contraindications
• Avoid those who are suffering from high or low blood pressure.
• Avoid those who are suffering from migraine.,
• Avoid those who are suffering from ‘ serious lower-back or neck injury.
Hypertension
Blood pressure is the force of blood in the arteries. When this pressure becomes –
abnormally high then it is called hypertension or high blood pressure. Stress is a major
factor that causes hypertension. Yoga can be a very beneficial therapy for controlling
blood pressure. The gentle, soothing practice of asanas settles both mind and body and
reduces stress which causes hypertension. There are different types of asanas for the
treatment of hypertension.
Tadasana [Mountain Pose]

Procedure
• This is a standing asana.

• Stand straight with the feet together.
• Slowly lift the toes and place them back on the floor.
• Pull up the kneecaps and squeeze the thighs.
• Inhale and lift up from the waist.
• Breathe and hold for 4 to 8 breaths.
• Exhale and drop the shoulders down.
Benefits
• It improves body posture and reduces flat feet problem.

• Knees, thighs and ankles become stronger.
• Buttocks and abdomen get toned.
• It helps to alleviate sciatica.
• It also makes spine more agile.
• It helps to increase height and improve balance.
• It regulates digestive, nervous and respiratory systems
Contraindications
• Avoid during headaches.

• Avoid during insomnia.
• Avoid during low blood pressure.
Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]
• It is done in sitting posture.

• Stand on the knees with the lower legs together and stretched backwards, the two
big toes crossing each other.
• Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the
thighs on the calf muscles.
• Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
• Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.
Benefits
• It enhances blood circulation.

• It helps to improve digestion.
• Food gets digested well if one sits in Vajjasana after taking meals.
• It relieves excessive gas trouble or pain.
• Nerves of legs and thighs are strengthened.
• It helps to make knee and ankle joints flexible.
• It prevents from certain rheumatic diseases.
Contraindications
• Avoid if acute trouble or stiffness in foot, ankle and knees.

• Avoid during slip disc conditions.
Pawanmuktasana
Procedure

• Lie flat on the back and keep the legs straight, relax, breathe deeply and regularly.
• Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till
the thigh touches to stomach.
• Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
• Place the nose tip between the knees.
• Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i.e. Shavasana.
• This is very beneficial for stomach abs. The results are very impressive.
Benefits
• It helps to strengthen the back.

• It massages the abdominal muscles.
• It helps in digestion.
• It reduces belly fat.
Contraindications
• Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip
disc and ulcer should avoid.
• During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.
Ardha Chakrasana Procedure
• This is a standing asana.

• Stand straight and arms alongside the body.
• Balance the weight equally on both feet.
• Breathing in, extend the arms overhead, palms facing each other.
• Bend backwards, push the pelvis forward, keeping the arms in line with the ears,
elbows and knees straight, head up and lifting the chest towards the ceiling.
• Breathing out, bring the arms down and relax.
Benefits
• It stretches the front upper torso.

• It tones the arms and shoulder muscles.
Contraindications
• Avoid during headache.

• Avoid during serious back injury.
Bhujangasana
Procedure

• Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor and take
five breaths at least.
• Exhale slowly and come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.
Benefits
• It increases immunity.
• It strengthens the back muscles and spinal cord.
• It helps to cure lumbago and lower back pain problems.
• It helps to cure kidney related diseases.
• It gives fast cure for disorders of ovaries in women.
Contraindications

• People having a hernia problem and backache should not do this asana.
• Avoid those who are suffering from ulcer, heart problem or any surgeries like spine
and brain.
Chapter 4 (Physical Education for CWSN)
Concept of Disability
The term disability means any kind of impairment or permanent reduction in physical or
mental capacity. The reduction can be related to any kind of physical loss, mental
illness, intellectual impairment or reduction in the use of sense organs. This may be
present from birth or occur during a person’s lifetime. This affects a person’s
participation in different areas of life and reduces the full use of body structures and
functions.
Definition – “A disability is defined as a condition or function judged to be significantly
impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group,”
Concept of Disorder
Disorder is any ailment that disturbs the health of a person, hinders a person’s
performance and diminishes his/her efficiency. Disorder grows inside a person, they are
small in the beginning but may become serious and grow into a disability. There are
many kinds of disorders like mental disorder, neurological disorder, hyper activity
disorder, eating disorder, addiction disorder, attention disorder etc.
Definition – “Disorder can be defined as a blip in the usual functioning of a person.”
Types of Disability, Its Causes and Nature

Disability is conceptualised as being a multidimensional experience as it may affect the
organs and body parts which hampers a person’s life in many ways.
Types of Disability
There are three types of disabilities which are as follows
[i] Cognitive Disability

The nature of this disability is mental since cognitive domain is related to using mental
abilities and achieving results from it.
It is related to impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour.
Intellectual functioning means person’s ability to plan, comprehend and reason while
adaptive behaviour refers to applying social and practical skills in everyday life. Children
suffering from dyslexia, learning difficulties, speech disorders, problem in solving math
calculations, short span of attention and short of memory are said to have cognitive
disability.
Causes of cognitive disability are as follows
• Cognitive impairment may be present at birth and may be genetic or
chromosomal or result from complications of pregnancy.
• Chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome.
• Genetic abnormalities such as phenylketonuria, Hunter syndrome etc.
• Prenatal drug and infections and exposure to alcohol.
• Lack of oxygen during labour pain or birth.
[ii] Intellectual Disability

The nature of this disability is also mental since the intellectual domain is related to
using the capacity of the mind. It is a disability characterised by significant limitations in
both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour. This is characterised by low
intelligence quotient score (under 70) and significant problems in the ways learners
adapt to new situations. It is different from cognitive because cognitive is a broad
concept while intellectual disability is specific in nature.
Causes of intellectual disability are as follows
1. Genetic Conditions These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X
syndrome.
2. Problems during Pregnancy This can interfere with fetal brain development.
3. Alcohol or Drug Use may also cause intellectual disability.
4. Problems during Childbirth Like if a baby is deprived of oxygen during
childbirth or born extremely premature.
5. Illness or Injury Infection like meningitis, whooping cough or measles can
lead to intellectual disability. Extreme malnutrition, infections in the brain,
exposure to toxic substances such as lead, and severe neglect or abuse
can also cause it.
[iii] Physical Disability

The nature of this disability is physical since it relates to physical functioning of the
body parts including sense organs.
This refers to the limitation on a person’s physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or
stamina. This includes upper or lower limb loss, poor manual dexterity, visual
impairment, hearing loss or disability in coordination with different organs of the body.
Apart from these, respiratory disorders, epilepsy and sleep disorders are also
considered physical disability.
Causes of physical disability are as follows
• Illnesses like cancer, heart attack or diabetes cause the majority of long-
term disabilities.
• Back pain, injuries and arthritis are also significant causes.
• Lifestyle choices and personal behaviour that lead to obesity are also
becoming major contributing factors.
• Musculoskeletal disorders also cause disabilities. Examples include
spine/joint disorders, fibromytis etc.
• Genetic causes like gene inheritance can cause this disability.
Types of Disorder, Its Causes and Nature
A disorder is referred to as a disturbance in physical or mental health or functions that
causes dysfunction. Some types of disorder are discussed below
ADHD
[Attention Deficit’ Hyperactivity Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to . behavioural changes or disorders. About 10%
of school going kids suffer from ADHD,
Boys are more suspectible to this disorder than girls. The common symptoms of this
disorder are hyperactivity, trouble focusing on a task, very short span of attention and
missing details. . Children with ADHD may understand what’s expected of them but
have trouble following the instructions required to complete the task. ‘ Young children
mostly act in this way when they are excited or anxious but the difference with ADHD is
that these symptoms are present over a longer period of time and take place in different
settings. The ADHD disorder affects a child’s academic performance as well as social
behaviour. Causes of ADHD are .
1. Genes and Heredity Genetic inheritance and abnormalities in genes may

cause this disorder.
2. Brain Injury and Epilepsy Children who have had traumatic brain injuries or
who have epilepsy can often have ADHD-like symptoms.
3. Environmental Causes Prenatal exposure to smoke, exposure to high levels
of lead as a toddler and preschooler is possible contributor.
SPD [Sensory Processing Disorder]

