Electric Heating Jeff

Kamau

1.0 Introduction
Electric heating is a process in which electrical energy is converted to heat.
When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot (resistance heating).
When a magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is produced in
the magnetic material (induction heating).
When an electrically insulating material was subjected to electrical stresses; it too underwent a
temperature rise (dielectric heating).
All heating requirements in domestic purposes such as cooking, room heater, immersion water heaters
and electric toasters and also in industrial purposes such as welding, melting of metals, tempering,
hardening, and drying can be met easily by electric heating over the other forms of conventional
heating.

1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of electric heating

(a) Advantages

The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:
1. Economical: Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons;
therefore, maintenance cost is less.
2. Cleanliness: Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps
surroundings clean.
3. Pollution free: As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution
free; no need of providing space for their exit.
4. Ease of control: In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either
manually or automatically.
5. Uniform heating: The substance can be heated uniformly throughout whether it may be
conducting or non-conducting material.
6. High efficiency: In non-electric heating, only 40-60% of heat is utilized but in electric heating
75-100% of heat can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very
high.
7. Automatic protection: Protection against over current and overheating can be provided by using
control devices.
8. Heating of non-conducting materials: The heat developed in the non-conducting materials such
as wood and porcelain is possible only through the electric heating.
9. Better working conditions: No irritating noise is produced with electric heating and also
radiating losses are low.
10. Less floor area: Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor area required is less.
11. High temperature: High temperature can be obtained by the electric heating except the ability of
the material to withstand the heat.

(b) Disadvantages
1. The cost of electricity makes it expensive to use as a heating fuel.
2. With space heaters, we can't easily provide central filtration, humidification or cooling.
3. The electrical hazard of shock and fire caused by electricity is an issue.
4. There are a cost associated with Electric heat requires a larger electrical service than normal.

Modes of transfer of heat

The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the temperature gradient takes
place by any of the following methods:
(a) Conduction
One molecule of substance gets heated and transfers the heat to the adjacent one and so on.

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In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the movement in the
molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction of heat along the substance depends upon the
temperature gradient.
𝑲𝑨
𝑸= (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )𝒕
𝒙

x = Plate thickness in m
A= cross sectional area of its two parallel face in 𝑚2
T1 & T2=Temperature of two faces in °C
t=duration of heat transfer in hr
K=Co-efficient of thermal conductivity for the material.
Example: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.

(b) Convection
In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid due to the
actual motion of the molecules. The rate of heat depends mainly on the difference in the fluid density at
different temperatures.
The quantity of heat absorbed from the heater by convection are depends on temperature of the heating
element above the surrounding, size of surface of heater, on the position of heater.
Heat dissipated 𝑯 = 𝒂𝒃(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )𝑾/𝑴𝟐
a & b are constant (depends on heating surface) T1 & T2 are the temperature of the heating surface and
fluid in °C
Examle, Immersion water heater.

(c) Radiation
In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated without heating the medium in
between. It is dependent on surface.
Rate of heat radiation is given by Stefan’s law.

𝑻𝟏 𝟒 𝑻𝟐 𝟒
𝑯 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟐𝝀𝑲 {( ) −( ) } 𝑾/𝑴𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Where, 𝑻𝟏 =Temperature of source of heat in °C
𝑻𝟐 = Temperature of substance to be heated in °C
K=Constant known as radiant efficiency
𝝀=emissivity
• Ex: Solar heaters.

Essential requirements of good heating element

The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:
1. High-specific resistance: Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire
may be required to provide given amount of heat.
2. High-melting point: It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high
temperature, a small increase in temperature will not destroy the element.
3. Low temperature coefficient of resistance: the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the
temperatures; it is very efficient heating at high temperature. For accurate temperature control, the
variation of resistance with the operating temperature should be very low. This can be obtained
only if the material has low temperature coefficient of resistance.
4. Free from oxidation: The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high

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temperatures; otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
5. High-mechanical strength: The material should have high-mechanical strength and should
withstand for mechanical vibrations.
6. Non-corrosive: The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other
chemical fumes.
7. Economical: The cost of material should not be so high.

