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Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town,
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Varinder S. Kanwar
Sanjay K. Sharma
C. Prakasam Editors

Proceedings
of International
Conference on Innovative
Technologies for Clean
and Sustainable
Development (ICITCSD
– 2021)
Varinder S. Kanwar • Sanjay K. Sharma
C. Prakasam
Editors

Proceedings of International
Conference on Innovative
Technologies for Clean and
Sustainable Development
(ICITCSD – 2021)
Editors
Varinder S. Kanwar Sanjay K. Sharma
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Chitkara University National Institute of Technical Teachers
Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Training and Research
Chandigarh, Chandigarh, India
C. Prakasam
Department of Geography
School of Earth Sciences, Assam University,
Diphu Campus (A Central University)
Karbi Anglong, Assam, India

ISBN 978-3-030-93935-9 ISBN 978-3-030-93936-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93936-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Effect of Lime and Brick Ash Inclusion on Engineering

Behaviour of Expansive Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ajay Pratap Singh Rathor, Harshil Bhatt, and Deepak Pathak
2 Know Your Daily Rainfall in Any Location in India- A Web-Based
Approach Developed in Google Earth Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
R. Boopathi, Madhavi Ganesan, and V. Naresh
3 IoT- Based Innovative Technological Solutions for Smart
Cities and Villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Kriti Aggarwal and Gulshan Goyal
4 A Review on Utilization of E-Waste in Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Neeraj Kumar and Anjali Jaglan
5 Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) for Treatment
of Storm Water Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Harsh Pipil, Shivani Yadav, Sonam Taneja, Harshit Chawla,
A. K. Haritash, and Krishna R. Reddy
6 Textile Industry Wastewater Treatment Using Eco-Friendly
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Shivani Yadav, Harsh Pipil, Harshit Chawla, Sonam Taneja,
Sunil Kumar, and A. K. Haritash
7 Sustainable Treatment of Metal-Contaminated Soil
by Electrokinetic Remediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Sonam Taneja, Harshit Chawla, Harsh Pipil, Shivani Yadav,
Oznur Karaca, and A. K. Haritash
8 Eco-Restoration of Lakes and Water Sustainability
in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Harshit Chawla, Sonam Taneja, Shivani Yadav, Harsh Pipil,
Nimisha Singla, and A. K. Haritash

xix
xx Contents

9 Microplastics: Environmental Issues and Their Management . . . . . . 95

Aparupa Shenoy, A. K. Haritash, and S. K. Singh
10 Elucidating the Effect of Cement Dust on Selective Soil
Parameters Around J&K Cements Limited, Khrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Unsa Shabir and Nitish Kumar Sharma
11 Development of Correlation Between Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity and Rebound Hammer Test Results for Condition
Assessment of Concrete Structures for Sustainable
Infrastructure Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Kamakshya Prasad Sahoo, Himmi Gupta, and Sanjay K. Sharma
12 Alternative Fine Aggregates to Produce Sustainable
Self Compacting Concrete: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Mohammad Faisal Bazaz, Aditya Punia, and Sanjay K. Sharma
13 Structural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Column Using
Diamond Tie Configuration Under Elevated Temperatures
for Sustainable Performance: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Sudesh Kumar and Himmi Gupta
14 Reusable and Recyclable Industrial Waste in Geopolymer
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Konduru Harini, S. Karthiyaini, and M. Shanmugasundaram
15 Infrared Thermography Parameter Optimization for Damage
Detection of Concrete Structures Using Finite Element
Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Ajay Gaonkar, Ganesh Hedge, and Madhuraj Naik
16 Eco-Friendly Concrete Admixture from Black Liquor
Generated in Pulp and Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
A. K. Dixit, Kumar Anupam, and M. K. Gupta
17 Behavioural Study on Concrete with Organic Materials
for CO2 Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
K. Srinivasan and M. C. Sashikkumar
18 An Efficient Design and Development of IoT Based Real-Time
Water Pollution Monitoring and Quality Management System . . . . . 217
Hakam Singh and P. Sivaram
19 Numerical Study of Composite Wrapped Reinforced
Concrete Columns Subjected to Close-in Blast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Atul Pandey and Hari Krishan Sharma
Contents xxi

20 Evaluation of Conventional Red Bricks with Compressed

Stabilized Earth Blocks as Alternate Sustainable Building
Materials in Indian Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Aishwariaa Unni and G. Anjali
21 Experimental Study on Alternative Building Material Using
Cement and Stone Dust as Stabilizers in Stabilized Mud Block . . . . 267
B. R. Vinod, H. J. Surendra, and R. Shobha
22 Utilizing the Potential of Textile Effluent Treatment Sludge
in Construction Industry: Current Status, Opportunities,
Challenges, and Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Somya Agarwal, Ajit Pratap Singh, and Sudheer Mathur
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites
for the Arba Minch Town, Ethiopia, Using Geospatial
Technology and AHP Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Muralitharan Jothimani, Radhakrishnan Duraisamy,
Ephrem Getahun, and Abel Abebe
24 Framing Conceptual Design of Adopting Interlocking
Bricks Technology in Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
P L. Meyyappan and R. Krishnakumar
25 Arriving Factors in the Conceptual Design Framework
of 3D Printing Techniques for Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
P L. Meyyappan, K. Ravi Tejeswar Reddy, K. Omkarnath,
Venkata Naveen Kumar, P. Venkatakrishna, and T. Nagaraju
26 Scenic Evaluation of the Hills for Tourism Development – A Study
on the Hills of Tamilnadu, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
K. Katturajan and H. Sivasankari
27 Influence of Groundnut Shell Ash and Waste Plaster of Paris
on Clayey Soil for Sustainable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Abhishek Kanoungo, Vishal Dhiman, Shubham Sharma,
Jagdeep Singh, and Akhilesh Kumar
28 Influence of Metakaolin and Steel Fiber on Strength
of Concrete – A Critical Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Abhishek Kanoungo, Varinder S. Kanwar, Naveen Nishchal,
Ajay Goyal, and Amandeep Singh
29 Decadal Monitoring of Coastline Shifts and Recommendation
of Non-structural Protection Measures Along the Coast
of Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
C. Prakasam, R. Aravinth, S. Sanjeevi Prasad, and J. Murugesan
xxii Contents