This is a condition in which the brain has trouble in receiving and responding to
information that comes in through the senses. The SPD is related to mental nature.
There the sensory inputs are not organised by the brain in an appropriate manner.
The common symptoms are showing heightened reactivity to sound, touch or
movement. Under-reactive in certain situations example not noticing when name is
called, lethargic, disinterested, poor motor skills, lack of attention, impulsive behaviours
etc. The SPD interferes with the children’s normal everyday functioning. They also have
delayed communication and social skills. SPD also impacts on a person’s ability to
interact with different environments. Causes of SPD are as follows
• Genetic or hereditary factors such as having a family history of autism,

SPD.
• Have been understimulated during critical periods of neurological
development.
• Have been exposed to variety of environmental toxins.
• Have food allergies.
• Having developmental delays and other , neurological disorders.
ASD [Autism Spectrum Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness which then changes the
behaviour. It is a complex .developmental disorder that affects normal brain
development. The symptoms of ASD are difficulty in communication and interaction
with people. They also have repetitive behaviour patterns like flicking a light switch
repeatedly, smelling everything, flipping objects etc.
Children with ASD also have sensory sensitivities such as not using eye contact,
confused by language, repeating a word etc. Here the brain does not function in the
typical’way due to which they face developmental challenges.. Children and adults with
ASD do not acquire good social skills and face many behavioural problems. They often
stare at a particular person or object, like a few foods, get over excited by certain
sounds etc.
Causes of ASD are as follows
1. ASD can be the result of heredity factors, genetic differences and genetic
mutations.
2. It can also cause through abnormal mechanisms of brain development and
other neurobiological factors.
3. Environmental factors related to exposure to drugs, toxins like lead,
insecticides, hydrocarbons and dietary factors may cause ASD.
ODD [Oppositional Defiant Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to social behaviours. This behaviour disorder
usually takes place in early teens. Apart from teens, ODD also affects young children
especially boys. In children it begins from the age of 8 years. About 2-16% of children
are affected by ODD. The main symptoms of ODD are similar patterns of anger, irritable
mood, saying hateful things, flaring up at trivial matters, seeking revenge etc.
Here children in their early teens try to defy authority every now and then, they express
their defiance by arguing, disobeying, talking back to parents, teachers and other adults.
Though this type of behaviour is normally seen among all the teenagers but the
difference in ODD is that the behaviour lasts more than 6 months and is excessive in
comparison to other children of the same age. This kind of behaviour often disrupts the
child’s normal daily activities and hampers academic performance.
Causes of ODD are as follows
1. Genetics A child’s natural disposition or temperament and possible

neurobiological differences in the way nerves and the brain function may
cause ODD.
2. Environment Problems with parenting that may involve a lack of
supervision, inconsistent or harsh discipline, or abuse or neglect also cause
ODD.
OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]

The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness. This usually takes place in
people of middle ages. Males and females both are equally affected by OCD. About 15-
20% of the people experience OCD in mild forms. The symptoms of this disorder are
people doing repetative behaviours, performing routine tasks over an over again or
having certain thoughts repeatedly.
Some examples of this type of disorder are frequent or excessive hand washing,
counting to things repeatedly, checking if a door is locked again and again. These
activities occur to such a degree that it affects a person’s life negatively. The OCD can
become serious and may cause other problems related to mental illness.
Causes of OCD are as follows
1. Familial Disorder The disorder may run in the family, therefore close
relatives of people with OCD are likely to develop it.
2. Behavioural Causes The behavioural theory suggests that people with OCD
associate certain objects or situations with fear and learn to avoid those
things or learn to perform rituals in order to help reduce the fear or the
stress related to that situation.
3. Cognitive Causes This happens when people misinterpret their thoughts
like the feeling of dirty hands even when they are cleaned many times.
4. Environmental Causes This means stressful situation present in the
environment such as within the family or society that triggers OCD in
people.
Disability Etiquettes
Disability etiquettes is a set of guidelines to deal with the people facing physical or
mental disabilities. It was started as a clinical play on existing rule sheets, written for
non-disabled audiences that were seen as demeaning by civil rights activists in 1970s.
The term serves to communicate people with disabilities more respectfully in all types
of situations. It refers to educate people regarding disabilities. It involves treating
people with disabilities with respect and care, and try to bring them into a normal life.
Disability Etiquettes in General
• Always respect the dignity of a disabled person, individuality and desire for
independence.
• Treat a person with disability in the same manner and with the same
respect and courtesy as with others.
• Speak directly to the person rather than through the friend, attendant or
sign-language interpreter who may also be present.
• Never speak about the person as if they are invisible, can’t understand what
is being said. .
• Don’t put people with a disability on a pedestal or talk to them in
demeaning terms.
Disability Etiquette Guidelines
[i] ill Persons with Speech Difficulties

1. Give attention to the person who has difficulty
in speaking.
2. Keep manner to encourage rather than correcting.
3. Give extra time for the conversation and be patient.
4. If you have difficulty in understanding, don’t pretend that you do. Repeat as
much as you do understand.
[ii] Person with Hearing Loss
• Get the person’s attention with a wave of the hand, or a tap on the shoulder.
Speak clearly and slowly, but without exaggerating your lip movements or
shouting.
• Many persons with hearing loss read lips. Place yourself facing the light
source and keep hands, cigarettes and food away from your mouth when
talking in order to provide a clear view of your face.
• When an interpreter accompanies a person, direct your remarks to the
person rather than to the interpreter.
• Look directly at the person and speak expressively.
• Use sign language if you and the person are both familiar with it.
[iii] Persons with Vision Loss
• When enter the room, indicate who is there. Let the person know when
leaving the room.
• When talking to a person with a visual impairment, begin to identifying
yourself by name and that you are speaking to them.
• When offering your assistance, do not grab the person’s cane or arm.
• If you are walking with a person who is blind, offer your arm for him/her to
hold.
• Walk at the norma! pace. It is helpful to speak casually and naturally about
the environment, objects and buildings you are passing as you walk.
• Not all visually impaired people read Braille. Ask the person what
alternative format they prefer.
(iv) Persons with Cognitive / Language Impairments
• Use a calm voice and be comfortable. Use simple and short sentences.
• Do not argue with the person.
• Treat each person as an individual with talents and abilities deserving of
respect and dignity.
• Give extra time for the person to process what: you are saying and to
respond. Look for signs of stress and/Or confusion:
The rules of etiquettes and good manners to deal with people with disabilities are
generally the same as the rules for good etiquettes in society. These guidelines
address.specific issues which frequently arise for people with disabilities; Since
everyone is different, these guidelines only hold true for most individuals most of the
time.
Advantage of Physical Activity for Children with Special Needs

Physical Activity
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, physical activity
generally refers to movement that enhances health.
It means the movement of the body that uses energy. Walking, running, dancing,
swimming, yoga and gardening are a few examples of physical activity. For health
benefits, physical activity should be moderate or vigorous intensity.
Exercise is a type of physical activity that’s planned and structured. Lifting weights,
taking an aerobics class and playing on a sports team are examples of exercise.
Advantage of Physical Activity for Children with Special Needs