Classification of electric heating method

Electric heating can be broadly classified under two categories:

i. Power frequency heating in which the furnace operates with 50Hz AC supply.
ii. High frequency heating in which special high frequency generators is essential, e.g. dielectric
heating, induction heating.

A. Power frequency heating

1. Resistance heating
a) Direct resistance heating
The electric current is made to pass through the substance to be heated or charge itself. The
electric current while passing through charge products 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss which appears in the form of the
heat thus charge is heated up.
Few examples of this heating method are resistance welding, electrode boiler for heating water,
salt bath furnace.

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b) Indirect resistance heating

Current is passed through heating element and 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss is produced which appears in the form of
heat.
This heat is passed on to the substance or charge to be heated by radiation and convection.
e.g. room heater, hair drier, soldering iron, immersion water heater, hot plate, frying pan, electric
oven etc.
c) Radiant or Infrared heating
Heat energy from an electric lamp is focused on the charge to be heated and is transferred through
electromagnetic radiations.
This is used for drying the paint on objects.
2. Arc heating
a) Direct arc heating
An arc is made to strike between electrodes and charge itself.
The heat energy of arc is absorbed by the charge and thus heating is done.
b) Indirect arc heating
An arc is made to strike between two electrodes. The heat of arc is then passed on to the charge
through radiation.
3. Electron bombardment heating
Bombardment of electron causes heating.

B. High frequency heating

1. Induction heating
In this method, current are induced in the charge by electromagnetic induction action and
circulation of these currents in the charge causes its heating. This is used in metallurgical
industries for melting the metals.

i. Direct induction heating

Currents are induced in the charge by electromagnetic induction action in case of steel and other
metals these currents are sufficient enough to melt the metals.
The equipment used for melting is known as induction furnace and processes used for general heat
treatment of metals is known as eddy current heating.

ii. Indirect induction heating

Eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic induction, the heat so
produced is transferred to the charge by radiation and convection and certain heat treatment
methods for metals make use of this method.

2. Dielectric heating
Dielectric loss is produced in the charge itself when it is subjected to alternating electric field. This
dielectric loss appears in the form of heat thus charge is heated up.

1. Resistance heating
When current passes through a resistance, Power loss takes place there in which appears in the
form of heat,

H = I2 R t
Power loss = 𝐼 2 𝑅 Watts = VI Watts = 𝑉 2 /R Watts

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Where, R=Resistance of the element (Ω)

V=Voltage (Volt)
I=Current (ampere)
a) Direct Resistance Heating

 In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated.

 The charge may be in the form of powder, pieces or liquid.
 The electrodes are connected to AC or DC supply.
 In case of DC or 1-Φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and three electrodes are immersed in the
charge and connected to supply in case of availability of 3- Φ supply.
 When metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of highly resistive is sprinkled over the surface of
the charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit between electrodes.
 The current flows through the charge and heat is produced in the charge itself. So, this method has
high efficiency.
 As the current in this case is not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible.
 This method of heating is employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water.

b) Indirect Resistance Heating

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 In this method of heating, electric current is passed through a wire or other high resistance
material forming a heating element.
 The heat proportional to 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss produced in the heating element is delivered to the charge by
one or more of the modes of transfer of heat i.e. convection and radiation.
 An enclosure known as heating chamber is required for heat transfer by radiation and convection
for the charge.
 For industrial purposes, where a large amount of charge is to be heated then the heating element
is kept in a cylinder surrounded by jacket containing the charge.
 The arrangement provides as uniform temperature, automatic temperature control can be
provided.
 Both A.C and D.C supplies can be used for this purpose at full mains voltage depending upon
the design of heating element.

Causes of failure of heating elements

a) Formation of hot spot
i. The filament may break where it shines brightest during its operation that means the
temperature at the particular spot is higher compared to rest of the filament. This is
called formation of the hot spots. It may be created due to following causes:
ii. Unequal spacing: If spacing between the heating elements is non-uniform then the
temperature will be maximum where spacing is minimum and thus hot spot may be
formed.
iii. Supporting Structure: If supporting structure is a bad conductor of heat then it will not
transfer any heat, hence temperature of the heating element will be higher near the
supports resulting in formation of hot spots.
b) Oxidation
 The outer surface of the heating element which is open to atmosphere gets oxidized due
to higher temperatures.
 During switching operation the oxide layer gets flicked off and due to this the inner
surface is now open to atmosphere.
c) Embrittlement due to gain growth
 All heating alloys containing iron tend to form large brittle grains at high temperatures.