30 Development of Sustainable Concrete Using Slag

and Calcined Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Ankur Gupta and Arun Kumar Parashar
31 Assessment of the Impact of Bacillus Cereus Bacteria on Strength
and Water Absorption Capacity of Sustainable Concrete. . . . . . . . . . 379
Arun Kumar Parashar and Ankur Gupta
32 Design and Development of COVID-19 Pandemic Situation-Based
Remote Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
P. Sivaram, Md Abdul Wassay, and S. M. Nandhagopal
33 Waste Pozzolanic Material as a Substitute of Geopolymer Mortar . . 405
Akshay Dhawan, Nakul Gupta, and Rajesh Goyal
34 Study of the Carbon Emissions from Construction of a House
in Plain Region Using Standard Construction Material
and Eco-Friendly/Alternative Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Ankur Gupta, Shubham Kumar, and Nakul Gupta
35 Experimental Investigation of the Impacts of Partial Substitution
of Cement with Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on the Characteristics
of Cement Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Nakul Gupta and Ankur Gupta
36 A Mini Review on Current Advancement in Application
of Bacterial Cellulose in Pulp and Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Anuradha Janbade, Saher Zaidi, Mudita Vats, Nitin Kumar,
Jitender Dhiman, and M. K. Gupta
37 Effect of Agro-Waste as a Partial Replacement in Cement
for Sustainable Concrete Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Gaurav Shupta, Ajay Goyal, Akhil Shetty, and Abhishek Kanoungo
38 Analysis and Evaluation of Geopolymer Concrete
from Mechanical Standpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Ashish Shukla and Nakul Gupta
39 Municipal Waste Management in India: A Critical Review
of Disposal System and Model Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Amandeep Singh, Abhishek Kanoungo, Ajay Goyal, Isha Gupta,
and Akshay Chaudhary
40 Experimental Study on Light Weight Geopolymer Concrete
Using Expanded Clay Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Palanisamy Ashokkumar, D. Jegatheeswaran, V. Prabakaran,
and Saminathan Chidambaram
41 Seismic Response of Composite Bridges: A Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
S. Bharani and M. N. A. Gulshantaj
Contents xxiii

42 Assessing and Correlating the Flow Duration Curve

and Drought Index for the Environmental Flow Requirements . . . . . 515
C. Prakasam, R. Saravanan, Varinder S. Kanwar, and M. K. Sharma
43 Effect on Rheological and Hardened Properties of Fly
Ash-GGBS Based High Strength Self Compacting
Concrete with Inclusion of Micro and Nano Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
G. Vinod Kumar and B. Narendra Kumar
44 Mechanical Property Study on Glass Fibre Concrete
with Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregate with Steel Slag . . . . . . . 539
E. Merlyn Joy and M. Soundararajan
45 Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Partial
Replacement of Fine Aggregate with Waste Crushed Glass . . . . . . . . 555
Y. Mahesh and G. Lalitha
46 A Performance Study on Lithium Based Admixture
in the Properties of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
S. Sathya and R. Manju
47 Self-Curing Concrete Made By Using Hemp: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Ankush Tanta, Varinder S. Kanwar, and Manvi Kanwar
48 Research Progress of India in Waste Management at Global
Level: A Bibliometric Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Ishwar Dutt, Arun Lal Srivastav, Ashu Taneja, and Jafar Ali
49 Performance Evaluation of Acrylic Based Coating
on Carbonation Depth on Different Grades of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . 603
Abhishek Thakur, Sanjay K. Sharma, and Amit Goyal
50 Cost Benefit Analysis of Retrofitting for Existing Building
as Net Zero Energy Building: A Case Study in Composite
Climate Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Aditya Punia, Sanjay K. Sharma, and Poonam Syal
51 Advances in Building Materials Industry by Annexation
of Nano Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Ashmita Rupal, Sanjay K. Sharma, and G. D. Tyagi
52 Experimental Investigations on Utilization of Electroplating Waste
Sludge in Manufacturing of Polymer Based Checkered Tiles . . . . . . 635
Sivasankara Rao Meda, Sanjay K. Sharma, G. D. Tyagi,
and Ishan Tank
53 Alccofine as a Partial Substitute of Cement with Scrap Iron
Slag as a Coarser Material in High Strength Non-conventional
Concrete as an Experimentational Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Naveen Hooda, Rinku Walia, Devinder Sharma, and Abhishek Gupta
xxiv Contents

54 Water Pollution: “Dal Lake a Case Study” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

Shabina Masoodi, Lone Jaseem Saleem, Sadiya Majeed,
Aflak Rashid Wani, Mohammad Furqan, and Rasim Javeed Banday
55 Durability Properties of Admixture of Fly Ash, Bottom Ash
and GBFS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Anil Kumar, P. Jitendra Singh, K. Manish Jain,
and K. Deependra Sinha
56 Comparative Studies of Compressive Strength on Different
Brick Masonry Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
D. Jegatheeswaran and M. Soundar Rajan
57 Monitoring and Management of Construction Sites Using Drone . . . 705
M. N. A. Gulshan Taj, R. Prema, S. Anand, A. Haneefi,
R. P. Kanishka, and D. H. A. Mythra
58 Experimental Investigation on Buckling Behaviour
of Transmission Tower Using Cold Formed and Hot Rolled Steel . . . 721
S. Gayathri, S. Saranya, and M. Kasiviswanathan
59 Assessment of Indoor Air Quality of Buildings Made
of Bricks Developed from Paper Pulp Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Brij Bhushan, Varinder S. Kanwar, and Siby John
60 Review on Shear Strengthened RC Rectangular Beams
with FRP Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
K. V. Satyanarayana and B. Ajitha
61 Machine Learning Based Quality Prediction of Reuse
Water in Sewage Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Ankit and S. K. Singh
62 “Prediction, Impact and Mitigation of Ambient Air Quality
Pollutant Concentrations in Chandigarh” A Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Debendra Dalai, Sanjay Sharma, Varinder Kanwar,
and Jyotsna Kaushal
63 A Review of Environmental Flow Evaluation Methodologies –
Limitations and Validations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Monika Sharma, C. Prakasam, R. Saravanan, Suresh C. Attri,
Varinder S. Kanwar, and M. K. Sharma
64 Sustainable Development of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled
Tribes’ Population in Select Villages of Himachal Pradesh,
India: A Cross Sectional Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Varinder S. Kanwar, Hitakshi Dutta, Ishwar Dutt, Jafar Ali,
and Ashok Kumar