Regular physical activity is good for everyone but it’s particularly important for children
with special needs. These are most important for their growth and development. There
are numbers of advantages of physical activities.
These are as follows
• It strengthens the heart muscle thereby improving cardiovascular

efficiency, lung efficiency and exercise endurance. This helps in controlling
repetative behaviours among disabled children.
• Besides improving fitness, physical activity develops social relationships
with other children, teammates and teachers.
• This brings positive changes in the social behaviour of these children.
• It helps to improve energy level in the body. Regular physical activity often
makes children more energetic, allows them to become active.
• It regulates blood pressure, cholesterol level and diabetes. Physical activity
reduces stress level.
• It helps to control weight. The children with disabilities are not physically
active or may have deficit of calories, which takes fat away and lowers
weight and regular exercises help in regulating weight.
• Physical activities help in improving muscle strength, coordination and
flexibility among disabled children.
• This also improves motor skills, brings better balance and body awareness
which is lacking in these children.
• Physical exercise finds an outlet to channelise the physical energy which
helps these children to cope with stress, anxiety and depression.
• Physical activity enhances the metabolism of brain in the children. It leads
to cognitive improvement in children with special needs allowing them to
acquire new skills, learn new things and focus on specific goals.
• Physical activity decreases anxiety, reduces depression, and improves
mood and outlook in children. In addition, their
• quality of sleep is also improved.
Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Need
The various strategies or ways by which physical activities can be made accessible for
children with special needs are as follows
1. Inclusive Classrooms It means development of education laws in such a

way that children with special needs get education within the normal
classrooms along with other children so that they are well accepted in
society.
2. Assistive Technology It refers to creating devices, tools or equipments that
help children with special needs to participate in learning activities like
bigger balls, balls with bells, balls attached to strings to bring it back to the
students etc.
3. Adaptive Physical Education Depending on student’s disability, a separate,
adaptive class or modifications within a game, changing the rules of the
game or sport to some extent can help the students in a big way.
4. Creating Specific Environment Students with special needs can be
provided with specific play area with special requirements as needed by
them. Loud music, glaring lights often cannot be tolerated by these
children, so a lot of natural lighting should be there.
5. Positive Behaviour In physical education classes, teachers should show
positive behaviour and healthy interactions and prevent negative
behaviours. The method is to “Prevent, Teach, Reinforce”. This means class
material taught through positive interactions, lesson reinforced by referring
back to behavioural expectations and evaluating progress.
6. Focus on Creative Games Instead of competitive games and physical
activities, the strategy is to develop creative games. This helps in team
building and cooperation and prevents unnecessary competition and
boosts the confidence of these children.
7. Accomodations and Modification Since the individual needs of the children
with special needs ard different^ it is essential for . the teachers to modify
the teaching strategies in order to accommodate the children with
disabilities. Therefore constant modification and accommodation is
required.
8. Professional Courses Developing more professional courses and teacher
certification programs for teaching physical education to children with
special needs is essential to popularise the adaptive physical education
programme.
Chapter 5 (Children and Women in Sports)
Motor Development
Motor development only happens when the child is biologically and mentally ready for
it. Motor development refers to the development of movement and various motor
abilities from birth till death. It is the ability to move around and manipulate his/her
environment. There are four stages of motor development in children
1. Infanthood (0-2 years)

2. Early childhood (2-6 years)
3. Middle childhood (7-12 years)
4. Later childhood (12 years and later)
Types of Motor Development

There are two types of motor development/skills
1. Gross Motor Development This development uses the larger muscles of

the skeleton or groups of larger muscles to maintain posture and balance
for activities such as throwing a ball, walking, running and hopping.
2. Fine Motor Development This development uses the smaller muscles of
the hand, feet and face for more precise activities such as eating, speaking,
playing with toys and eventually writing.
Factors that Influence Motor Development

The development and quality of a child’s motor skills are influenced by many factors.
These include
1. Tone It refers to the ongoing contraction and state of the muscle at rest.
Tone can be normal, hypotonic or hypertonic.
2. Strength It refers to the force of a muscle contraction purposefully exerted
against resistance to carry out an activity.
3. Endurance This is the ability to maintain the exertion required for an
activity.
4. Motor Planning It is the complex and often intuitive ability to know how to
carry out the steps needed to complete a physical, activity.
5. Sensory Integration It is the ability to accurately interpret sensory input
from the environment and to produce an appropriate motor response.
Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development

The motor development in children takes place in various stages of growth. The
infanthood or infancy is followed by the childhood, stage that is divided into three
stages : the early, middle and later childhood.
Infanthood (0-12 Months)
• Turns head.
• Moves arms and legs.
• Reaches and grasps objects.
• Rolls back from side to side.
• Crawls, stands and walks.
Childhood (2-12 Years)

2-5 Years (Early Childhood)
• Basic locomotor.
• Ball-handling.
• Eye-hand coordination.
• Running, jumping, hopping, skipping grasping.
• Games with-simple rules.
6-10 Years (Middle Childhood)
• Fine motor skills.

• Fine eye-hand coordination.
• Growth is relatively slow.
• Cognitive activities.
• Movement precision.
• Balancing and coordination.
• Catching, throwing; kicking.
• Planned activities games.
11-12 Years (Late Childhood)
• Motor skills perfected.

• Onset of puberty.
• Beginning of sexual maturation.
• Competition.
• Planned activities, that involve a .lot of movements.
Common Postural Deformities

This refers to the deformation in the skeletal structure or where the body parts are not
aligned that results in some kind of postural deformities. People having postural
deformities cannot perform their work efficiently. Some common postural deformities
are Knock Knee, Flat Foot, Round Shoulders, Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow Legs and
Scoliosis.
1. Knock Knee
Knock knee is a postural deformity in which both the knees touch or overlap’each other
in the normal standing position. Due to this deformity, an individual usually faces
difficulty during walking.
Causes
• Weakness of muscles and ligaments.

• Overweight body.
• Lack of balanced diet.
• Lack of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.
Precautions
• Balanced diet should be taken.

• Do not force the babies to walk at early age.
Corrective Measures
• Horse riding is to be done regularly, as it is one of the best exercise’s for

correcting this problem.
• Keep a pillow between your knees whenever possible.
• Perform Padmasana and Gomukhasana.
• Take nutritious meals.
2. Flat Foot
It is a deformity of the feet. In this deformity, there is no arch in the foot and the foot is
completely flat. The individual faces problems in standings walking, jumping and
running; –
Causes
• Heaviness of the body.

• Standing for a long time,
• Use of poor quality footwear not having an arch.
• Faulty posture.
Precautions
• Wear shoes of proper shape and size.

• High heeled shoes or walking barefoot for long durations should be
avoided.
Corrective Measures
• Walk on heels and toes.

• Pick up marbles with toes.
• Perform Vajrasana.
• Walk on wooden staircase.
3. Round Shoulders
It is a postural deformity in which the shoulders become round as they are drawn
forward, the head is extended and the chin points forward.
Causes
• Poor posture in work, particularly in a desk job.

• Faulty furniture.
• Wrong habit of standing and sitting.
• Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
Precautions
• Do not sit, stand or walk in bent position.
• Avoid tight fitting clothes.
Corrective Measures
• Stand in correct posture.

• Keep the finger tips on your shoulders and encircle your elbows in
clockwise and anti-clockwise direction.
• Perform Chakrasana and Dhanurasana for some time.
• Hold the horizontal bar for some time.
4. Lordosis
It is the inward curvature of the spine or a deformity of spinal curvature. It is an
increased forward curve in the lumbar region. It creates problems in standing and
walking.
Causes
• Habitual over-eating.
• Improper environment.
• Diseases affecting vertebrae.
• Improper development of muscles.
• Lack of exercise.
Precautions
• Take a balanced diet.

• Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
• Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
• Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.
Corrective Measures
• Perform Halasana and Paschimottasana.

• Do sit-ups slowly.
• Stand to attention and touch the feet with the hands repeatedly.
• Lie on your back and lift feet vertically.
5. Kyphosis
It is a deformity of the spinal curvature in which there is an increase of exaggeration of
a backward curve or a decrease of a forward curve. It is also called as round upper
back.
Causes
• Malnutrition, illness.
• Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
• Habit of bending while walking.
• Wearing light and shapeless clothes.
Precautions

Corrective Measures
• Bend head backwards in standing position.

• Perform Chakrasana and Bhujangasana.
• Hold arms at shoulder level and bending elbows.
6. Bow Legs
It is a deformity just the reverse of the knock knee position. In fact, if there is a wide gap
between the knees, the deformity can be observed easily when an individual walks or
runs.
Causes
• Putting extra weight on leg muscles.

• Lack of balanced diet and deficiency of calcium and phosphorus.
• Improper way of walking.
• Forcing babies to walk at a very early age.
Precautions
• Balanced diet should be taken.

• Do not force the babies to walk at early age.
Corrective Measures
• Never stand for a long time.

