Fatigue

 During life service; gears, cams, shafts, tool and dies are
typically subjected to rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or periodic)
loads
 These stresses may be caused by fluctuating mechanical
loads (such as gear teeth, clutch disc, cutters)
 Or by thermal stresses (such as a cool die exposed to
repeated contact with hot work pieces or PCB may expose
to low and high temperature).
 Under these conditions the part fails at a stress level
below which failure would occur under static loads.
 This phenomena is known as fatigue failure and is
responsible for the majority of failures in mechanical
components
1
Fatigue

2
3
 Methods to Maximize Fatigue Life
 Minimizing initial flaws, especially surface flaws. Great care
is taken to produce fatigue-­‐-resistant surfaces through
processes such as grinding or polishing that produce
exceptionally smooth surfaces. These surfaces are then
carefully protected before a product is placed into service.
 Maximizing crack initiation time. Compressive surface
residual stresses are imparted (or at least tensile residual
stresses are relieved) through manufacturing processes such
as shot peening or burnishing, or by a number of surface
treatments.
 Burnishing to make (something, such as metal or leather) smooth and
shiny by rubbing it.
 Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact
with another object. Visually, burnishing smears the texture of a rough
surface and makes it shinier. Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if
the contact stress locally exceeds the yield strength of the material. 4
 Methods to Maximize Fatigue Life
 Maximizing crack propagation time. Substrate
properties, especially those that retard crack growth,
are also important. For example, in some materials
fatigue cracks will propagate more quickly along
grain boundaries than through grains. In this case,
using a material that has elongated grains
transverse to the direction of fatigue crack growth
can extend fatigue life (e.g., by using cold-­‐-worked
components instead of castings).
 Maximizing the critical crack length. Fracture
toughness is an essential material property, and
materials with higher fracture toughnesses are
generally better suited for fatigue applications 5
 Fatigue
• Cyclic stresses: caused by fluctuating
mechanical loads or by thermal stresses

• The part fails because of fatigue failure

at a lower stress level than it does
under static loading.

6
Fatigue Testing Machine

7
 Fatigue Testing Machine-
shear fatigue
Mechanical shear fatigue testing of individual BGA type
SAC305 on typical BGA component substrates

Instron micro tensile

tester is used to fatigue
the samples at room
temperature- load
controlled mode

8
 Shear fatigue testing

0.6
500gf
0.4
Loading
0.2 Slope
Initial slope of
Load (kgf)

0
Work 300gf load-displacement curve
-0.2 reflects compliance
-0.4
(‘effective stiffness’) of joint

-0.6 Area within loop gives

-0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 inelastic energy deposition
Displacement (mm)
(work)

9
 Effective Stiffness in Single Load
Conditions – (literature review)
40
Younis Jaradat, 2010
35
30 400gf
Loading Slope

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Cycle Number
During load controlled shear fatigue tests the effective
stiffness often shows a small initial increase, reflecting
strain hardening, but eventually there is a continuous
decrease due to crack growth 10
Varying Amplitude Cycling - (Literature review)
Varying the amplitude affects the effective stiffness of the joint
(higher amplitude makes solder softer).
45 Sequences of 250 cycles @300gf followed by 13 cycles
40 @500gf
Effective Stiffness

35

30 Younis Jaradat,
300gf 2010
25 500gf
20

15

10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Cycle Number
Importantly, the previous stiffness is not quite recovered
when switching back (‘memory effect’)!
11
 Strain Rates?
LifeProbability
in cycling Plot for Rate
with = 0.001, Rate
an amplitude of=600gf
0.01 , Rate = 0.1, Rate
increased =0.2
quite
Weibull
strongly with increasing loading rateEstimates
Complete Data - LSXY
99
Cumulative Failure (%)

Variable
90 Rate = 0.001 mm/sec
80 Rate = 0.01 mm/sec
70 Rate = 0.1 mm/sec
60
50 Rate = 0.2 mm/sec
40
Table of S tatistics
30
Percent

S hape S cale C orr F C

20 1.64259 37.655 0.983 7 0
2.92072 108.400 0.951 7 0
10 2.07135 251.587 0.940 7 0
4.14327 313.263 0.962 10 0
5

3
2 Approx. strain rates
1 0.001-0.2/s
1 10 100 1000
Data
Cycles to failure
12
 Stress-Life Diagram (S-N Diagram)
 The basis of the Stress-Life method is the Wohler S-N diagram,
shown schematically for two materials in Figure.
 The S-N diagram plots nominal stress amplitude S versus cycles to
failure N. There are numerous testing procedures to generate the
required data for a proper S-N diagram. S-N test data are usually
displayed on a log-log plot, with the actual S-N line representing the
mean of the data from several tests.

