- acquiring information published literature,

LECTURE 1: STATISTICS surveys through questionnaires or

STATISTICS- SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH THE interviews, experimentations, documents
COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, PRESENTATION, and records, tests or examinations and
ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA IN ORDER BE other forms of data gathering instruments.
ABLE TO DRAW JUDGMENTS OR CONCLUSIONS THAT
HELP IN THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS.  Investigator-person who conducts the inquiry.
 Enumerator- the one who helps in collecting
DECRIPTIVE STATISTICS- Delas with the procedure
information.
organize, summarize and describe quantitative data.
 Respondent- information is collected from them.
- a describe data.
- Ex: common age or pinaka madaming age sa PRIMARY DATA- According to Wessel, “Data collected in
isang statistic class halimbawa ay 18. the process of investigation.
-collected for the investigator’s use from the primary
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS- DEALS WITH MAKING A source.
JUDGMENT OR A CONCLUSION ABOUT A POPULATION
BASED ON THE FINDINGS FROM A SAMPLE THAT IS SECONDARY DATA- is collected by some other
TAKEN FROM THE POPULATION. organization for their own use but the investigator
-Ex: Re the ages of the student are similar to what they also gets it for his use. According to M.M. Blair,
are expected. “Secondary data are those already in existence for
some other purpose than answering the question in
TERMINOLOGIES hand.
 Population or Universe-THE TOTALITY OF OBJECTS, Examples:
PERSONS, PLACES, THINGS USED IN A PARTICULAR
STUDY. BOOKS - Secondary
INTERNET COMMUNICATION
-SUBJECTS OR RESPONDENTS OF A STUDY. SURVEYS (COLLECTED BY YOU) - Primary
CENSUS - Primary
 Data-ARE FACTS, FIGURES AND INFORMATION
GOOGLE ANALYTICS
COLLECTED ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A
NEWSPAPER- Secondary
POPULATION OR SAMPLE.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA:
THREE BASIC METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA.
 Grouped Data- RAW DATA ORGANIZED INTO
RETROSPECTIVE STUDY- use the population or sample of
GROUPS OR CATEGORIES WITH CORRESPONDING
the historical data which had been archived over
FREQUENCIES.
some period of time.
-REFERRED TO AS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION.
OBSERVATIONAL STUDY- researchers only observe the
 Ungrouped Data- ORGANIZED IN ANY SPECIFIC
subjects and do not interfere or try to influence the
WAY. THEY ARE SIMPLY THE COLLECTION OF DATA
outcomes.
AS THEY ARE GATHERED.
EXPERIMENTS DESIGNED- experimentation and
observation of the resulting data is the only way to
METHODS ON OBTAINING DATA
solve them.

I.METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION- first step in

conducting statistical inquiry.
-refers to the data gathering- a systematic method of
collecting and measuring data from different
sources.
  SAMPLING- process of selecting units (e.g., people,
II. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING SURVEYS
organizations) from a population of interest.
 SAMPLE- a representative of the target population.
Survey- a method of asking respondents some well- The target population is the entire group a
constructed questions. It is efficient way of collecting researcher is interested in; the group about which
information and easy to administer. the researcher wishes to draw conclusions

TYPES OF SURVEY: 2 WAYS OF SELECTING SAMPLE:

ADVANTAGES PROBABILITY SAMPLING- defined as a sampling
 FACE TO FACE- fewer misunderstood questions, technique in which the researcher chooses samples
fewer incomplete responses, higher response rates, from a larger population using a method based on
and greater control over the environment in which the theory of probability. For a participant to be
the survey is administered; also, the researcher can considered as a probability sample, he/she must be
collect additional information if any of the selected using a random selection.
respondents’ answers need clarifying. - most critical requirement of probability
 SELF-ADMINISTER- Less expensive than interviews. sampling is that everyone in your population
-It can be administered in large numbers and does has a known and equal chance of getting
not require many interviewers and there is less pressure selected.
on respondents.
NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING- also called judgment or
DISADVANTAGES subjective sampling.
 FACE TO FACE- they can be expensive and time- -convenient and economical but the inferences
consuming and may require a large staff of trained made based on the findings are not so reliable.
interviewers. In addition, the response can be -not all members of the population have an equal
biased by the appearance or attitude of the chance of participating in the study, unlike
interviewer. probability sampling. Each member of the
 SELF- ADMINISTER- respondents are more likely to population has a known chance of being selected.
stop participating mid-way through the survey and -useful for exploratory studies like a pilot survey
respondents cannot ask to clarify their answers. (deploying a survey to a smaller sample compared
There are lower response rates than in personal to pre-determined sample size).
interviews.
2 TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
6 STEPS ON DESIGNING SURVEY 1. Convenience Sampling- researcher use a device in
1. Determine the objectives of your survey: What obtaining the information from the respondents
questions do you want to answer? which favors the researcher but can cause bias to
2. Identify the target population sample: Whom the respondents.
will you interview? Who will be the - collecting a sample of whichever participants are
respondents? What sampling method will you easiest to reach.
use?
3. Choose an interviewing method: face-to-face 2. Purposive Sampling- selection of respondents is
interview, phone interview, selfadministered predetermined according to the characteristic of
paper survey/internet survey. interest made by the researcher. ( ex: lahat lang ng
4. Decide what questions you will ask in what matangkad pinili nila tas iwan ang maliit).
order, and how to phrase them.
5. Conduct the interview and collect the -participants are selected based on the purpose of the
information sample, hence the name. Participants are selected
6. Analyze the results by making graphs and according to the needs of the study (hence the alternate
drawing conclusions
name, deliberate sampling); applicants who do not often used to study large populations, particularly those
meet the profile are rejected. that are widely geographically dispersed. Researchers
usually use pre-existing units such as schools or cities as
their clusters.
3. QUOTA SAMPLING - Ika cluster muna ng same same like each cluster ay 3
2 TYPES: male and 3 female. Tas saka pipili dun sa mga na cluster.
PROPORTIONAL- proportional quota sampling the major
characteristics of the population by sampling a III. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING
proportional amount of each is represented.
Ex: You will randomly select 8 people from Sales and EXPERIMENTS
Marketing, 6 from Customer Service, 4 from IT, and 2
from Finance. As you can see, each number you pick is
 Experiment- series of tests conducted in a
proportionate to the overall percentage of people in
systematic manner to increase the understanding of
each category (e.g., 40% = 8 people)
an existing process or to explore a new product or
process.
NON-PROPORTIONAL- a bit less restrictive. In this
 Design of Experiments, or DOE- is a tool to develop
method, a minimum number of sampled units in each
an experimentation strategy that maximizes
category is specified and not concerned with having
learning using minimum resources.
numbers that match the proportions in the population.
-is a tool to develop an experimentation strategy
-equal sized samples from groups and subgroups.
that maximizes learning using minimum resources.
- Even there are 700 males and 200 females sample will
- a technique needed to identify the "vital few"
have tig 50 each.
factors in the most efficient manner and then
directs the process to its best setting to meet the
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
ever-increasing demand for improved quality and
Simple Random Sampling- basic sampling technique
increased productivity.
where a group of subjects (a sample) is selected for
study from a larger group (a population).
METHODOLOGY OF DOE- ensures that all factors
-individual is chosen entirely by chance and each
and their interactions are systematically
member of the population has an equal chance of being
investigated resulting to reliable and complete
included in the sample. Every possible sample of a given
information.
size has the same chance of selection.
Five Stages of Methodology of DOE
Stratified Sampling- obtained by taking samples from
1. Planning- identification of the objectives of
each stratum or sub-group of a population. When a
conducting the experiment or investigation,
sample is to be taken from a population with several
assessment of time and available resources to
strata, the proportion of each stratum in the sample
achieve the objectives.
should be the same as in the population.
2. Screening-
Screening experiments are used to identify the
EX: sample for first group would be 150*0.5= 75,
important factors that affect the process under
200*0.5=100 and 250*0.5= 125. Here the constant
investigation out of the large pool of potential
factor is the proportion ration for each population
factors. Screening process eliminates
subset.
unimportant factors and attention is focused on
the key factors. Screening experiments are
Cluster Sampling- is a sampling technique where the
usually efficient designs which require few
entire population is divided into groups, or clusters, and
executions and focus on the vital factors and
a random sample of these clusters are selected.
not on interactions.
-researchers divide a population into smaller groups
Optimization-determine the best setting of these
known as clusters. They then randomly select among
factors to achieve the objectives of the
these clusters to form a sample. Cluster sampling is
investigation.
-an act, process, or methodology of making
something (such as a design, system, or decision) as Sample Space- it is the set of all possible outcomes
fully perfect, functional, or effective as possible for a probability experiment or activity. It is usually
specifically It is the mathematical procedures (such denoted by the letter S.
as finding the maximum of a function) involved in
this.
4. Robustness Testing-A robust statistic is resistant
to errors in the results Once the optimal settings of
the factors have been determined, it is important to
make the product or process insensitive to
variations resulting from changes in factors that
affect the process but are beyond the control of the
analyst. Such factors are referred to as noise or Event- is the subset of all outcomes or sample space
uncontrollable factors that are likely to be of an experiment.
experienced in the application environment.