• Use vitamin D supplement and a proper balanced diet.
• Walk by bending the toes inward or on the inner edge of the feet.
• Proper massage should be given to the child if this problem is observed
early in life.
7. Scoliosis
It is a postural deformity of spinal curvature in which there is one ldrge lateral curve
extending through the whole length of the spine, or there may be two curves. This type
of deformity is also called curve.
Causes
• Short leg of one side.

• One side flat foot.
• Carrying heavy loads on one shoulder.
• Heredity defects.
• One side paralysis of spinal muscles.
Precautions

Corrective Measures
• Perform Trikonasana with proper technique.

• Avoid walking with a heavy weight.
• Lie down in prone position, i.e. on the chest. Right arm should be upward
and left atm at side. After that move right arm towards,the left overhead.
Press down with left hand and then slide the left hip up.
• Stand erect, lift left heel and left hip, extend right arm in an arch and press
left hand against the ribs.
Sports Participation of Women in India

The participation of women in sports in India is very small. Gender inequality is strongly
evident in every field of life including sports. The problem is more socio-psychological
than anything else. The Government of India instituted the National Sports Festival for
Women with the objective to promote women’s sports. However, this programme could
not bring any noticeable improvement in women’s participation in sports. Surveys have
shown that women don’t participate in sports due to
1. Time Constraints Women find less time for sports due to their domestic
duties.
2. Social Constraints The attitude of society towards participation of women
in sports is negative.
3. Lack of Sports Infrastructure Specialised coaching centers, training
programmes, equipment that are suitable for women athletes are not
present adequately.
1. Absence of Skill There are very few female coaches available to develop
the skills of women. Sociological constraints limit the success of male
coaches with female athletes.
2. Concerns for Personal Safety Women are more afraid to venture in a ‘male’
field (perceived) as they are concerned more about safety from harassment
or exploitation.
Methods to Increase Women’s Participation in Sports

There are various ways in which women’s participation can be increased
Coaching Programmes
Women should be encouraged and provided with the opportunity to undertake
leadership positions within organisations. They should be provided with good technical
instruction. They must be given positive, encouraging, and instructive feedback. They
should have a strong voice in programmes and all concerned should maintain a flexible
approach to participation to ensure their needs are heard and met.
Safety
Exercising in groups can make physical activity safer for women and girls. Community
sports facilities should be provided with separate location for women.
Facilities
Changing facilities must he provided that take, into account women’s and girl’s hygiene
needs. Adequate provision for childcare should be made so that women without any
hesitation can bring their children to the participation and training venues. We must
ensure that all areas are easily accessible to girls and their parents.
Price/Affordability
Participation fee in sports should be reduced or abolished for women. Concessions for
travelling and boarding should be provided to women.
Special Considerations Associated with Physiology

Special care should be taken by sportswomen because of the problems associated with
their physiology. Problems faced by women during their life are
Menarche
Menarche is a girl’s first menstrual period. It can happen as early as age 9 or up to age
15. During this time, girls feel tense and emotional. So special attention should be given
to them at this time. As a sportsperson, a young woman has to take special care of
herself at that time.
Menstrual Dysfunction
Due to participation of women in physical fitness and competitive endurance sports, the
incidence of menstrual dysfunction has increased. Long distance . running and other
sports may lead to alterations in androgen, estrogen and progesterone hormones,
which in some women may directly or indirectly result in amenorrhea (absence of
menstrual periods) or infertility.
Female Athlete Triad

The ‘female athlete triad’ is a syndrome of three related conditions generally seen in
teenage or adult female athletes who aren’t meeting their energy requirements, which
ultimately leaves them undernourished. This also affects their performance severely.
The three components of the female athlete triad include
1. Osteoporosis It is a condition in which bones become weak and brittle. It

occurs when the body loses too much bone, makes too little bones or both.
2. Amenorrhiea It is the absence of menstruation periods’that can-happen for
many reasons. Main causes are
genetic abnormalities, excessive exercise and extreme physical or
psychological stress.
3. Eating Disorders It refers to either eating in excessive amounts or eating in
very little amounts. This disorder is related to mental illness and affects a –
person’s physical and. mental health. A female athlete can have one, two,
or all three parts of the triad.
Psychological Aspects of Women Athletes

Psychological aspects of Women athletes are discussed below
1. Stress All women athletes undergo various degrees of stress-due to

increased competition and. male domination. But women are able-to
handle stress in a better way as they are more open and have a large social
circle.
2. Aggression Women may experience aggression that may reduce then-
performance in sports. But they are able to mange the aggression and also
are less aggressive in nature.
3. Sensitive Women are more sensitive to the reaction of the people towards
them. Therefore positive reinforcements by parents, coach, friends can
enhance their performance.
4. Eager to Learn Women are more eager to learn the new skills and
techniques. Therefore coaching is easier in case of women athletes.
5. Coping Women are able to handle and manage their emotional and
interpersonal problems in a more efficient way. This helps women athletes
to make strategies for better performance.
Sociological Aspects of Sports Participation

The sociological aspects that prevent women athletes in sports participation are as
follows
1. Social Stigma The social outlook is that girls are feeble, weak as compared
to men and therefore they should not participate in sports.
2. Safety Issues Girls have to face certain safety issues such as late night
training, going to and coming from sports venues, coaching centers etc.
Due to this, they find it difficult to pursue sports.
3. Lack of Proper Facilities Women have to face lack of specific facilities
such as separate changing rooms, rest rooms etc. This leaves very few
opportunities for women.
4. Lack of Role Models In the absence of women’s greater participation in
sports, there are no role models. Due to this, girls do not get
encouragement from parents or coaches.
5. Less Media Coverage Women sports tournaments do not get wide
coverage as men’s sports. Electronic and print media do not give proper
attention on women tournaments. Therefore women do not get
encouragement to participate in sports.
Chapter 6 (Test and Measurements)
(1) Fitness Test - SAI Khelo India Fitness test in school

Age group 5-8yrs/class 1-3 :- BMI, Flamingo balance test, plate tapping
Test.
Age group 9-18 yrs/ class 4-12 :- BMI, 50mt speed test, 600mt run/walk,
sit and reach flexibility test, strength test ( partial curl up, push ups for
boys and modified push ups for girls)
(2) Computing Basal Metabolic Rate(BMR)
(3)Rikli and Jones- Senior Citizen Fitness Test

Rikli and Jones prepared various physical fitness tests for senior citizens in 2001.
Senior citizens can’t do exhaustive workouts however fitness is very important even in
old age.
These tests are designed to access the functional fitness of older adults with the help
of simple activities like getting up from a chair, walking, bending and stretching. These
tests are safe, enjoyable and meet scientific standards of reliability and validity. That is
why easy tests prepared for different body parts are given.
These are
1. Chair Stand Test for Lower Body Strength

The Chair Stand Test is similar to a squat test to measure leg strength. This test is part
of the senior fitness test protocol and is designed to test the functional fitness of
seniors.
• Purpose This test assesses leg strength and endurance of senior citizens.
• Equipment Required A straight or folding chair without arm rests (seat 17
inches/ 44 cm high) and stopwatch.
2. Arm Curl Test for Upper Body Strength
The Arm Curl Test is a test to measure the upper body strength of senior citizens or old
people.
• Purpose This test measures upper body strength and endurance.

• Equipment Required 5 pound weight for women, 8 pound weight for men, a
chair without arm rests, stopwatch.
3. Chair Sit and Reach Test for Lower Body Flexibility

The Chair Sit and Reach Test is part of-the senior fitness test protocol, and is designed
to test the functional fitness of seniors. It is a variation of the traditional sit and reach .
flexibility test.
• Purpose This test measures lower body. – flexibility.

• Equipment Required Ruler, a chair with straight back or folding chair (17
inch/44 cm high).
4. Back Scratch Test for Upper Body Flexibility

The shoulder stretch is a simple flexibility test to determine if the hands can be brought
together behind the back particularly the shoulders. This test is part of the fitness
programme as an alternative to the back saver sit and reach test.
• Purpose This test measures upper arm and shoulder girdle flexibility.
• Equipment Required None.
5. Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility

The Eight Foot Up arid Go Test is a coordination and agility test’for the elderly-which is
pair of the senior fitness test protocol.
• Purpose This test measures speed, agility and balance while moving.
• Equipment Required Stopwatch, straight back or folding chair ( seat 17
inches/44 height) cone rriarker, measuring tape, area clear of obstacles.
6. Six Minute Walk test for Aerobic Endurance

The Six Minute Walk Test is a part, of the senior fitness test protocol arid is designed to
test the functional fitness of seniors. It is an adaptation of the Cooper 12 – minutes run
for people who use orthopaedic devices When walking as well as people who have
difficulty in balancing.
• Purpose This test measures aerobic fitness or aerobic endurance.