13
 Endurance Limit
 Certain materials have a
fatigue limit or endurance
limit which represents a
stress level below which the
material does not fail and
can be cycled infinitely.
 If the applied stress level is
below the endurance limit
of the material, the
structure is said to have an
infinite life.
 This is characteristic of
steel and titanium in benign
environmental conditions.
 A typical S-N curve
corresponding to this type
of material is shown Curve 14
A in the shown Figure.
 Endurance Limit
 Many non-ferrous metals and alloys, such as aluminum and ,
magnesium do not exhibit well-defined endurance limits.
 These materials instead display a continuously decreasing S-N
response, similar to Curve B in Figure below. In such cases a
fatigue strength Sf for a given number of cycles must be specified.
An effective endurance limit for these materials is sometimes
defined as the stress that causes failure at 1x108 or 5x108 loading
cycles.

15
 Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength
versus Tensile Strength
 It has been found that the fatigue
strength to be related to their ultimate
tensile strength.
 Most metals specifically steel, Titanium,
Cast irons, copper alloys wrought iron
have a definite endurance limit.
 Aluminum alloys and cast magnesium
alloys do not have one .
 For metals exhibiting such behavior
(most face centered cubic), the fatigue
strength can be specified, in this way,
the useful service life of the
components can also be specified. Figure 2.16 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength
for various metals, as a function of tensile strength.
Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the
correlation for aluminum are based on a specific number
of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.15.
16
 Endurance Limit
The concept of an endurance limit is used in
infinite-life or safe stress designs. It is due to
interstitial elements (such as carbon or
nitrogen in iron) that pin dislocations, thus
preventing the slip mechanism that leads to
the formation of microcracks.

17
 Fatigue - S-N Curves
 The test is carried out at various stress amplitude (s) and number of
cycles (N) to cause total failure of specimen
 Stress amplitude is the maximum stress, in tension and
compression, to which specimen is subjected.
 This curve is obtained
based on fluctuating of the
stress by bending a piece
of wire alternately in one
direction, and then the
other direction.
 The maximum stress to
which the material can
be subjected without
fatigue failure,
regardless of the number
of cycles, is known as the
endurance limit or 18
18
fatigue limit.
 Fatigue Crack Growth

 Figure : Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a

fatigue crack for two different stress ratios as a function of the
number of cycles; (b) rate of crack growth, illustrating three
19
regimes
 Fatigue Crack Growth Notes
 Regimes of Crack Growth:
1. Regime A is a period of very
slow crack growth. Note that the
crack growth rate can be even
smaller than an atomic spacing of
the material per cycle.
2. Regime B is a period of
moderate crack growth rate, often
referred to as the Paris regime
3. Regime C is a period of high--
‐-growth rate, where the maximum
stress intensity factor for the
fatigue cycle approaches the
fracture toughness of the material.
20
 Fatigue Striations

Figure : Cross section of a fatigued section, showing

fatigue striations or beachmarks originating from a
fatigue crack at B. 21
 Creep
 Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under a static load
maintained for a period of time.
 Lead, for example, creeps under a
constant tensile load at room
temperature.
 Also thickness of window glass in old
houses has been found to be greater at
the bottom than at the top of windows,
the glass having undergone creep by its
own weight over many years.
 Critical at high-temperature applications
such as gas turbine blades and similar
components in jet engines.
 The mechanism of creep at elevated
temperature is generally attributed to
grain boundaries sliding
22
 Creep
 At room temperature
 As the crystal lattice contain vacancies
 One of the mechanisms postulated for creep is the
migration of vacancies to dislocation can cuase
dislocation climb

23
 Creep Curve
 Creep test typically consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load at
a certain temperature, and measuring the change in length over a period of time
 Typical creep curve consists of three stages:
 The first stage is the primary creep which
is the stage the strain rate decreases rapidly
with time, the decrease in strain rate is
caused by work hardening, thus limiting
deformation.
 The second stage is the secondary creep
(steady state creep) where most of the
material life and plastic deformation occur,
in this stage two opposite effects (hardening
and softening) keep the strain rate
approximately constant; strain hardening
slows down the strain rate or deformation,
while softening (recrystallization) speed the
strain rate up.
 The third stage is tertiary creep, where nucleation and growth of cavities will occur,
followed by necking and cracking of the material until failure 24
Creep