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Chapter 23
Identification of Suitable Solid Waste
Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town,
Ethiopia, Using Geospatial Technology
and AHP Method

Muralitharan Jothimani, Radhakrishnan Duraisamy, Ephrem Getahun,

and Abel Abebe

Abstract In developing nations, government authorities are mainly concerned with

tackling the growing problems of solid waste disposal. However, most people living
in Ethiopia’s town and village continue to dispose of solid waste randomly, resulting
in severe environmental and public health issues. The present study aimed to find
suitable sites for solid waste disposal produced in the Arba Minch town, Ethiopia.
Geospatial technology and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method are more
cost-effective and reliable for identifying solid waste disposal sites. When choosing
a suitable location to ensure environmentally sustainable solid waste disposal, many
factors must be considered. Distance from drainage, groundwater level, lithology,
land use/land cover (LULC), lineament density, geomorphology, precipitation, ele-
vation, slope, soil type, distance from the road, and wind direction (aspect) were
considered in the present study. The theme layers listed above were created using
optical satellite images, a digital elevation model, a high-resolution Google Earth
image, field data, and collateral data. The AHP method was used to calculate the
ranks and weights of the aforementioned thematic layers and their sub-themes.
Finally, chosen factor layers were overlayed using raster-based weighted linear
combinations (WLC) in ArcGIS for site suitability evaluation. The present research
area is 63.5 km2. The current study results show, 6.84% (4.34 km2) of the region, is
very appropriate for solid waste disposal, 10.19% (6.47 km2) is moderately accept-
able, and 82.97% (52.69 km2) is unsuitable for solid waste disposal. The suitability
map of the solid waste disposal location shows the method’s effectiveness. The cur-
rent study’s findings are crucial for Arba Minch’s planners and administrators.

M. Jothimani (*) · E. Getahun · A. Abebe

Department of Geology, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia
R. Duraisamy
Faculty of Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering, Arba Minch University,
Arba Minch, Ethiopia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 291
V. S. Kanwar et al. (eds.), Proceedings of International Conference on Innovative
Technologies for Clean and Sustainable Development (ICITCSD – 2021),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93936-6_23
292 M. Jothimani et al.

Keywords AHP · Arba Minch Town · Ethiopia · Geospatial · Solid waste disposal
site selection

23.1 Introduction

Solid waste is not liquid or gaseous and is generated by households, towns, super-
markets, buildings, and companies (Kapilan and Elangovan 2018). Solid waste is
becoming significant health and environmental concern in developed and develop-
ing countries (UNEP 2005; United Nations 2017). Tirusew and Amare (2013) report
that open dumping of solid trash is prevalent in Ethiopia. In developing countries,
population growth and anthropogenic behaviours have alarmingly increased waste
generation (Ebistu and Minale 2013; Abedi-Varakiand and Davtalab 2016). Ground
and surface water contamination, air pollution, and methane release may result from
haphazard solid waste disposal (Visvanathan and Glawe 2006). In addition, solid
waste dumped indiscriminately around the human environment often causes aes-
thetic issues and disturbance. In Ethiopia, most waste disposal sites are noticed on
the periphery of town, near to surface and groundwater bodies, agricultural land,
dwellings, and road sides (EGSSAA 2009).
Due to rising population and urbanization, municipal solid waste (MSW) man-
agement has become a major concern in most developing nations (Khan and
Samadder 2014). Collection, separation, processing, transfer, and final disposal of
municipal solid waste are all part of solid waste management. Waste management
options for municipal solid waste (MSW) include landfilling, combustion, recy-
cling, and burning. On the other hand, landfill is one of the most effective and envi-
ronmentally friendly means of waste disposal (Rahmat et al. 2016). When selecting
MSW locations, environmental, aesthetic, technological, health, socio-economic,
standard living improvement, population growth rate, and government participation
must be considered (Sharholy et al. 2008).
As a result, a suitable solid waste disposal location isfar from natural resources,
built-up areas, surface and groundwater resources, highways, lineaments, geologi-
cal faults, and communities crucial for proper waste administration. The following
researchers have considered (Tirusew and Amare 2013; Hamzeh et al. 2015;
Genemo and Yohanis 2016; Semaw 2018; Mussa and Suryabhagavan 2019;
Weldeyohanis et al. 2020) slope angle, topography, possible landslide locations,
LULC, population density, water table, drainage density, distance from the well
locations, utilities, types, and soil texture, rock type, road network, and distance
from the settlement in many regions of the world, including Ethiopia, to identify
proper solid waste disposal places.
The criteria for selecting optimal locations for waste disposal sites have been
established by the following organizations worldwide: the Minnesota Pollution
Control Agency (MPCA 2005), Alberta Environmental Protection Agency (AEPA
2010), Iranian Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA 2010), Ethiopian Ministry
of Urban Development and Construction (EMUB&C 2012), British Colombia
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 293