• Equipment Required Measuring tape to mark out the track distances,
stopwatch arid chairs positioned for testing.
Chapter 7 (Physiology and Injuries in sports)

Physiology
In physiology, we study how our organs, systems, tissues, cells and molecules within cells work
and how their functions are put together to maintain our internarenvironment. “Physiology is the
study of how the human body functions.” Physiology is very essential to understand how to
attain physical fitness in order to enhance the performance in sports
Physiological Factors Determining Components of Physical Fitness

To understand the physiological factors, the components have to be understood.
The components of physical fitness are as follows
1. Muscular Strength One of the basic requirements for success in all

movements is muscular strength. It may be defined as the maximum force
or tension a muscle or a muscle group can exert against a resistance. The
development of strength is specific to the muscle or muscles involved in a
particular activity.
2. Power Power is the ability of the body to release maximum muscle
contraction in the shortest possible time.
3. Speed It is the rapidity with which one repeats successive movements of
the same pattern. It may also be defined as the ability of a person to move
quickly through a short distance.
4. Muscular Endurance It may be defined as the ability of a muscle or muscle
group to perform repeated contractions against a resistance / load or to
sustain contraction for an extended period of time with less discomfort and
more rapid recovery.
5. Agility It is the ability of the person to change direction while moving at or
near full speed. More specifically, agility is the ability of a person to change
direction or body position quickly (as fast as he can) and regain body
control to proceed with another movement.
6. Flexibility In general, flexibility is that quality of the muscles, ligaments and
tendons that enables the joints of the body to move easily through a
complete range of movement.
7. Size of the Muscle The size of the muscle determines the strength
possessed by an individual. Males have bigger and larger muscles due to
which they have more strength than females.
8. Body Weight There is a positive correlation between body weight and
strength among international weightlifters. So people who weigh heavier
are stronger and have more strength than people who are lighter.
9. Muscle Composition Muscles consist of two types of fibres i.e. fast twitch
fibres (white fibres) and slow twitch fibres (red fibres).
10. Intensity of the Nerve Impulse A muscle consists of many motor units. The
number of contracting motor units determines the total force.
11. Metabolic Power The metabolic power depends upon the energy supplied
through certain enzymes.
12. Aerobic Capacity The ability of a person to maintain adequate supply of
oxygen to the working muscles influences the endurance.
13. Joint Structure The joint structure of a person determines the range of
motions and hence level the flexibility of an individual.
14. Age and Gender The age of a person as well as the gender determines the
level of flexibility. Flexibility decreases with advancement of age and
females are more flexible than males.
Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

It has been observed that physical exercises affect the various parameters of the
cardiovascular system in many ways. Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system
are
1. Cardiac Output It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one

minute. In other words, it is the product of stroke volume and heart rate.
Cardiac output increases with the intensity of the exercises. At rest it is 4 to
6 L/min and during exercises it is 20 to 40 L/min.
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume=mLbloodmin
or Litresmin
2. Heart Rate The number of cardiac contractions in one minute is called
heart rate.. Generally normal adult heart rate is 72 beats/min: During
exercises the heart rate goes up.
3. Stroke Volume The amount of-blood pumped into the aorta with every
heartbeat is known as the stroke volume. In an untrained male, it is 70 – 90
mL/beat. In a trained.male athlete, it may be 100 – 120 mL/beat. The
stroke volume increases in response to the intensity of the exercises.
4. Blood Flow Exercise increases the blood volume caused by a 12% increase
in the plasma volume and a slight increase in the red blood cells volume.
With increasing intensities of exercise, a . greater accumulation of lactic
acid and the production of other metabolic end products (potassium,
phosphate) occurs. This increases blood flovy in the cardiac output, while it
decrease in kidneys and abdomen.
Effects of Exercise on Respiratory System

Many parameters of respiratory system get affected due to exercises. Effects of
exercise on respiratory system are
1. Lung Volume With endurance training, lung volume and lung capacity
increase. Vital capacity, which is maximal volume of air forcefully expelled
is increased after endurance training.
2. Breathing Frequency Breathing frequency is the number of breaths per
minute. After training, breathing frequency or respiratory rate is decreased.
3. Maximum Minute Ventilation Minute ventilation is the amount of air which
is inspired or expired in one minute. After training, maximum, as well as
minute ventilation is increased.
4. Tidal Volume Tidal volume, which is the amount of air inspired or expired
per breath, is – also increased as a result of endurance training,
5. Ventilatory Efficiency With physical exercises, particularly endurance
training, our ventilatory efficiency increases.
6. Pulmonary Diffusion Pulmonary diffusion is the exchange of gases taking
place in the alveoli (small air sacs in our lungs).
Effects of Exercise on the Muscular System
The effects of exercise on the muscular system are as follows
1. Increase in Blood Flow The volume of blood flow to muscle tissues

increases during exercise. It can increase by upto 25 times – during
specially demanding exercise:
2. Respiration During exercise, muscles repeatedly contract and relax,.using
and requiring energy to do so. The energy comes from the chemical ATP
that-is. broken down during exercise into another chemical called ADP.
When there is plenty of oxygen available in the muscle tissues, the energy
for muscle action is prpduced aerpbically so muscles get more oxygen.
3. Muscle Size Although muscle size (and other physical characteristics such
as height) is largely determined by a person’s genes but muscle size also
gets affected by the intensity of exercises.
4. Blood Supply (to and through muscles) As a result of frequent exercise
over a sustained period of time, both the quantity of blood vessels and the
extent of the capillary beds increases.
5. Muscle Coordination Frequent exercise and specially use of specific
muscles for the same or similar skilled tasks.
6. Muscle Biochemistry Many beneficial biochemical changes take place in
muscle tissues as a result of regular long-term exercise such as increase in
the size and quantity of mitochondria in the cells, increase in the activity of
enzymes.
Long -Term Effects of Exercises

Exercises are good for the overall well-being of a person. The long-term effects of
exercises are as follows
• Increase in Heart Size

• Increase in Heart Rate
• Increase in Stroke Volume
• Decrease in Cholesterol Level
• Increase in Number and Efficiency of Capillaries
• Reduced Risk of Heart Diseases
Physiological Changes Due to Ageing

Some of the physiological changes accompanying the ageing process are
1. Muscle Size and Strength As an individual gets older, there is a decline in

muscle size. It is believed that this decline is due in part to a reduced
amount of protein as well as a decline in the number and size of muscle
fibres. As people get old, there is also a parallel decrease in the muscular
strength.
2. Accumulation of Body Fat With advancing age, there is a general trend to
increase the accumulation of body fat. First of all, with advancing age there
is a decrease in one’s ability to release or mobilise stored fatty acids from
adipose tissues for energy.
3. Respiratory System There is good evidence to indicate that pulmonary
function is impaired with advancing age. The uptake and exchange of
oxygen reduces.
4. Cardiovascular System A number of studies have shown that as individuals
get older, their overall heart size becomes, smaller. The left ventricular
cavity may especially decrease in size as a result of reduced activity and
the reduced physical demands of increased age.
5. Nervous System The nervous system is responsible for reactions and
movements. The brain’s weight, network of the nerves and blood flow
decrease with age due to which the reaction time and movement time also
slows down.
6. Bone Density Bone density decreases with increasing age, which means
that elderly people (especially those over 40 years of age) are much more
prone to bone injury than young people whose bones have reached full
growth and maturity.
Role of Physical Activity in Maintaining Function Fitness in Aged Population

Regular exercises are good to improve the efficiency of the body. It delays the onset of
fatigue, develops fitness levels and increases endurance. Regular physical activity
keeps the human body livelier, fitter and in better condition for long years before any
ageing sets in. Ageing is not a sudden, dramatic occurrence; rather it is a slow process
that prolongs over several decades. This process can be delayed with regular physical
activity.
Sports Injuries: Classification, Causes and Prevention