25
 Impact strength
 In many manufacturing process, as well as during their
service life, various components are subjected to impact or
dynamic loading.
 Impact strength: can be defined as the resistance of the
material to fracture under impact loading, i.e., under quickly
applied dynamic loads.
 Two standard tests are normally used to determine this
property.
1. Charpy test: the specimen is supported at both end
2. Izod test: the specimen is supported at one end.
 From the amount of swinging of pendulum, the energy
dissipated in breaking the specimen is obtained; this energy
is the impact toughness of the material.
 Toughness can be measured by an impact test
26
 Testing procedure
 The test consists in measuring the energy required to break a V- or
U-notched specimen, supported at two points, in a single blow. The
impact strength is the energy, expressed in joules per cm2,
necessary to break the notched specimen. It is usually measured in
testing machines based on a swinging pendulum, the most
common type being the Charpy impact tester.

27
 Impact
Notch sensitivity: sensitivity to surface defects. It lowers impact
toughness.

Figure 2.29 Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod. 28

 Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature.
For several types of ship steels used during the
Second World War, too many ships suffered brittle
fracture of varying severity. In these ships the steels
underwent a ductile to brittle transition too close to
room temperature. This is one reason among others
that, even today, structures like storage tanks, oil
rigs and even ships fracture catastrophically more
often in winter than in summer.

29
 Values measured
 The impact strength is
generally measured at room
temperature, but for
numerous applications, it is
necessary to know the
behavior of the material at
low or very low temperatures.
 When impact strength
measurements are made on
the same steel at different
temperatures, the resulting
graph, called the transition
curve, often has the shape
shown in the following figure,
with a ductile to brittle
30
transition at low temperatures 30
 Values measured

 Above a temperature TK, a large amount of energy is necessary for

fracture, which occurs only after extensive plastic deformation. The
metal and the fracture are said to be ductile.
 Below TK, the energy necessary for fracture is much lower, and the
specimen breaks without significant plastic deformation. The metal
and the fracture are said to be brittle.
 The temperature TK, situated half-way between ductile and brittle
levels, is called the transition temperature. The lower its value, the
31
more suitable the material will be for use at low temperatures.
 Carbon Content Effect on DBT Behavior

Note: Increasing %C decreases fracture toughness

although increasing strength 32
 Impact
 Impact test is useful in determining
the ductile-brittle transition of
materials.
 The ductile-to-brittle transition is
related to the temperature
dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption.
 As the temperature is lowered, the
impact energy drops suddenly over a
relatively narrow temperature range,
below which the energy has a
constant but small value; that is, the
mode of fracture is brittle.
 Material with high impact resistance
has high Toughness (high Strength, 33
and high Ductility )
 Failure
Failure: directly influences by
1. The selection of a material,
2. The methods of manufacturing, and
3. The service life of a component.
 Two types of failure:
Fracture: ductile or brittle or fatigue
Buckling

34
 Failure
• Fatigue fracture :Termed beachmarks and
striations. Both of these features indicate the
position of the crack tip at some point in time
and appear as concentric ridges that expand
away from the crack initiation site(s).
• Ductile fracture : Beachmarks and striations
will not appear on that region, evidence of
plastic deformation will be present for ductile,
and absent for brittle failure evidences.

35
 Failure

• Buckling is characterized by a sudden

failure of a structural member subjected
to high compressive stress, where the
actual compressive stress at the point of
failure is less than the ultimate
compressive stresses that the material
is capable of withstanding

36
Buckling

37
 Ductile Fracture
Figure 2.21 Surface of ductile
fracture in low-carbon steel,
showing dimples. Fracture is
usually initiated at impurities,
inclusions, or preexisting voids
(microporosity) in the metal.
Source: K.-H. Habig and D.
Klaffke. Photo by BAM
Berlin/Germany.