Ministry of Environment (BCME 2016). The selection of a sanitary landfill neces-

sitates spatial data collection and processing regarding various parameters that gov-
ern the suitability study. Remote sensing data may be used to get data with varying
spectral, geographical, and temporal resolutions, and it is also very economical.
Furthermore, multiple information inputs may be retrieved from remote sensing
data to determine the best location for solid waste disposal. Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) have been increasingly important in the decision-making process in
recent years. It is advantageous to use a geographic information system (GIS) to
select solid waste disposal sites since it saves both time and money.
Satellite remote sensing images may be used to extract information on geological
features such as lineaments and folds, land use and land cover (LULC), drainage
networks, elevation, slope, and aspect data, among many other factors (Emun 2010).
Geographical information system (GIS) create, analyze, and present significant spa-
tial and attribute data for selection processes of solid waste dumping sites. GIS
provides an inventory of digital data to long-term solid waste management facilities
(Kontos et al. 2005). GIS applications have been used in various places across the
world to locate possible garbage disposal sites (Chen and Kao 2008; Sumathi et al.
2008; Zamorano et al. 2008; Khan and Samadder 2014). Among the various MCDM
approaches, the analytical hierarchy process approach (AHP) is likely the most
effective method for facilitating decision-making (MCDM) for waste disposal sites
selections. The following researchers used GIS and the AHP method to select waste
disposal sites (Al-Anbari et al. 2016; Kapilan and Elangovan 2018; Khan et al.
2018; Santhosh and Sivakumar 2018; Yıldırım et al. 2018; Demesouka et al. 2014;
Muralitharan et al. 2021).
In Arba Minch town, Ethiopia, solid waste management issues arise due to eco-
nomic development and population growth, high urban waste production, and a lack
of landfill sites. The steep slope mountains on Arba Minch’s western border and the
Abya and Chamo lakes on its eastern border make finding appropriate solid waste
disposal sites difficult. Alluvial deposits cover a significant part of the town, and
their areal extent is 52% of the study area (Abbate et al. 2015; Kryštof Verner and
Leta Megerssa 2018). These alluvial deposits are occurring around the Kulfo River
and the northern part of the town. The high porosity and permeability of alluvial
deposits make them unsuitable for disposal due to leachate issues. The present
research region also has various geological features such as lineaments and faults
(Abbate et al. 2015; Kryštof and Leta 2018). These structures function as a conduit,
allowing leachate to pollute the groundwater system. Hence the site is not suitable
where the mentioned above structures are present.
Several major and minor drainages are flowing through the Arba Minch town.
The sites near drainages are also not suitable because they are highly vulnerable to
surface water pollution. These are important factors to consider while choosing
solid waste disposal locations in Arba Minch. The current study employed GIS and
the AHP method to find a viable solid waste disposal site model in Arba Minch,
Ethiopia. No such studies have been carried out using the present methodology
from the current study area before this study. As a whole, the current study is the
most detailed in the present location of research. Drainage distance, water level,
294 M. Jothimani et al.

geology, geomorphology, LULC, lineament density, elevation, slope, precipitation,

soil type, and road distance were all evaluated in this study while choosing appro-
priate solid waste disposal spots.

23.2 Materials and Methods

23.2.1 Study Area Details

Arba Minch is a town in Ethiopia’s Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples

Region (SNNPR), also in the Rift Valley. The latitudes of the research area range
from 5°55′N to 6°9′N, while the longitudes range from 37°30′ to 37°39′. The present
research area includes Abaya and Chamo lakes. Figure 23.1 depicts a geolocation
map of the current research area, and it covers 63 km2. The current study area is situ-
ated 500 km south of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia‘s capital. Major rock types include
alluvial sediments, basalt, colluvial deposits, and ignimbrite. The present research
area has a rough topography due to highly elevated mountains on the northwestern
side. The primary LULC types in the current research region include shrubland,
woodland, settlements, bushland, and barren terrain.

Fig. 23.1 Location map

23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 295

23.2.2 Data and Their Sources

Cloud-free Sentinel 2 satellite optical data, dated 08-March-2019, with 10 m spa-

tial resolution, has been downloaded from the (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
used to prepare the following thematic layers like land-use/land-cover, geomor-
phology, and lineaments. Details from the Ethiopian Geological Survey’s geologi-
cal map was used to generate the lithology layer, plus data from the Sentinel 2
satellite was used to evaluate the weathering status of the rock. It was possible to
extract the road network from the high-resolution Google Earth image. The drain-
age network, elevation, aspect, and slope layers were generated using the Advanced
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER-DEM) at a
spatial resolution of 30 m. NASA’s climatological data was used to download
rainfall data. The soil database for the current research region was built using data
from the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO 2006). Table 23.1 shows the
data used in this study and their sources. The above-mentioned thematic criteria
were produced using the following steps: obtaining the satellite image, scanning,
georeferencing the toposheets, and digitizing the resulting information.
Groundwater level, distance from the road, rainfall, lineaments, lineament density,
and drainage distances were also created using Arc GIS 10.8 procedures like buf-
fer, interpolation, and clip.

Table 23.1 Data and its sources

S.No Data Data sources
1 Drainage Sentinel 2 satellite imagery, ASTER-DEM, and toposheets
2 Groundwater level Hydrogeology map prepared by Czech Republic, sheet number
0637-D3, at a scale of 1:50,000.
3 Lithology Geological map of Ethiopian geological survey and Sentinel 2
satellite imagery
4 Lineament Geological map of Ethiopian geological survey and Sentinel 2
satellite imagery
5 Geomorphology Sentinel 2 satellite imagery, ASTER-DEM
6 Land use/land Sentinel 2 satellite imagery and fieldwork
cover
7 Slope ASTER-DEM
8 Elevation ASTER-DEM
9 Aspect ASTER-DEM
10 Precipitation NASA climatological data
11 Soil Food and Agricultural Organization
12 Road Google earth image and toposheets
13 Wind direction https://weatherspark.com/
296 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.2 Scale for pair-wise comparison

Intensity of importance Definition

1 Equal importance
2 Equal to moderate importance
3 Moderate importance
4 Moderate to strong importance
5 Strong importance
6 Strong to very strong importance
7 Very strong importance
8 Very to extremely strong importance
9 Extreme importance
Saaty (1980)

23.2.3 Method

The AHP technique was used to normalize the values of the twelve thematic maps
and sub-themes chosen to identify suitable solid waste disposal locations in the
research region. The twelve-factor layers and their sub-factors’ weights were calcu-
lated using AHP techniques, including pair-wise comparison matrix, weight stan-
dardization, and consistency ratio. In the pair-wise comparison matrix, the identified
twelve-factor layers and their sub-factors have been compared against each other to
show the relative preference. According to (Saaty 1980), a scale for comparison
matrix containing values between1 to 9 and describe the strength of rank, in the
comparison matrix 1 expresses “equal importance” between factors, and 9 repre-
sents “extreme importance” over another factor (Table 23.2).
The following section describes the formulas and steps to get the present
research’s factor layers and sub-layers final weights. Using the following formula,
the values of each column in the pair-wise matrix have been added.
n
Lij   n 1Cij (23.1)

Where Cij is a factor layer.