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 When cold, the heating elements are very brittle and liable to rupture easily on slightest
handling and jerks.

d) Corrosion
 Chemical fumes produced during industrial operations corrode the surface of the heating
element where the actual contact of fumes with the heating element occurs. Due to this
failure of the heating element occurs.
e) Mechanical Failure
 During alloying, apportion of the heating element may have a higher content of higher
resistivity material so this portion will produce more amount of heat for the same
current. Thus, the heating element may be damaged.

Temperature control of resistance furnaces/ovens.

Temperature control is necessary in resistance oven/furnaces – temperature may have to be kept

constant or varied according to requirements.
Control may be manual or automatic.
In this heating heat developed depends upon 𝐼 2 𝑅 t or 𝑉 2 t/R. So there are three ways in which the
temperature can be controlled.
i. By varying the applied voltage to the elements or current flowing through the element
 Voltage across the oven can be controlled by changing the transformer tapping. This is
economical and most suitable if the transformer is to be used for stepping down the
voltage for the supply to ovens or furnaces, but such conditions do not arise usually.
 Auto-transformer or induction regulator can also be used for variable voltage supply.
 Alternative voltage across the oven or furnace can be controlled by varying the
impedance connected in series with the circuit. But this method is not economical as
power is continuously wasted in the controlling resistance. Therefore it is limited to
small furnaces.

ii. By varying the resistance of elements

 Temperature can also be controlled by switching the various combinations of group of
resistance used in the ovens or furnaces in the following ways.
a) Use of variable number of element
 In this method, the number of heating elements in working is changed; so total
power input or heat developed is changed.
 This method does not provide uniform heating unless the number of heating
elements in the circuit at any particular instant is distributed over the surface area,
which requires complicated wiring.
b) Change of connections
 In this method the elements are arranged to be connected either all in series or all
in parallel or combination of both star or in delta by means of switching at
different instant according to the requirements. This is the simplest and most
commonly used method of control.

iii. By varying the ratio of on and off times of supply

 An on-off switch can also be employed for temperature control but its use is restricted to
small ovens.

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 The time duration for which the oven is connected to the supply and the time duration for
which it remains cut-off from the supply will determine the temperature.
 Here an oven is supplied through a thermostat switch which makes and breaks the supply
connections at particular temperature.
 The ratio of time duration during which supply remains on to total time duration of an
on-off cycle is an indication of temperature.
 The higher the ratio, the larger will be the temperature of the oven. Advantages of this
method is that it is more efficient then series impedance method.

Design of resistance heating element

 The purpose of design of heating element is to find size and length of wire required as the
heating element to produce the given temperature can be calculated when, we know the
electrical input and voltage.
 Wire employed may be circular or rectangular like a ribbon.
 The heating element on reaching a steady temperature will dissipate the heat from its surface
equivalent to electrical input.
 Generally the heat will be dissipated from the heating elements at high temperatures, it is
reasonable to assume that whole of the heat energy is dissipated by radiation.
 Heat dissipated according to stefan’s Law
𝑻 𝟒 𝑻 𝟒
𝟏 𝟐
𝐻 = 5.72𝝀𝑲 {(𝟏𝟎𝟎 ) − (𝟏𝟎𝟎 ) } ………………………………………………………………….(1)

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Solving equation (A) and (B) length & diameter of wire can be determined.

Example1

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Example:

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Arc heating

This is the heating of matter by an electric arc. The matter may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. When the
heating is direct, the material to be heated is one electrode; for indirect heating, the heat is transferred
from the arc by convection, or radiation.
Electrodes used in arc furnaces:
Carbon electrodes
i. They are made of anthracite coal and coke.
ii. Cheaper.
iii. Uniform heating can be obtained with large area of carbon electrodes.
iv. Oxidation starts at about 400°C.
v. Used in small furnaces.
vi. Used in manufacturing of Ferro-alloys, aluminum, calcium carbide, phosphorus.