 Ductile fracture is characterized by plastic deformation preceding the failure

of the part.
 Close examination of a surface of ductile fracture (figure above) shows fibrous
pattern with dimples.
 Ductile fracture takes place along planes on which shear stress is a maximum.
 Failure is initiated with the formation of tiny voids (around small inclusions or
preexisting voids), then develop into cracks 38
 Ductile Fracture
 In a tension-test specimen, fracture begins at the center of necked
region as a result of growth and coalescence of cavities.
 The central region becomes one large crack, as can be seen in the mid-
section of the tension-test specimen as shown the figure.
 This crack then propagate to the periphery of the necked region.
 Because of its appearance, the fracture surface of a tension-test
specimen is called a cup-and cone fracture

Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of
necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an
internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the 39
final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
 Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen
Ductile Fracture

Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of
necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an
internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the
final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.

40
Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen
Ductile Fracture

41
 Effects of Inclusions on ductile fracture
 Because ductile fractures are
nucleation sites for voids.
 Inclusions have an important
influence on
1. Ductile fracture
2. And therefore the formability of
the material.
 Inclusion : (from the term
included) includes material that
is trapped inside a mineral
during its formation.
 Inclusions may consist of
impurities of various kinds and
second phase- particles such 42
as oxides, carbides and sulfides 42
 Effects of Inclusions on ductile fracture

 Influence of inclusion depends on factors such as

1. Their shape (stringers or globular-shaped inclusions) will
be discussed in sheet-metal forming
2. Hardness
3. Distribution
4. Volume fraction (the greater the volume fraction of
inclusions, the lower will be the ductility of the material)
depends on their distribution- hinders the movement of
dislocation

inclusions  ductility of the material

43
 Effects of Inclusions on ductile fracture
 Two factors affect void formation:
1. The strength of the bond at the interface between
an inclusion and the matrix.
 [ if the bond is strong, there is less tendency for void
formation during plastic deformation].
2. The hardness of inclusion
 If the inclusion is soft, such as manganese sulfide, it
will conform to the overall change in the shape of the
specimen during plastic deformation.
 If it is hard, such as a carbide or oxide, it could lead
to void formation.
 Hard inclusion may also break up into small particles
during deformation, because of their brittle nature. 44
 Deformation of Soft and Hard
Inclusions in ductile material

Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and

their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that hard
inclusions, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of
the ductile matrix, can cause voids.

45
 Brittle Fracture
 Brittle fracture occurs with little or no gross
plastic deformation; in tension, fracture takes
place along the crystallographic plane
(cleavage plane) on which the normal tensile
stress is a maximum.
 Face-centered cubic metals usually do not fail
by brittle fracture, whereas body-cenetred
cubic and some hexagonal close-packed
metals fail by brittle mode (cleavage).
 In general, low temperature and a high rate of
deformation promote brittle fracture.
 In polycrystalline metal under tension, the
fracture surface has bright granular
appearance, because of the changes in the
direction of the cleavage planes as the crack
propagates from one grain to another 46
 Brittle Fracture
Examples of fracture along a
cleavage plane are splitting of rock
salt and the peeling of layers of
mica. Tensile stresses normal to the
cleavage plane, caused by pulling,
initiate and control the propagate of
fracture.
Another example is the behavior of
brittle materials, such as chalk, gray
cast iron, and concrete. In tension
they fail in the manner shown in the
figure 47
 Brittle Fracture
 Brittle fracture of a specimen in compression is more complex and
fracture may even follow a path that is theoretically at an angle of 450 to
the direction of the applied load.
 Also in torsion, they fail along a plane at an angle of 450 to axis of twist

Brittle fracture Fracture surface of steel that

Brittle fracture in Torsion has failed in a brittle manner.
in compression The fracture path is
transgranular 48
 Special case for Fracture
 The results of research work in the 1930s into the effect of tensile
stresses on a single crystal specimen of zinc, a close packed hexagonal
metal, showed that the behavior of the sample was dependent on the
angle at which the slip planes were inclined to the axis of the applied
stress.
 If the slip plane were aligned either normal to, or parallel to, the stress
axis, failure occurred in a brittle manner with negligible plastic
deformation.
 If however, the slip planes were inclined at some angle, Ф, angle other
than 00 or 900, plastic yielding took place before failure