A normalized pair-wise matrix was created by dividing every element in the
matrix by the sum of its row sums, as shown in formula (23.2).

Cij
Xij  n
(23.2)
 n 1
Cij

The standard final weights are obtained by dividing the sum of the normalized row
of the matrix by the number of factor layers (N) using the following formula (23.3).
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 297

Xij
j 1
Wij  (23.3)
N

The consistency index (CI) was calculated by using the following formula (23.4)

CI     n  /  n  1 (23.4)

λ is the consistency vector, and n is the total number of thematic maps, and here it
is 12. Table 23.3 shows the random inconsistency values. Consistency ratio was
calculated by using the following formula (23.5).

CR = CI / RI (23.5)

The consistency ratio for all factor layers and sub-factors is less than 0.1 in this
study. Consequently, it demonstrates the precision of the pair-wise comparison
matrixes constructed in the current study.
The AHP analysis has been carried out in Microsoft Excel. The pair-wise com-
parison matrix, weights standardization, and consistency analysis of the selected
factor layers and their sub-factors are discussed in detail in the following sections.
The final weights were entered in the relevant shapefiles and converted to a raster
file format. Figure 23.2 shows the methodology flow chart of the present study.
Weighted Linear Combination (WLC)method by adopting Eq. (23.6) to integrate
the required thematic maps and sub-themes into ArcGIS to find suitable waste dis-
posal sites in the current study location.

WSSI   Ddlw  Ddfw    Grlw  Grfw    Lilw  Lifw    Ldfw  Ldfw 

  Lulw  Lufw    Gelw  Gefw    Sllw  Slfw    Elw  Efw 
  Prlw  Pfw    Solw S
Sofw    Rdlw  Rdfw    Aslw  Asfw  (23.6)

WSSI = waste site suitability index, Ddlw = distance from the drainage layer weight,
Ddfw = distance from the drainage features weights, Grlw = ground water level
layer weight, Grfw = ground water level features weights, Lilw = lithology layer
weight, Lfw = lithology features weights, Ldlw = lineament density layer weight,
Ldfw = lineament density features, Lulw = land use/land cover layer weight, Lufw
= land use/land cover features weights, Sllw = slope layer weight, Slfw = slope

Table 23.3 Random inconsistency values

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
RI 0.00 0.58 0.90 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.48
Saaty (1980)
n number of criteria, and RI random inconsistency
298 M. Jothimani et al.

Environmental Factors Economic Factors Social Factors

Google Earth Google Earth

Optical Satellite Image / DEM / Field Work / NASA
Image Image / Optical
satellite image

1. Groundwater level 1. Elevation 1. Lithology

2. Distance from the 2. Slope 2.Geological structures Road Land-use / land
surface water bodies 3. Aspect 3. Geomorphology cover
3. Precipitation 4. Soil

Weights standardization using AHP method

Weighted Linear Combination / spatial analysis

Identification of suitable sites for solid waste disposal

Fig. 23.2 Methodology flow chart derivation of sub-factors weights

features weights, Elw = elevation layer weight, Efw = elevation features weights,
Prw = precipitation weights, Prfw = precipitation features weights, Solw = soil layer
weight, Sofw = soil features, Rlw = distance from road layer weight, Rfw = distance
from road features weights, Asw = aspect layer weight, and Asw = aspect features
weights.

23.3 Results and Discussion

23.3.1 Derivation of Weights for Factor Layers

The initial pair-wise comparison matrix has been built to assign relative relevance
weights to the twelve thematic layers that have been selected in the present study. A
pair-wise comparison matrix was constructed based on investigations done in
Ethiopia by the following scholars (Genemo and Yohanis 2016; Duguma et al. 2018;
Semaw 2018; Mussa and Suryabhagavan 2019; Weldeyohanis et al. 2020)
(EMUB&C 2012) guidelines and field observations. Table 23.4 shows a pair-wise
judgment matrix of the twelve-factor layers used in the present study.
The distance to the drainage and distance to the road layer got the maximum and
minimum final weights. Table 23.5 shows the weights, rank, and priority of the
selected twelve-factor layers. 0.025 is the consistency ratio value, and it is <0.10.
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 299

Table 23.4 Factor layer’s Pair-wise comparison matrix

A B C D E F G H I J K L
A 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
B 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
C 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
D 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
E 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00
F 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00
G 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00
H 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00
I 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00 3.00
J 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 2.00 2.00
K 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1 1.00
L 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.50 1.00 1
Total 3.9 5.79 7.67 10.53 13.36 17.16 20.91 25.66 31.33 38 46 53
A = distance from drainage, B = groundwater level, C = lithology, D= lineament density, E =
LULC, F = geomorphology, G= slope, H = elevation, I = precipitation, J = soil, K = road, and L=
wind direction (aspect)

Table 23.5 Factor layers weights and rank

S.No Thematic layers Weights Rank
1 Distance from the drainage 0.23 1
2 Groundwater level 0.18 2
3 Lithology 0.14 3
4 Lineament density 0.11 4
5 Land use/land cover 0.09 5
6 Geomorphology 0.07 6
7 Slope 0.05 7
8 Elevation 0.04 8
9 Precipitation 0.03 9
10 Soil 0.03 10
11 Road 0.02 11
12 Wind direction (aspect) 0.02 12

23.3.1.1 Distance from the Drainage

The ASTER-DEM data was used to create a drainage network for the current
research region, which was then extracted using the Archydrotools included in the
ArcGIS through standard procedures. Additionally, the Sentinel-2 satellite image
and toposheets were used to verify and update the drainage networks. It is not rec-
ommended that solid waste disposal sites be located near drainage systems (Kontos
et al. 2005; Nas et al. 2008). Thus, the drainage network of the present research
region was buffered, and the results were categorized into five buffer zones
(0–250 m, 251–500 m, 501–750 m, 751–1000 m, and 1001–1250 m), (Fig. 23.3).
300 M. Jothimani et al.