Graphite electrodes
i. They are obtained by heating carbon electrodes to a very high temperature.
ii. Owing to lower resistivity of graphite (one fourth of the carbon), graphite is required half in
size for the same current resulting is easy replacement.
iii. Oxidation starts at about 600°C.

Self - baking electrodes

i. They are made of a special paste, the composition of the paste depends upon the type of
process for which it is employed.
ii. When current is passed, heat is produced that bakes the paste to form an electrode.
iii. Used production of Ferro-alloys, electro- chemical furnaces and in production of aluminum
by electrolytic process.

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Types of arc heating furnaces

a) Direct arc furnaces
 When supply is given to the electrodes, two arcs are established between electrodes and charge,
current passes through the charge.
 As the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also produced by current flowing
through the charge itself, it is known as direct arc furnace.
 If the available supply is DC or 1-Φ AC, two electrodes are sufficient, if the supply is 3-Φ AC;
three electrodes are placed at three vertices of an equilateral triangle.
 The most important feature of the direct arc furnace is that the current flows through the charge,
the stirring action is inherent due to the electromagnetic force setup by the current and such
furnace is used for manufacturing alloy steel and gives purer product.

Direct arc furnace

Merits:
i. It produces purer products, when compared with other methods.
ii. It is very simple and easy to control the composition of the final product during refining
process.
Demerits:
i. It is very costlier.
ii. Electric energy is expensive, Even though it is used for both smelting and refining.
Application:
i. This type of furnace is to produce steel, alloy steel such as stainless steel etc.
ii. Used for the manufacture of gray iron casting.
b) Indirect arc furnace
 In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in
contact and then with drawing them heat so developed, due to the striking of arc across air
gap is transferred to charge is purely by radiation.

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 These furnaces are usually l-Φ and hence their size is limited by the amount of one-phase
load which can be taken from one point.
 Since on this furnace current does not flow through the charge, there is no stirring action and
the furnace is required to be rocked mechanically
 The electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the horizontal axis. This
furnace is also sometimes called as rocking arc furnace.
 The charge in this furnace is heated not only by radiation from the arc between electrode tips
but also by conduction from the heated refractory during rocking action; so, the efficiency of
such furnace is high.
 Power input to the furnace is regulated by adjusting the arc length by moving the electrodes.
 Even though it can be used in iron foundries where small quantities of iron are required
frequently, the main application of this furnace is the melting of non-ferrous metals.

Indirect arc furnace

.
Advantages:
i. Lower overall production cost per tonne of molten material.
ii. Sound casting in thin and intricate design can be produced.
iii. Metal losses due to oxidation and volatilization are quite low.
iv. Flexible in operation.
Disadvantages:
i. No inherent stirring action as there is no current flow through the charge.
ii. Continuous rocking should be done to distribute heat uniformly.
Application:
The main application of this type furnace is melting of non-ferrous metals.

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DIELECTRIC HEATING

 Dielectric heating is also sometimes called as high frequency capacitance heating. It is used to
heat nonmetallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass, ceramics etc
where they are subjected to high voltage AC current, their temperature will increase in
temperature is due to the conversion of dielectric loss into heat.
 The supply frequency required for dielectric heating is between 10-50 MHz and applied voltage
is 20 kV. The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is about 50%.

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Advantages:
i. Uniform heating is obtained.
ii. Running cost is low.
iii. Non conducting materials are heated within a short period.
iv. Easy heat control.
v. With increase in frequency the heating becomes faster.
vi. Inflammable articles like plastics and wooden products can be safely heated.
Disadvantages:
i. High installation cost. Thus preferred where other methods are not possible.

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Applications:
i. Food processing.
ii. Wood processing.
iii. Drying purpose in textile industry.
iv. Electronic sewing.
v. Dehydration of foods.
vi. Vulcanizing of rubber.
vii. Drying of explosives.
viii. Heating of tissues and bones of body required for the treatment of certain types of pains and
diseases.
ix. Removal of moisture from oil.