49

49
 Effects of defects on Brittle fracture
 An important factor in fracture is the presence of defects such
as scratches, flaws, and external or internal cracks.
 Why brittle materials are so weak in tension compared to their
strength in compression. This because of the presence of defects
in brittle material (brittle materials are so sensitive to defects)
explain why????
 Under tension, the sharp tip of a crack is subjected to high tensile
stresses which propagate the crack rapidly, because brittle
materials has little capacity to absorb or dissipate energy.
 So the presence of defects is essential in explaining why brittle
materials exhibit such weakness in tension when compared to their
strength in compression. The differences is on the order of 10 for
rocks and similar materials, about 5 for glass, and about 3 for gray
cast iron.
 Under tensile stresses, cracks propagate rapidly, causing what is
known as catastrophic failure. 50
 Transgranula versus Intergranular
Fracture
With polycrystalline material, the fracture paths
most commonly observed are transgranular,
meaning that the crack propagates through the grain.
Intergranular fracture, where the crack
propagate along the grain bounders

51
 Transgranula versus Intergranular
Fracture

Transgranular Fracture Intergranular Fracture

52
Intergranular Fracture

Figure 2.26
Intergranular fracture, at
two different
magnifications. Grains
and grain boundaries are
clearly visible in this
micrograph. Te fracture
path is along the grain
boundaries.
Magnification: left,
100X; right, 500X.
Source: Courtesy of B. J.
Schulze and S. L. Meiley
and Packer Engineering
Associates, Inc.

53
Fracture Surface Microstructure

54
 Fatigue Fracture
 Fatigue fracture typically occurs in a
basically brittle nature.
 Minute external or internal cracks
develop at pre-existing flaws or defects
in the material; these cracks then
propagate over a period of time and,
eventually, they lead to total and sudden
failure of the part.
 The fracture surface in fatigue generally
is characterized by the term beach marks,
 Termed beachmarks and
because of its appearance.
striations. Both of these features
 Each beach mark consisting of several indicate the position of the crack
striations tip at some point in time and
appear as concentric ridges that
 A series of striations can be seen on expand away from the crack
fracture surfaces initiation site(s). 55
 Fatigue-Fracture Surface
Figure 2.27 Typical
fatigue-fracture surface
on metals, showing
beach marks.
Magnification: left,
500X; right, 1000X.
Source: Courtesy of B. J.
Schulze and S. L. Meiley
and Packer Engineering
Associates, Inc.

beach marks

Brittle fracture typically occurs in brittle materials

56
 Improving fatigue strength
 Fatigue life is influenced greatly by the method of preparation
of the surfaces of the part or specimen.
 The fatigue strength of manufactured products can be
improved overall by the following method:
1. Inducing compressive residual stresses on surfaces, for
examples, by shot peening .
2. Case hardening.
3. Providing a fine surface finish and thereby reducing the effects
of notches and other surface imperfections (rough surfaces-
stress raiser places)
4. Selecting appropriate material and ensuring that they are free
57
from significant amount of inclusions, voids, and impurities. 57
 Case-hardening
Surface hardening, treatment of steel by heat
or mechanical means to increase the hardness
of the outer surface while the core remains
relatively soft.
The combination of a hard surface and a soft
interior is greatly valued in modern engineering
because it can withstand very high stress and
fatigue, a property that is required in such items
as gears and anti-friction bearings.
 Surface-hardened steel is also valued for its
low cost and superior flexibility in 58
manufacturing.
 Case-hardening
The oldest surface-hardening method
is carburizing, in which steel is placed at a
high temperature for several hours in a
carbonaceous environment. The carbon
diffuses into the surface of the steel, rendering
it harder.
Various techniques of carburizing have been
developed to increase efficiency and reduce
cost. The pack method involves packing into a
steel box the parts to be hardened along with
a compound of charcoal or coke to which
59
carbonates have been added.
 Case-hardening
The pack is then heated to a very high
temperature, usually 1,700°–1,750° F (925°–
955° C). The depth of the carbon penetration
depends on the exposure time and
temperature

60
 Case-hardening
Mechanical means of hardening the surface
of steel parts include peening, which is the
hammering of the heated surface, as by iron
pellets shot onto the surface or by air
blasting, and cold-working, which consists of
rolling, hammering, or drawing at
temperatures that do not affect the
composition of the steel.