Sports injuries are injuries that occur in athletics activities. They can result from acute
trauma, or from overuse of a particular body part.
Classification
Sports injuries can be classified in various ways. Classification can be based on the
time taken for the tissues to become injured, tissue type affected and the severity of the
injury.
Several types of injury are as follows
Soft Tissue Injury [STI]

A Soft Tissue Injury (STI) is the damage of muscles, ligaments and tendons throughout
the body.
Soft tissue injuries fall into two basic categories
1. Acute Injuries This is one of the most common methods of classifying

sports injuries. It is based on the time taken for the tissues to become
injured.
2. Overuse Injuries Overuse injuries are not so pervasive and represent a
greater challenge for the sports therapist in diagnosis and management.
Injuries Based on Tissue Type Injured
Sports injuries can be classified according to which tissue has been damaged. This
allows sports therapists to identify soft, hard and special tissue injuries. The injuries to
muscles, ligaments, tendons and skin are soft tissue injuries.
Injuries Based on Severity

Most sports injuries require sports persons to reduce participation or cease it
altogether. Therefore sports injuries can also be classified relating to how long the
symptoms present themselves.
Bone and Joint Injuries

The musculoskeletal system comprises over half the body mass. The most common
musculoskeletal dysfunctions are joint stiffness, joint swelling and joint pains. Bones,
being non-yielding structures are damaged when excessive force is applied directly or
indirectly.
Fractures
• A fracture is a break in the continuity of a bone or a separation of a bone

into two or more parts.
• A great amount of soft-tissue damage may accompany this type of injury.
Types of Fracture
Fractures are classified as open and closed. An open fracture is one in which there is a
break in the skin that is contiguous with the fracture. The bone is either protruding from
the wound or exposed through a channel, which can be produced by an arrow, javelin,
bullet or other ways. A closed fracture is not complicated by a break in the skin, but
there is usually soft-tissue damage beneath the intact skin.
Causes of Sports Injuries

Some common causes of sports injuries are
• Anatomical factors
• Individual difference factors
• Age related causes
• Training related causes
• Equipment selection factors
• Impact and contact causes
• Poor techniques
Prevention of Sports Injuries

General preventive measures that can prevent
• sports injuries are

• Warm-Up and cool-down
• Planning a session
• Using protective equipment
• Adherence to the rules
• Regular fitness testing
• Psychological training
• Meeting nutritional requirements
Management of Sports Injuries

Management and’ treatment of a sports injury will depend upon how severe the injury is
and which part of the body is affected. It involves identifying an injury, treatment,
providing sufficient rest to the injured person and then returning to the sport.
Standard Techniques for Injury Treatment

Minor injuries to soft tissue and to bones and joints can be treated with standard
TOTAPS, RICER and No-HARM principles. These are essential elements for assessment
and quick recovery from injuries. Details of each of these practices are
1. TOTAPS stands for Talk, Observe, Touch, Active movement, Passive

movement and Skill test. It is helpful in assessing all non-serious injuries.
2. RICER stands for Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation and Referral. RICER is
used to manage soft tissue injury to reduce scarring and pain for faster
recovery. This is a technique to be used as a first aid technique
immediately after an injury occurs.
3. No-HARM or Avoid Harm stands for No-Heat, No-Alcohol, No-Running and
No-Massage. These are the important precautions that any injured athlete
must take for the first 72 hours after an injury occurs.
Other Techniques for Injury Treatment
Pain Relief
Painkillers such as paracetamol can be used initially to help ease the pain.
Immobilisation
Immobilisation of the injured part can sometimes help to prevent further damage by
reducing movement. It can also reduce pain, muscle swelling and muscle spasm.
Physiotherapy
Some people recovering from a long-term injury may benefit from physiotherapy. This is
a specialist treatment that can involve techniques such as massage, manipulation and
exercise to improve the range of motion, strengthen the surrounding muscles, and
return the normal function of injured area.
Corticosteroid Injections
If one has a severe or persistent inflammation, a corticosteroid injection may be
recommended. Such an injection can help to relieve pain caused by injury, although for
some people the pain relief is minimal or only lasts for a short period of time.
Surgery and Procedures

Most sports injuries don’t require surgery, but very severe injuries such as badly broken
bones may require corrective surgery to fix the bones with wires, plates, screws or rods.
Recovery
Depending on the type of injury one has, it can take a few weeks to a few months or
more to make a full recovery. A sportsperson should not return to his previous level of
activity until he has fully recovered, but he should aim to gently start moving the injured
body part as soon as possible.
Chapter 8 (Biomechanics and Sports)
Newton’s Laws of Motion

Sir Issac Newton made three laws of motion which are explained below
1. Newton’s First Law of Motion This law is also known as law of inertia. This
law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
remain in motion at the same speed and in the same direction till any
external force is applied on it to change that state.
2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion This law states that the rate of change in
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force producing it
and inversely proportional to its mass.
3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion This law states that to every action, there is
always an equal apd opposite reaction. This law . describes what happens
to a body when it exerts a force on another body. These three laws are still
being used to this day to describe the kinds of objects and speeds that we
encounter in everyday life.
Application of Laws of Motion in Sports
First Law
1. Softball The ball is hit into the air. Eventually, gravity will act on the ball,
pulling it down to the ground. Then, it will roll until friction between the ball
and the grass stops it.
2. Soccer When a soccer ball is kicked into the air, gravity will pull it back to
the ground. Then, it will continue to roll until friction between the ball and
the grass slows it down.
3. Dance When a dancer leaps, he/she only stays in the air for a short amount
of time because air resistance and gravity works against them.
4. Basketball When a basketball is shot, it takes a parabolic path due to
gravity acting on it. Then it slows down due to air resistance and fluid
friction.
Second Law
If a baseball player hits a ball with double the force, the rate at which the ball will
accelerate (speed up) will be doubled. Football players can slow down, stop or reverse
the direction of other players depending upon how much force they can generate and in
which direction.
Third Law
A swimmer propels herself through the water because the water offers enough
counterforce to oppose the action of her hands pushing, allowing her to move. An
athlete can jump higher off a solid surface because it opposes his body with as much
force as he is able to generate, in contrast to sand or other unstable surface.
Projectile and Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

A projectile has a single force that acts upon it-the force of gravity. If there were any
other force acting upon an object then that object would not be a projectile. Projectile
motion refers to the motion of an object projected into the air at an angle.
Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

When the human body or an object is projected through space, three forces influence
the course of flight
1. Propelling Force The propelling force produces certain effects depending

upon its point and direction of application. If the application is directly
through the projectile’s centre of gravity, only linear motion results from the
force. As the propelling force is moved farther from the centre of gravity,
rotatory motion of the object increases at the expense of linear motion.
2. Force of Gravity As soon as contact is broken with a projected object, the
force of gravity begins to diminish the upward velocity of the object. Finally,
gravity overcomes the effects of the upward component of the projectile
and the object begins to descend.
3. Effects of Air Resistance As the speed of an object increases, air resistance
has a greater retarding effect.
Friction
The force acting along two surfaces in contact which opposes the motion of one body
over the other is called the force of friction.
Friction is of two types
1. Static Friction The opposing force that comes into play when one body
tends to move over the another surface but the actual motion has yet not
started is called static friction.
2. Dynamic Friction It is the friction between two surfaces that are in relative
motion with respect to each other. It is the opposing force that comes into
play when one body is actually moving over the surface of another body.
Methods of Reducing Friction
1. Polishing By polishing the surfaces in contact, they become smooth and