Fig. 23.3 Distance from the drainage and groundwater level maps

Table 23.6 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (drainage buffers)

I II III IV V Weights Rank Priority
I 1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.17 0.419 1 41.9%
II 2 1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.263 2 26.3%
III 3 2 1 0.5 0.33 0.16 3 16.0%
IV 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.097 4 9.7%
V 6 4 3 2 1 0.062 5 6.2%
I = 1250–1001 m, II = 1000–751 m, III = 750–501 m, IV = 500–251 m, and V = 250–0 m

The drainage buffer categories of 1001–1250 m and 0–250 m drainage buffer were
allocated the highest and lowest initial weights, respectively, to create the pair-wise
comparison matrix. Drainage’s buffer pair-wise comparison matrix, weights, rank,
and priority are shown in Table 23.6. The consistency ratio, in this case, is 0.015.

23.3.1.2 Groundwater Level

The groundwater levels in Arba Minch town were determined using the Czech
Republic cooperative hydrogeology map for Arba Minch town, sheet number 0637-
D3, at a scale of 1:50,000. The water level contours were created using interpolation
and then transformed as a polygon in Arc GIS software for further analysis. The
groundwater levels in the current research region range between 16 meters and
23.99 meters. Further, the data on groundwater levels were categorized into five
groups, as seen in Fig. 23.3. The analysis determined the most and least appropriate
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 301

Table 23.7 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (groundwater levels)

I II III IV V Weights Rank
I 1 2 3 4 5 0.42 1
II 0.5 1 2 3 4 0.26 2
III 0.33 0.5 1 2 3 0.16 3
IV 0.25 0.33 0.5 1 2 0.10 4
V 0.2 0.25 0.33 0.5 1 0.06 5
I = 23.99–22.40 m, II = 22.39–20.80 m, III = 20.79–19.20 m, IV = 19.19–17.61 m, V = 17. 60–16 m

regions for landfill siting based on shallow and deep groundwater tables. A pair-
wise comparison matrix for groundwater level categories was developed using ini-
tial weights (Table 23.7).

23.3.1.3 Lithology

The rock type of the area is vital in deciding where to dispose of solid waste. The
lithological map of the present research region was created using information from
the geological map prepared by the Ethiopian geological survey and field observa-
tions in the study area. In addition, Sentinel 2 satellite data has been used to deter-
mine the weathering nature of the rock. High porosity and permeability alluvial and
colluvial deposits induce leachate penetration and groundwater pollution, making
them unsuitable for landfill sites. Thus, these sediments cannot be used as sitting
landfills. Therefore, rock with lesser porosity and permeability is ideal for landfill
siting. Thus, unweathered to slightly weathered ignimbrite has the highest rating,
whereas alluvial deposits have the lowest (Table 23.8). 0.043 is the consistency ratio
of the lithological features.

23.3.1.4 Lineament Density

Lineaments are an excellent sign of groundwater presence. Furthermore, lineaments

may facilitate the passage of leachate into the groundwater system (Sener et al.
2010). The ASTER-DEM, Sentinel-2 optical satellite data, and Ethiopian geologi-
cal map evaluated and mapped the lineaments. The density of lineaments was esti-
mated using the line density tool in ArcGIS. The lineament density of the present
study area range from 0 to 3.96 km/sqkm, and it has been divided into three groups
(Fig. 23.4). The high lineament density makes the region unsuitable for disposal
sites. The AHP analysis was carried out for lineament classes; normalized weights
and pair-wise comparison is shown in Table 23.9.
302 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.8 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (lithology)

Lithological Colluvial Alluvial
features Ignimbrite Basalt deposits sediments Weights Rank
Ignimbrite 1 3 5 7 0.565 1
Basalt 0.33 1 3.00 5.00 0.262 2
Colluvial deposits 0.20 0.33 1 3.00 0.118 3
Alluvial sediments 0.14 0.20 0.33 1 0.055 4

Fig. 23.4 Lithology and lineament density maps

Table 23.9 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (lineament density)

Lineament density (km/sqkm) 0–0.80 0.81–2.26 2.27–3.96 Weights Rank
0–0.80 1 2 3 0.52 1
0.81–2.26 0.50 1 2 0.36 2
2.27–3.96 0.33 0.50 1 0.12 3

23.3.1.5 Geomorphology

Landforms are essential in the selection of waste disposal sites. The current research
area is covered mainly by plain. Various landforms were identified in the current
research region include conical hills, plateaus, and liner ridges. Positioning of dis-
posal sites is most appropriate on plains and plateaus, while conical hill, linear
ridges, valley fill, and escarpment are much less or inappropriate for placement of
disposal sites. Geomorphology of the present research areawas created using satel-
lite images from Sentinel-2 and a 3-D model of the ASTER –DEM. Figure 23.5
shows the study area geomorphology map. A comparison of geomorphology classes
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 303

Fig. 23.5 Geomorphology and LULC maps

Table 23.10 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (geomorphology)

Conical hill,
Geomorphological Valley linear ridge, and
features Plain Plateau Mesa Butte fills escarpments Weights Rank
Plain 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.37 1
Plateau 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 0.25 2
Mesa 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 4 0.16 3
Bute 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 0.10 4
Valley fills 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 0.05 5
Conical hill, linear 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 0.03 6
ridge, and
escarpments

is shown in Table 23.10, along with their weights and rankings. Conical hill, linear
ridge, and escarpments received low weights and grades, in contrast to the plain
geomorphological area, which received high weights.

23.3.1.6 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC)

To locate waste disposal sites, a LULC study of the present research area is neces-
sary. A LULC map of Arba Minch was created by visual interpretation of false
colour composite (FCC) of Sentinel 2 satellite data with 10 m spatial resolution.
Barren land, agricultural land, settlement, bushland, forest, and other LULC types
have been recognized in the Arba Minch Town (Fig. 23.5). The same was prioritized
according to its relevance in determining the location of the waste disposal facility.
304 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.11 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (land use/land cover)
I II III IV V Weights Rank
I 1 3 5 7 9 0.50 1
II 0.33 1 3 5 7 0.25 2
III 0.20 0.33 1 3 5 0.11 3
IV 0.14 0.20 0.33 1 3 0.05 4
V 0.11 0.14 0.20 0.33 1 0.03 5
I = Barren land, II = Bushland, III = Shrubland, IV= Forest, V = Settlement, Agricultural land,
plantation area, water body, and airport

The barren land, settlement, agricultural land, shrubland, plantation, bushland, and
forest were allocated the highest, lowest, and intermediate ranks (Table 23.11).
LULC consistency ratio is 0.04.