5. Verification-process in which different types of

data are checked for accuracy and inconsistencies
after data migration is done.
-final stage involves validation of the optimum
settings by conducting a few follow-up experimental
runs.

LECTURE 2: PROBABILITY
SAMPLE SPACE
Example:

Experiment- -is a process of investigation from

which results are observed or recorded.
Outcome- possible result of an experiment.
 OPERATIONS WITH EVENTS

I. INTERSECTION OF EVENTS

II. MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS – no

element in common.

Null space- subset of the sample space that

contains no elements and denoted called
empty space. III. UINION OF EVENTS – set by combining the
EXAMPLES: elements of two events.
 IV. COMPLEMENT OF AN EVENT- A with
respect to S is set of all elements of S that
are not in A and denoted by A.

PART II: PROBABILITY

2.2 PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT
 2. COUNTING RULES USEFUL IN PROBABILITY
PERMUTATION RULE- Yung order ay nagma-
matter tas continuing without replacement.
Permutation- arrangement of elements in a
distinct order

EXAMPLES:

2.3 RULES OF PROBABILITY

COMBINATIONS RULE
RULE OF ADDITION (RULE NO.1)
RULE OF MULTIPLICATION:

RULE NUMBER 2
INDEPENDENT EXAMPLE

RULE OF SUBTRACTION

LECTURE 3: DISCRETE
PROBABILITY
Discrete Probability Distribution- describes the
probability of occurrence of each value of a discrete
random variable.
 Discrete Random Variable- that has countable
values, such as a list of non-negative integers.
-each possible value of the discrete random variable can
be associated with a non-zero probability. Thus, a
 discrete probability distribution is often presented * Sa histogram sa baba ng graph ang label na number
in tabular form. of y or xTas sa gilid ay yung probability yung p(y)
ganun.
Random Variables and their Probability Distributions

PROPERTIES OF DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

*Pag may negative na sa value di na sya discrete basta

pag equal to one yun ay discrete.

*Pag 1 ay 2 ang possible outcomes , pag 2 ay 4, tas pag

3 ay 8.
*Kung ano variable , yun pa den ang nakalagay sa p(y)
or p(x).
3.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions

3.3

Expected Values of Random Variables

3.4 Binomial Distribution
 THE POSION DISTRIBUTION

3.5 CUMULATIVE BINOMIAL PROBABILITY

CUMULATIVE POISSON PROBABILITY

Kayaaa yaan , God bless!- Cams🤍