61
 Case-hardening
Case-hardening or surface hardening is
the process of hardening the surface of a
metal object while allowing the metal deeper
underneath to remain soft, thus forming a thin
layer of harder metal (called the "case") at the
surface.
For iron or steel with low carbon content,
which has poor to no hardenability of its own,
the case-hardening process involves infusing
additional carbon into the case.
62
 Case-hardening
Because hardened metal is usually more
brittle than softer metal, through-hardening
(that is, hardening the metal uniformly
throughout the piece) is not always a suitable
choice for uses where the metal part is
subject to certain kinds of stress.
 In such circumstances, case-hardening can
provide a part that will not fracture (because
of the soft core that can absorb stresses
without cracking) but also provides
adequate wear resistance on the surface.
63
 Failures of Materials and Fractures

Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials: (a) necking and fracture

of ductile materials; (b) Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive
load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the
barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
64
 Transition Temperature
 Metals generally undergo a sharp change in ductility and toughness
across a narrow temperature range called the transition
temperature.
• Transition temperature
is the temperature at
which a material changes
from a rigid to a rubbery
state.
• It depends on such factors
as the composition,
Figure 2.24 Schematic illustration of transition
microstructure, grain size, temperature in metals.

surface finish, and 65

deformation rate
 Strain Aging
Strain aging : is a phenomenon in which carbon
atoms in steel segregate to dislocations, thereby
pinning them and thus increasing the steel’s
resistance to dislocation movement [increasing the
resistance to dislocation movement ], and so
strength is increased and ductility is decreased.

66
 Strain Aging
 The effects of strain aging on the shape of the stress-strain curve
in tension for low carbon steel

67
 Strain Aging
 Instead of taking place over several days at room temperature,
this phenomenon can occur in just a few hours at a higher
temperature; it is then called accelerated strain aging.
 An example of accelerated strain aging in steels is blue
brittleness, so named because it occurs in the blue-heat range
where the steel develops a bluish oxide film.
 This phenomenon causes a marked decrease in ductility and
toughness and an increase in the strength.
 Blue Brittleness , a lowering of plasticity in contraction and
elongation with a simultaneous increase of strength; it is
observed in some steel [low-carbon steels] during deformation
in the temperature range 145°–343°C (blue temper color).
 Blue brittleness is caused mainly by the interaction of nitrogen atoms
with dislocations.
68
Improving Strength of material
• The phenomena of strain hardening or
work hardening is utilized in practice to
increase the strength of metal by
performing cold deformation such as
rolling

69
 Plastic deformation and strain hardening
 When a metal is stresses beyond its elastic limit, dislocations
within the metal begin to move and plastic deformation occurs.
 The movement of one dislocation through a lattice will give one
increment of plastic deformation, namely a displacement of the
order of one atomic spacing.
 The movement of extremely large numbers of dislocations would
be necessary to give a visible of plastic slip and the number of
dislocations that would need to be present to account for large
amount of plastic deformation that takes place in commercial
metal-working process such as rolling or forging would be so
great as to mean that there would be virtually no regular
sections of lattice.
 The question, how can a large number of dislocations be
available to perform metal-working process????????
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  Generation of dislocations
 In fact, the number of dislocations present in a fully annealed
metal is comparatively small and additional dislocations are
generated during plastic deformation.
 The dislocation density in a metal can be considered as N : the
number of dislocations that intersect a unit area of 1mm2.
 For fully annealed metals the dislocation density, N, is usually
between 104 and 106 mm2.
 The number of atoms per unit area in a typical metal crystal is of
the order 1013mm2, so it can be seen that the dislocations in an
annealed metal are widely separated.
 There is a much higher dislocation density In plastically deformed
metals and typical values for heavily worked material would be
between 109 and 1010 mm2
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 How do these dislocations increase in heavily worked material
???
 Generation of dislocations
 One suggested mechanism for the generation of dislocations
is the Frank-Read source.
1. This suppose a length of dislocation line firmly anchored at
each end
2. The application of a shear force will cause the dislocation
line to bow
3. Continuing applying the force, movement and growth will
continue and a kidney-shaped loop will develop
4. The two sections of the loop advancing towards one another
are of opposing sign and will cancel out when they meet
forming a complete loop and a new dislocation line between
A and B.
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5. Allowing process to be repeated with continuing applying
the force
 Generation of dislocations

Dislocation generation from a Frank-Read source

Frank-read sources and dislocation generation have observed
experimentally by means of transmission electron microscopy
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 Hardening of metals
• There are three ways for hardening or
strengthening the metals:
1. Strain hardening
2. Solution hardening
3. Dispersion hardening

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 Strain hardening
• As more plastic deformation is given to metal ( this
means more dislocations are generated within the
metal), the greater will be the force required to
continue deforming the material, and metal can be
said to become strengthened. Why ??????
1. The multiplication of the number of dislocations
2. The dislocations may interfere with one another’s
movement
3. Dislocations cannot move freely through the whole
of crystalline material. Their progress will be
impeded by barriers such as grain boundaries.
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 Strain hardening
 A continued movement of the dislocations, that is,
further plastic deformation, can occur only if the
applied stress is raised so that the dislocations can
move a cross the potential barriers (grain
boundaries).