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INDUCTION HEATING
 Induction heating is based on the principle of transformers. There is a primary winding through
which an AC current is passed.
 The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated which acts as secondary. An
electric current is induced in this metal when the AC current is passed through the primary coil.
 The following are different types of induction furnaces:
i. Core type (low frequency) induction furnaces.
ii. Coreless type (high frequency) induction furnaces.
Core type furnaces: they operate similar to a two winding transformer. They are classified into three
types.
1. Direct core type
2. Vertical core type
3. Indirect core type.

1. Direct core type induction furnace

 The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms single
turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core.
 The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the charge to be
melted in the form of an annular ring.
 This type of furnace has the following characteristics: (why it is used in low frequency?)
 This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with primary winding,
which is energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling between primary and secondary
is very weak; it results in high leakage reactance and low pf. To overcome the increase in
leakage reactance, the furnace should be operated at low frequency of the order of 10 Hz.

 When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited thereby
cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in the
hearth to keep the secondary as short circuit.

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 Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stirring action in
the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate the furnace at low
frequency.
 In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) frequency changer is
to be provided, which involves the extra cost.
 The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
viewpoint.
 If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic forces in the
molten metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they are in the same direction.
 The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of bubbles and voids);
this effect is known as pinch effect.
 The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is negligible, and
so it is necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.

2. Vertical core type induction furnace

 It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the disadvantages
mentioned in direct core type induction furnace. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core
instead of horizontal core. It is also known as Ajax-Wyatt induction furnace.
 Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body of the
crucible.

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 The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as the magnetic
coupling is high compared to direct core type.
 There is a tendency of molten metal to accumulate at the bottom that keeps the secondary
completed for a vertical core type furnace as it consists of narrow V-shaped channel.
 The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the type charge used. Clay lining is used for
yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is used for red brass.
 The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can be removed for
admitting the charge.
 Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for tilting the furnace to take out the molten
metal. Even though it is having complicated construction, it is operating at power factor of the
order of 0.8-0.83.
 This furnace is normally used for the melting and refining of brass and nonferrous metals.
Advantages
i. Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.
ii. Absence of crucibles.
iii. Consistent performance and simple control.
iv. It is operating at high power factor.
v. Pinch effect can be avoided.

3. Indirect core type furnace

 This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction furnace
with the absence of core.
 The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace and an iron core links
both primary and secondary windings.
 The heat produced in the secondary winding is transmitted to the charge by radiation.
 An oven of this type is in direct competition with ordinary resistance oven. It consists of a
magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside the chamber of the furnace.
 This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at certain temperature and regains them again
when it is cooled to the same temperature.
 When the oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases
many times and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the
Temperature of the furnace can be effectively controlled.
 The magnetic circuit is detachable type that can be replaced by the other magnetic circuits
having critical temperatures ranging between 400°C and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf
of around 0.8.

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Indirect Core Type Induction Furnace

Coreless type induction furnace

 It is a simple furnace with the absence of core. In this furnace, heat developed in the charge due
to eddy currents flowing through it. The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible
cylindrical in shape enclosed within a coil that forms primary of the transformer.
 The furnace also contains a conducting or non-conducting container that acts as secondary. If the
container is made up of conducting material, charge can be conducting or non-conducting;
whereas, if the container is made up of non-conducting material, charge taken should have
conducting properties.
 When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by these coils induce the
eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a direction opposite
to the current in the primary coil.
 These currents heat the charge to melting point and they also set up electromagnetic forces that
produce a stirring action to the charge.
 The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are given as:
2 2
𝑊𝑒 𝛼𝐵𝑚 𝑓 where 𝐵𝑚 is the maximum flux density (Tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz) and We is
the eddy current loss (Watts).
 In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence, the primary supply
should have high frequency for compensating the low flux density.
 If it is operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper loss, thereby
increasing the temperature of the primary winding.

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Coreless Induction Furnace

 This necessitates in artificial cooling. The coil, therefore, is made of hollow copper tube through
which cold water is circulated.
 Minimum stray magnetic field is maintained when designing coreless furnace, otherwise there
will be considerable eddy current loss.

Advantages
i. Ease of control.
ii. Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.
iii. The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.
iv. The cost is less for the erection and operation.
v. It can be used for heating and melting.
vi. Any shape of crucible can be used.
vii. It is suitable for intermittent operation.

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