23.3.1.7 Slope

The slope of the current research area was determined using ASTER-DEM and
categorized into 0–6.58°, 6.59–15.72°, and 15.73–54.18° (Fig. 23.6). Slopes that are
too steep might result in floods, runoff, and erosion. Additionally, they are economi-
cally unviable as a waste disposal location because of the construction cost of road
and site development (Kontos et al. 2005; Yousefi et al. 2018). As a result, min and
max weights were assigned to slope classes 0–6.58° and 15.73°–54.18°, to facilitate
the selection of viable landfill sites. Table 23.12 presents the slope categories, their
pair-wise comparison matrix, and their normalized values.

23.3.1.8 Elevation

When locating solid waste disposal sites, an appropriate elevation range must be
chosen to minimize leachate percolation down the landfill column and to avoid
flooding and erosion over the landfill area (Demesouka et al. 2014). The present
research area’s elevation was determined using ASTER–DEM, and it ranges
between 1086 and 1589 m above mean sea level. It was classified into three eleva-
tion subgroups: 1086–1225 m, 1226–1323 m, and 1323–1589 m (Fig. 23.6). A pair-
wise matrix was generated by assigning minimum and maximum weights to the
elevation classes 1323–1589 m and 1086–1225 m, respectively. Table 23.13 pres-
ents the elevation categories, their pair-wise comparison matrix, and their normal-
ized values.

23.3.1.9 Precipitation

Rainfall plays a role in the transportation of solid waste. Significant rain produces
excessive solid waste flow. This study used NASA’s website (https://power.larc.
nasa.gov/) to obtain annual mean rainfall data from 1981 to 2019. As shown in
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 305

Fig. 23.6 Elevation and Slope maps

Table 23.12 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (slope)

Slope in degrees 0–6.58 6.59–15.72 15.73–54.18 Weights Rank
0–6.58 1 2 3 0.52 1
6.59–15.72 0.50 1 2 0.36 2
15.73–54.18 0.33 0.50 1 0.12 3

Fig. 23.7, an ArcGIS interpolation tool was used to generate a rainfall contour map.
Lower and higher weights were allocated to the rainfall ranges of 934–1037 mm
and 1140–1242 mm, respectively, during the pair-wise comparison matrix formula-
tion phase. Rainfall categories and their pair-wise comparison matrix and normal-
ized values are shown in Table 23.14.

23.3.1.10 Soil

Selection of dump location requires soil type analysis. The type of soil influences
the vertical flow of leachate. Clay soil has less porosity and permeability, making it
perfect for landfills. Clay soil, in general, is resistant to leaching and is also utilized
to line sanitary landfills. Soil map of Arba Minch Town created by Czech Republic
cooperation (map sheet number 0637-D3) at a scale of 1:50,000. Soils identified in
this study include clay, clay loam, silt, sand, and silty clay. Clay and silt soil types
have been identified as acceptable for the solid waste disposal location, whereas
sand soil types have been identified as unsuitable. Soil types have been allocated
initial weights, AHP analysis was carried out, and final weights of soil types have
been calculated, and the same is shown in Table 23.15. Figure 23.7 shows the soil
type of the study area.
306 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.13 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (elevation)

Elevation (m) 1086–1225 1226–1323 1323–1589 Weights Rank
1086–1225 1 2 3 0.52 1
1226–1323 0.50 1 2 0.36 2
1323–1589 0.33 0.50 1 0.12 3

Fig. 23.7 Soiland rainfall maps

Table 23.14 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (rainfall)

Rainfall (mm) 934–1037 1038–1139 1140–1242 Weights Rank
934–1037 1 2 3 0.52 1
1038–1139 0.50 1 2 0.36 2
1140–1242 0.33 0.50 1 0.12 3

23.3.1.11 Distance from the Road

A road map was created using a high spatial resolution Google Earth imagery, and
a buffer analysis was performed; the results were classified into three buffer classes
(Fig. 23.8). Therefore, it was determined that the region between 0–150 meters from
the major road was not viable for waste disposal. Commuters will suffer health
consequences if the dumping site is located near the road. If the dumpsite is located
a long distance away from a road network, the cost of collecting and transporting
the trash may be higher (Nas et al. 2008). For this reason, it is considered that the
land area situated between 151 and 300 m road distance is the most acceptable site
in the current study location. Table 23.16 shows the normalized weight and rank of
the distance from the road categories.
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 307

Table 23.15 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (rainfall)

Soil types clay clay loam silty clay silt and sand Weights Rank
Clay 1 3 5 7 0.565 1
Clay loam 0.33 1 3.00 5.00 0.262 2
Silty clay 0.20 0.33 1 3.00 0.118 3
Silt and sand 0.14 0.20 0.33 1 0.055 4

Fig. 23.8 Wind direction (Aspect) map

23.3.1.12 Wind Direction (Aspect)

When determining where to site a solid waste disposal facility, it is important to

consider the direction of the wind (Aspect). The downwind regions may be
308 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.16 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (distance from the road)
Road buffer (m) 450–301 300–151 150–0 Weights Rank
450–301 1 2 3 0.52 1
300–151 0.50 1 2 0.36 2
150–0 0.33 0.50 1 0.12 3

Table 23.17 Normalized weights and comparison matrix (Aspect)