After severe cold working, the array of dislocations

within the metal will be in highly tangled state, but
there will be some areas that are almost dislocation
free while other areas will have a very high dislocation
density. Consequently there will be a high degree of
structural disorder in those areas with a high
dislocation density and these eventually become new
crystal grain boundaries.
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 Strain hardening

• One of the results of cold working is that the

crystal grains of the original annealed metal
become distorted and fragmented. 77
 Strain hardening

The grains before The grains after

cold working cold working
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 Strain hardening
• This phenomenon of strain, or work hardening
is utilized in practice for the strengthening of
metals by performing cold deformation
operations, such as clod rolling or drawing.
• As a results of these operations, the strength
of ductile metal may be increased
considerably.

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 Strain hardening
The effect of cold rolling on the properties of
commercial purity aluminum

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 Strain hardening
• If an attempts are made to continue cold working
beyond the point where maximum hardness is a
achieved, cracks will develop within the material
and failure will occur. Why???
• The reason:
The start of failure may be due to a number of
dislocations of like sign on the same slip plane
being forced together at a major barrier, such as a
grain boundary, by a large applied stress, thus
forming a void or internal crack
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 Strain hardening

82
Several dislocations of like sign can form a void which can be a starting point for
total failure
 Residual Stresses
Residual stress is the Internal stress
distribution locked into a material. These
stresses are present even after all external
loading forces have been removed. They are
a result of the material obtaining equilibrium
after it has undergone plastic deformation.

Also it can be caused by temperature

gradients within the body as cooling cycles
thermal cycles .
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 Residual Stresses
 When a metallic material subjected to straining beyond
the elastic limit, its crystal structure becomes deformed.
 When the external stress is removed the material will still
be in a state of some internal stress.
 Each individual crystal of the original material will have
been strained both elastically and plastically.
 Removal of the external force should allow for the
recovery of all elastic strain, but for any individual crystal
complete recovery will be hindered by the surrounded
rigid crystals and there will be some locked in elastic
strain [residual stress].

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 Residual Stresses
• A typical example of the stress
distribution is the bending of a
beam. The bending moment first
produces a linear distribution
(within the linear elastic limit)
• . As the moment is increased, the
outer surface begin to yield (it has
now undergone plastic
deformation) and the distribution of
the stress becomes parabolic
Static Equilibrium
distribution.
• The differences between the two
stress distributions produces the
residual stresses pattern. • Example of the effect of the residual
• Layers ad and oe represent the stresses is the drilling of round holes on a
compressive residual stress. surface of parts that have residual stresses,
• Layers do and ef represent the as a result of removing this material by
tensile residual stress. drilling, the equilibrium of the residual
• The residual stresses in the beam stresses is disturbed and the hole becomes
must be in a static equilibrium after an elliptical.
the removal of the external forces • Such disturbances of residual stresses lead
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to warping
Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses

Figure 2.30 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat
sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) thin-walled tubing or pipe.

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 Effects of Residual Stresses
• Residual stress lower the fatigue life and fracture strength.
• Tensile residual stresses are generally undesirable: a surface
with tensile residual will sustain lower than that which is free
from residual stress

• Compressive residual stress is desirable  increase the

fatigue life of components. (Shot peening : is a cold working
process used to produce a compressive residual stress
layer and modify mechanical properties of metals)

• Reduction of residual stresses is made by: stress-relief

annealing or by further deformation (slight deformation), or
relaxation of residual stresses at room or elevated
temperature(Given sufficient time, residual stresses may also
be diminished at room temperature by relaxation; the time
required for relaxation can be greatly reduced by increasing
87
the temperature of the component).
 Stress relief
• Any metallic material exposed to strain beyond the
elastic limit can be heated, changes will begin to take
place
• As the temperature is raised, the vibrational energies of
the individual atoms will be increased and atomic
movement can occur.
• Comparatively, minor atomic movements result in the
removal of the residual stresses that associated with
the locked in elastic strain.
• This change occurs at comparatively low temperatures
which has a negligible effect on the strength and
hardness of the material
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