the force of friction reduces. Many implements like the discus are painted
to reduce friction.
2. Lubrication The lubrication of surfaces makes them slippery and this
reduces the force of friction.
3. Streamlining Friction due to air is reduced by streamlining the shape of the
body. The aroplanes are made with a sharp front to reduce friction.
4. Use of Ball Bearings Ball bearings are used to reduce the force of friction.
Many sports require more friction and other need lesser friction. In
athletics, the shoes are designed to increase friction so that better speed
can be generated.
Chapter 9 (Psychology in Sports)
Personality
The word personality is derived from Latin word persona meaning the mask. In ancient
Greece, the actors used to wear masks to hide their identities while portraying their
roles in a theatrical play. To an ordinary person, the word personality conveys the
meaning of one’s physical appearance, his habits, his ways of dressing, his reputation,
his manners and other similar characteristics.
Definitions of Personality
According to Macionis, “It is the constant pattern of thinking, feeling and actions.”
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The totality of sentiments, attitudes, ideas, habits,
skills and behaviors of an individual is personality.”
Types of Personality
[Sheldon and Jung Classification]
The concept of personality and its types have been formulated by many psychologists.
The personality type on the basis of physical attributes is given by William Herbert
Sheldon. It is as follows
1. Endomorph The endomorph is physically quite round, with wide hips,

narrow shoulders which makes them pear-shaped Lot of fat is spread
across the body. They are sociable, fun-loving, tolerant, even-tempered,
good humoured, relaxed and love food.
2. Ectomorph They are quite the opposite of endomorph. They have narrow
shoulders and hips, thin, narrow face, high forehead, thin, narrow chest and
very little body fat. They are self-conscious, private, introvert, socially
anxious, intense, emotionally restrained and thoughtful.
3. Mesomorph They are somewhere between endomorph and ectomorph.
They have large head, broad shoulders, narrow waist (wedge shaped),
muscular body, strong limbs and little body fat. They are well proportioned.
They are adventurous, courageous, assertive, bold, competitive, with a
desire to dominate, take risk, rise to power.
The personality type on mental basis is formulated by Carl Jung. These are as follows
• Extroverts Have more self-confidence, take more interest in others, are

outgoing, lively and realistic. They are very social and form friends quite
easily. Actors, social and political leaders etc belong to this group.
• Introverts Are too self-conscious, more interested in their own thoughts
and ideas, self-centered, shy, reserved and lovers of solitude. They do not
make friends easily andkeep in’the’ background op social occasions.
Philosophers, poets, artists and scientists belong to this class.
• Ambiverts Doubting whether people can be divided into these two
extremes, he put most of the people in this category and they-have been
labelled as ‘ambiverts.’ The.ambiverts are a mixture of both the extremes in
a balanced manner. Ambiverts are neither outgoing nor reserved to
themselves. They are able to adjust themselves to any situation.
Role of Sports in Personality Development

Sports helps an individual much more than in the physical aspects alone. It builds
character, teaches and develops strategic thinking, analytical thinking, leadership skills,
goal setting and risk taking. It teaches individual to develop the following which
ultimately develop the personality of the individual
• Team spirit
• Leadership skill
• Fairplay
• Never give up
• Great leveller
• Focus
• Strength and abilities
• Process and result
• Planning
• Earnestness and sincerity
• Observation and analysis
• Positive attitude
Big Five Theory

The ‘big five’ are the broad categories of five personality traits that are universal. They
are as follows
• Extraversion It is characterised by excitability, sociability, talkativeness,
assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People high
in extraversion are extroverts and low in extraversion are introverts.
• Agreeableness This includes attributes like trust, kindness, affection and
other social behaviours. People high in agreeableness are more
cooperative and people low ih this trait are more competitive and
manipulative.
• Conscientiousness Characteristics include high level of thoughtfulness,
good impulse control and goal-directed behaviours. People high on this
trait are organised and mindful of details.
• Neuroticism Characteristics are sadness, moodiness and emotional
instability. People high in this trait experience mood swings, anxiety,
irritability and sadness. People low in this trait are more stable and
emotionally , resilient.
• Openness Characteristics are imagination and insight. People high in this
trait are creative, adventurous and have a broad range of interests. People
low in this trait are more traditional and less in abstract thinking.
Motivation and its Types

Motivation is a process through which an individual is inspired m stimulated to act in a
particular fashion or manner towards a particular direction. Motivation is of two types
1. Internal Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation
This motivation is within an individual and guides one to perform better to satisfy one’s
own personal feelings. Internal motivation depends upon basic needs like biological
needs (thirst, hunger), social needs (family, friends etc), psychological needs (interest,
attitude, love, self-esteem) and personal needs (safety, personality, economical etc).
2. External Motivation or Extrinsic Motivation

This motivation depends upon environmental factors. External motivation has great
impact on an individual’s performance. It is of various types like
• Rewards
• Punishment
• Active participation
• Equipment and surroundings
• Teaching methods
• Audio-Visual aids
• Test-evaluations and competitions
• Teacher-pupil relationship
Techniques of Motivation
Various techniques of motivation are applied on sportspersons which can enable them
to achieve the top positions in the field of sports and games. These techniques of
motivation are
1. Haying an Innovative Curriculum Many elementary skills basic to sports
development have already developed in most of the children by the time
they reach primary school age.
2. Knowing Your Athlete Each athlete comes from a different background
with varied experiences and having different degrees of maturity.
3. Teacher as a Motivator A teacher or coach who has participated in the
sport himself, who is highly skilled and can demonstrate and explain the
skill more accurately and can plan the next competition wisely, is a great
asset in motivating the athletes.
4. Freedom to Beginners To motivate young beginners, they should be
allowed a greater degree of freedom in their early attempts.
5. Level of Aspiration/ Goal Setting As we know that achieving performance
goals is a sign of competence that affects motivation positively, it is
necessary to set realistic goals based on one’s own abilities.
6. Identifying Incentive Factors If an athlete perceives that any particular kind
of experiences are available to him in a given sport and he feels that these
will be pleasant, enjoyable or satisfying, then he will choose to participate in
that game or sport and not any other.
7. Assigning Well-Defined Roles Assigning well-defined roles to athletes
enhances their perception of self-competence.
Aggression in Sports
Aggression or aggressiveness means the intention to cause mental or physical harm to
a person. This is done by doing physical harm, showing unkind or nasty behaviour,
abusing or using cruel words. A person shows aggression due to stress, anger or even
due to insecurity. Aggression may come instantly or may build up over time. It can be
positive as well as negative. According to Baron and Richardsons, “Any form of
behaviour towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated
to avoid such treatment is aggression.”
Concept of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression is often seen in the field where players play aggressively. There is
a desire to excel which leads the players to play with high intensity. So aggression is
positive when players play within the rules of the game with high intensity and without
harming other players.
However aggression becomes negative when players have an intention to harm other
players, use abusive language or doing other such things which are not within the laws
of the game. For example, pushing another player over a game of football or using
abusive language for other players or teams.
Types of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression has been defined into two kinds or types. These are instrumental
aggression and hostile aggression.
1. Instrumental Aggression In instrumental aggression, the main aim is to achieve a
goal by using aggression. It is a positive form of aggression. Here the aim of the player
is to excel in the sport that he is playing through high intensity output and competitive
spirit. For example, a football player using aggression to tackle his opponent and win
the ball. He is not harming any player but only using his aggressiveness to gain the ball.
Experienced players show instrumental aggression on the field as they have greater
self-control to manage their aggression.
2. Hostile Aggression In hostile aggression, the main aim is to cause harm or injury to
your opponent. It is usually an unplanned, impulsive reaction towards a player who may
have become a threat in achieving the goal. However it may also be planned to cause
injury to intended player on the field. This kind of aggression often arises from insult,
hurt, bad feelings, jealousy and threat.
For example, a bowler throwing a bouncer to deliberately injure the batsman or to shake
up his concentration. In some extreme cases, hitting an opponent or deliberately
obstructing his path leads to his fall on the ground. This kind of aggression is usually
seen in new players who want to achieve success quickly. The difference between the
two is that instrumental aggression is positive where the aim is to excel by own efforts
while hostile aggression is negative. Here the aim is to excel by causing harm to others.
Chapter 10 (Training in Sports)
Sports Training
Training is a process of preparing an individual for any event, activity or job. Usually in
sports, we use the term sports training, which denotes the sense of preparing sports
persons for the highest level of performance. According to Mathew (1981), “Sports
training is the basic form of preparation of a sportsman.” Keeping in view the aim of
sports training in competitive sports, the following objectives of sports training may be
set to reach the aim
1. Personality development
2. Physical fitness and development
3. Skill/Technique development
4. Tactical development
5. Mental Training
Strength
Strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force in single muscle contraction or it is the
ability to overcome resistance. Strength is an essential component of physical fitness.
Types of strength are
1. Maximum strength
2. Explosive strength
3. Strength endurance
4. Static strength
Training Methods for Improving Strength
Training methods for improving strength are
(i) Isometric Exercises
An isometric contraction occurs when there is tension on a muscle but no movement is
made, causing the length of the muscle to remain the same. These isometric exercises
were first introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953). Examples of these exercises are
pressing or pushing a wall, lifting a very heavy weight, holding a static position, pulling
the rope in tug-of-wall etc.
Advantages of isometric exercises are as follows
• Develops static strength.