Aspect I III III IV V VI VII VIII IX Weights Rank
I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.312 1
II 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.222 2
III 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.155 3
IV 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.108 4
V 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 0.074 5
VI 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 4 0.051 6
VII 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 3 0.035 7
VIII 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 2 0.025 8
IX 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.50 1 0.018 9
I = Flat, II = North, III = Northwest, IV = West, V = Northeast, VI = Southeast, VII = Southwest,
VIII = South, and IX = East

subjected to objectionable dust, odours, harmful/toxic fumes, and flying litter,

which may be a significant source of nuisance to neighboring settlements (Ajay
Singh 2019). Aspect is a means of defining the direction in three-dimensional space
that each grid cell in a DEM faces, and it is expressed herein degrees respect to the
true north of earth. In this investigation, the aspect layer is used instead of the wind
direction. It was feasible to build an aspect map layer from the DEM of the study
area by using ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension, as presented in Fig. 23.8. The pri-
mary hourly wind direction at Arba Minch varies. From April 22 to October 10, the
wind is mainly from the south, with a peak percentage of 81 on June 13. From
October 10 to April 22, the wind is primarily from the east, with a peak of 64% on
January 1, source (https://weatherspark.com/y/100150/Average-Weather-in-Arba-
Minch-Ethiopia-Year-Round#Sections-WindDirection). As a result, slopes facing
east and south were given lower ratings and weights than other slopes. Table 23.17
shows the normalized weights and rank of the aspect categories.

23.4 Results and Discussions

23.4.1 Choosing Solid Waste Disposal Sites

The end weights were calculated by multiplying the weights of thematic layers by
the weights of sub-themes (Table 23.18), and then entered into appropriate shape-
files using ArcGIS software. The resultant map of suitability for solid waste sites
was created by using a raster-based weighted linear combination approach. The
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 309

Table 23.18 Thematic layers and their sub-factors final weights

Final weight
(Factor layer’s
Factor Sub- weights*
layer’s factor’s Sub-factor’s
S. No Factor layer weights Sub-criteria weights weights)
1 Drainage distance 0.23 1250–1001 0.42 0.10
(m) 1000–751 0.26 0.06
750–501 0.16 0.04
500–251 0.10 0.02
250–0 0.06 0.01
2 Groundwater level 0.18 23.99–22.40 0.42 0.08
(m) 22.39–20.80 0.26 0.05
20.79–19.20 0.16 0.03
19.19–17.61 0.10 0.02
17.60–16 0.06 0.01
3 Lithology 0.14 Ignimbrite 0.57 0.08
Basalt 0.26 0.04
Colluvial deposits 0.12 0.02
Alluvial sediments 0.06 0.01
4 Lineament density 0.11 0–0.80 0.52 0.06
0.81–2.26 0.36 0.04
2.27–3.96 0.12 0.01
5 Land use/land 0.09 Barren land 0.50 0.045
cover Bushland 0.25 0.023
Shrubland 0.11 0.010
Forest 0.05 0.005
Settlement, agricultural 0.03 0.003
land, plantation area,
water body, and airport
6 Geomorphology 0.07 Plain 0.37 0.026
Plateau 0.25 0.018
Mesa 0.16 0.011
Butte 0.10 0.007
Valley fills 0.05 0.004
Conical hill, linear 0.03 0.002
ridge, and escarpments
7 Slope (degree) 0.05 0–6.58 0.52 0.026
6.59–15.72 0.36 0.018
15.73–54.18 0.12 0.006
8 Elevation (m) 0.04 1086–1225 0.52 0.021
1226–1323 0.36 0.014
1323–1589 0.12 0.005
9 Precipitation 0.03 934–1037 0.52 0.016
(mm) 1038–1139 0.36 0.011
1140–1242 0.12 0.004
(continued)
310 M. Jothimani et al.

Table 23.18 (continued)

Final weight
(Factor layer’s
Factor Sub- weights*
layer’s factor’s Sub-factor’s
S. No Factor layer weights Sub-criteria weights weights)
10 Soil 0.03 Clay 0.57 0.017
Clay loam 0.26 0.008
Silty clay 0.12 0.004
Silt and sand 0.06 0.002
11 Distance from the 0.02 450–301 0.52 0.010
road (m) 300–151 0.36 0.007
150–0 0.12 0.002
12 Wind direction 0.02 Flat 0.312 0.006
(aspect) North 0.222 0.004
Northwest 0.155 0.003
West 0.108 0.002
Northeast 0.074 0.001
Southeast 0.051 0.001
Southwest 0.035 0.001
South 0.025 0.001
East 0.018 0.001

results rated the study area as highly suitable, moderately acceptable, and unsuitable
for solid waste disposal (Fig. 23.9). According to the findings of this study, 6.84%
(4.34 km2), 10.19% (6.47 km2), and 82.97% (52.69 km2) of the area are highly,
moderately, and problematic areas for the construction of a solid waste disposal site
in Arba Minch town. The highly suitable place found the southern part of the study
area where slope and elevation are less. The area is covered by ignimbrite lithologi-
cally and less to medium lineament density. Further, the highly suitable area is cov-
ered by plain area, and significant LULC is barren land withfewer drainages and
low precipitation.

23.5 Conclusion

Management of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a significant issue in most devel-

oping countries due to population and urbanization expansion. In Arba Minch town,
Ethiopia, solid waste management issues arise due to population growth and eco-
nomic development, high urban waste production, and a lack of landfill sites. It is
challenging to find appropriate solid waste disposal sites in Arba Minch town due to
the presence of high slope mountains on the town’s western border and Abya and
Chamo lakes on the town’s eastern border, as well as the town’s complex lithology
and LULC, as well as variations in groundwater level and rainfall, among other
23 Identification of Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites for the Arba Minch Town… 311

Fig. 23.9 Road buffer and solid waste site disposal site suitability maps

factors. In the present study, twelve important thematic layers and their sub-
themeswere considered for solid waste disposal sites selection.
The weights of the chosen twelve thematic layers and their sub-themes were
computed using the AHP method to create the final solid waste site suitability map.
The final map was created using a raster-based WLC approach. According to the
findings of this study, 6.84% (4.34 km2), 10.19% (6.47 km2), and 82.97% (52.69 km2)
of the area are highly, moderately, or unsuitably appropriate for the development of
a solid waste disposal site in Arba Minch town, respectively. The results of this
study may assist administrators and planners in Arba Minch town, Ethiopia, in
selecting appropriate solid waste disposal sites.

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