• Need less time.
• Can be performed anywhere because no equipment is required.
Disadvantages of isometric exercises are as follows
• Muscles gain most strength at the angle used in exercise.

• Avoid if you have heart problems as they cause a rise in blood pressure due
to a drop in blood flow to the muscle during the contraction.
• Develops dynamic strength.
(ii) Isotonic Exercises

Isotonic exercise is a form of exercise which involves controlled contraction and
extension of muscles and mobilisation of the joints around those muscles. Examples
include a push-up or squat. These were developed by De Loone (1954). Isotonic
exercises are of two types
• Concentric
• Eccentric
Advantages of isotonic exercises are as follows
• Strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion.

• Can be adapted easily to suit different sports. Disadvantages of isotonic
exercises are as follows
• Muscle soreness after exercise because of the high stress level.
• Muscles gain the dynamic strength when they are at their weakest point of
action.
(iii) Isokinetic Exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises
were developed by Perrine in 1968.
In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and
extensor muscles e.g. swimming, cycling etc.
Advantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

• They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength.
• These are effective for almost every game.
Disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows
• They require special types of equipment.

• They must be performed under observation of a coach.
Endurance
Endurance is the ability to do sports movements with the desired quality and speed
under conditions of fatigue.
Types of endurance are
1. Aerobic Endurance Aerobic means ‘with oxygen’ During aerobic work, the
body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be met
by the body’s intake.
2. Anaerobic Endurance During anaerobic (without oxygen) work involving
maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen
and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the
stored reserves of fuel.
3. Speed Endurance Speed endurance is used to develop the coordination of
muscle contraction.
4. Strength Endurance Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete’s
capacity to maintain the quality of his muscles’ contractile force.
Advantages of endurance are as follows
• Needs only a small amount of easy to use, accessible equipment, if any.

• Good for aerobic fitness.
• Good for losing weight.
Disadvantages of endurance are as follows
• Can be boring.
• Does not improve anaerobic fitness, so it is not as good for team games
like football or hockey which involve short bursts of speed.
Training Method for Endurance Development

Methods for endurance development are
1. Continuous Training
2. Interval Training
3. Fartlek Training
Advantages of training method for endurance development are as follows

• It is good for increasing strength and cardio respiratory endurance.
• Several athletics can take part in the training programme at a time.
• It does not require any equipment and can be organised easily.
• This training method is not rigid; it is flexible in nature.
Disadvantages of training method for endurance development are as follows
• The trainee does very hard training which is sometimes difficult to see
his/her efforts making.
• Sometimes the athlete is likely to drop efforts.
• As it is not pre-planned so it may cause accidents.
• An appropriate check on trainees cannot be maintained.
Speed
It is the ability to cover distance in minimum possible time or the ability to perform
movement in the shortest possible time. It is the quickness of movement of body parts.
Speed used in endurance is called speed endurance. It is the ability to do work faster.
Different types of speed are
1. Maximum speed
2. Explosive speed (power)
3. Speed endurance
Training Methods for Speed Development

A speed development programme can be framed according to need, level and training
state of the players.
1. Acceleration Run Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed

specially in attaining maximum speed from a stationary position.
2. Pace Races or Run Pace races mean running the whole distance of a race
at a constant speed. In pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform
speed, generally 800 m and above.
Flexibility and Its Methods

Flexibility is . the ability to perform a joint action through a range of movements. It is
needed to perform everyday, activities with relative ease. Flexibility tends to deteriorate
with age. Without adequate flexibility, daily activities are more difficult to perform. Being
flexible significantly reduces the chance of experiencing occasional and chronic back
pain.
There are two types of flexibility
1. Passive flexibility
2. Active flexibility
Methods of flexibility development are as follows

1. Ballistic Method It is the oldest form of doing stretching exercises. This
method involves jerk in movement.
2. Slow Stretching Method In this method the muscle or joint involved is
stretched to the maximum possible limit using slow movement.
3. Slow Stretching and Holding Method It is the extension of slow stretching
method.
4. Post-Isometric Stretching This method of-flexibility development is based
on the principle of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
Coordination
Coordination is one of the main components of physical fitness. It is the ability to
perform smooth and accurate movements involving different parts of the body. It
requires good awareness of relative limb and body positions, and good integration
between the senses and muscles involved in the movement.
Different types of coordinative abilities are
1. Differentiation ability
2. Orientation ability
3. Coupling ability
4. Reaction ability
5. Balance ability
6. Rhythm ability
7. Adaptation ability
Circuit Training
It is a form of body conditioning or resistance training using high intensity aerobics. It
targets strength building and muscular endurance. Activities in circuit training are step
ups, stomach crunch, squat ups, jogging, skipping etc.
Impact of circuit training are
• Get maximum result in minimum time.

• Increases rate of metabolism.
• Enhances cardiovascular fitness.
• Enhances muscle endurance.
• Helps in strength training.

Class Xii P.ed (Notes)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class Xii P.ed (Notes)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class Xii P.ed (Notes)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SUBJECT: - PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1. Timely achievements of targets.

1. Finding out the causes of failure.

Various Committees and their Responsibilities

• The number of participating teams Facilities of ground, equipment and

1. Development of Sports Skills Various skills of sports are developed in

1. Knock-out or Elimination tournament

1. Knock-out or Elimination Tournaments

1. Minimum number of officials are required in organising tournaments.

Disadvantages of Knock-out Tournaments

2. League or Round Robin Tournaments

1. Single League Number of matches =N(N−1)2 (N = Number of teams)

Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

Method of Drawing Fixtures in Knock-out Tournament

The next power of 2 after 21 is 32 which is 25.

Example 2 : Total number of teams =12

5. Number of byes in upper and lower half

Fixtures in League Tournaments

Example 1 Fixture of 6 teams on cyclic method.

Example 2 Fixture of 5 teams on cyclic method.

• To provide incentive, motivation and opportunity to learn various skills.

Intramural competitions are conducted by the intramural committee of the institution.

• It improves the sense of citizenship and adult living. ,

• To improve the standard of sports.

Significance of extramurals are as follows

• They provide recreational opportunities for the campus community. ..

Chapter 2 ( Sports and Nutrition)

Balanced Diet and Nutrition

Macro and Micro Nutrients Macro Nutrients

1. Iron It is important for the formation of haemoglobin. Its deficiency leads to

Eating for Weight Control

BMI Weight status

• Usually comes on gradually.

Myths about Foods

• Potatoes make us fat.

Effects of Diet on Performance

Factors Affecting Diet

Pre, During and Post-Competition Fluid and Meal Intake

The Pre-Competition Meal

Nutrition Requirement during Competition

The Post-Competition Meal

Food Supplements for Children

Advantages of various food supplements are

• Supplements can contribute to improve muscular strength, endurance and overall

Disadvantages of various food supplements are

Precautions which can be taken for food supplements are

Chapter 3 (Yoga and Lifestyle)

Asana as Preventive Measures

Their procedures, benefits and contraindications are listed below

• Hastasana is done in a standing posture. Start with standing in Tadasana and

Trikonasana [Triangle Pose]

• This is done in a standing posture.

• Strengthens the legs, knees, ankles, arms and chest.

• This is done in a sitting posture.

• It is one of the best poses to improve the flexibility of the spine.

• This is done in lying posture.

• It improves the blood circulation and energises the heart.

• Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

• Avoid during pregnancy.