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Language Awareness in Teaching

A Toolkit for Content and
Language Teachers
The Cambridge Teacher series

Timothy Chadwick

WORKING WITH

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cambridge university press

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
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© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2012

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First published 2012

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Contents
Acknowledgements iv
About the author v
Foreword: Why this Toolkit? by Paul Ellis vi
Preface viii

Introduction 1
Section 1: Classroom 8
Section 2: Co-ordination 35
Section 3: Exams 43

Answer key 54
Afterword: First language awareness by Maurice Carder 69
Afterword: How to create interlingual classrooms by Eithne Gallagher 72
Index 75

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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for their comments on the Toolkit:
Peeter Mehisto (certain sections)
Justyna Proksza, Prywatne Liceum Ogólnokształca˛ce im. Melchiora
Wańkowicza, Katowice, Poland
We would like to thank Maurice Carder and Eithne Gallagher for their
contributions.
We would also like to thank colleagues at University of Cambridge
International Examinations and at Cambridge University Press for their
valuable input.

We very much hope that you find this Toolkit to be a useful companion when
considering the academic language demands and support you provide in your
school classrooms.
If you would like to give your views on this Toolkit, please email
[email protected] (Subject: ‘To Education Division: Language Awareness in
Teaching’).
For further information about University of Cambridge International
Examinations, please visit the website: www.cie.org.uk.

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About the author

Timothy Chadwick has been actively involved in education in a range of
countries, working in language teaching and testing in Greece, Ecuador,
Slovakia, Russia and Germany. Tim became interested in Content and
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) while employed at Bahrain’s foremost
medical university where students needed an integrated English language
programme to support them with their medical studies. He went on to work as
a high school teacher in Bulgaria, where core subjects were delivered through
English. Tim then became a senior trainer on a large CLIL project in the
Middle East co-operating with Science and Maths teachers. He has recently
worked as a schools inspector for bilingual schools, also in the Middle East,
and has been involved in teacher training in Colombia, Germany and the UK.

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Foreword: Why this Toolkit?

Language is a key issue for any classroom. All of us have needed support
throughout our education in understanding new jargon and concepts, whether
our first language is English or not – an appreciation of language needs cannot
be separated from that of content.
This Toolkit has grown out of expertise, experience and research, and seeks
primarily to act as a support and catalyst to the teacher working with students
who are non-native speakers of English. The lessons learned should be equally
useful for a teacher whose first language is not English, and could also be
adapted to any modern foreign language situation where content is taught
through that language.
The idea for this Toolkit emerged from internal research at University of
Cambridge International Examinations, which highlighted the need for greater
language awareness in content subjects. The first piece of research1 built a
profile of the academic language used in Cambridge IGCSE®2 Geography,
History and Biology. The second piece of research3 identified some of the
cognitive-academic language skills needed to achieve in Cambridge IGCSE
History and recommended language awareness guidance.
We have commissioned this Toolkit to be written in a tone to make it
feel like a workshop on paper. We hope that you will take the opportunity

1
Investigating the Relationship Between Performance in Language Assessment and Other,
Non-Language IGCSE Subjects, Phase 1: Analysis of question papers and mark schemes &
Phase 2: Analysis of candidate output (Stuart Shaw, University of Cambridge International
Examinations internal research report, 2011).
2
Cambridge IGCSE® is the registered trademark of University of Cambridge International
Examinations.
3
Calpability: Achieving in Content Through Language: Teacher Perceptions, Examiner
Expectations and Student Performance in Cambridge IGCSE History (Helen Imam,
unpublished MA thesis sponsored by Cambridge Assessment, 2010).

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Foreword: Why this Toolkit? vii

to reflect on the ideas contained within it, using your own background and
knowledge to emerge as a more confident teacher, more able to innovate and
engage with your students. Whilst this Toolkit focuses on second language
awareness, the two Afterwords raise the importance of first language awareness
in multicultural contexts and provide some practical suggestions. We hope
you will soon discover the vital importance of language and its use in the
classroom.
paul ellis
Head of Curriculum Strategy
Education Division
University of Cambridge International Examinations

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Preface
Welcome to the Language Toolkit.
This Toolkit aims to help you, as content and English language teachers,
support your students in developing the academic language skills they need to
be successful in those content subjects that they are studying through English.

Who is the Toolkit for?

This Toolkit is primarily intended to help those of you who teach students
through English and for whom English is not their first language. English may
well be a second language for you, too.
It is also for those who teach English to students who study some, or all, of
their content subjects through English.

What is its purpose?

The Toolkit aims to help you to become more aware of the language issues
your students face when they study content subjects like Science or Maths
through English. It provides you with strategies to help your students, in both
the content and English language classrooms. In particular, the Toolkit seeks
to support teachers in helping students to better understand and engage with
complex concepts in content classes that are taught through English.
It also aims to raise awareness of how content and English teachers can
work together to support students and colleagues in a more integrated way.
Many of the strategies in this Toolkit are compatible with a Content and
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach.1

1
For further information on CLIL, see, for example, Coyle, D., Hood, P., and Marsh, D. 2010.
CLIL. Cambridge University Press; Mehisto, P., Marsh. D., and Frigols, M. J. 2008. Uncovering
CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education.
Macmillan; and https://www.teachers.cambridgeesol.org/ts/teachingqualifications/clil

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Preface ix

Finally, the Toolkit looks at language issues specific to subjects of the

Cambridge IGCSE – the International General Certificate of Secondary
Education taken by 16-year-old students.

How can the Toolkit be used?

The Toolkit focuses on Geography, History, Science and Maths. The sample
classroom activities typically target students aged 13 to 16 years. However, the
information and guidance in the Toolkit is just as useful for teachers of other
subjects and age groups. This means that all sections of the Toolkit aim to
include ideas of use to teachers of a wide variety of subjects.
An important component of this Toolkit is the co-operation between the
content teacher and the English language teacher. The Toolkit in its entirety
seeks to support English language teachers by providing a window on the
content classroom. In turn, this can help English language teachers to better
support students in developing the academic language they need for their
content classes. Similarly, the Toolkit offers content teachers an insight into
what takes place in the English language classroom.
The Toolkit is divided into three sections and an introduction:
The Introduction outlines key language issues and the reasons why language
needs to be supported in the content classroom.
Section 1: Classroom is a practical and interactive guide on how to identify
the language demands being placed on students during a given task in the
content classroom, and on how to support students in using and learning that
language.
Section 2: Co-ordination looks at practical ways for content and English
language teachers to work together to build language support for students.
Section 3: Exams focuses on language issues that relate directly to
Cambridge IGCSE subjects. This section identifies common word- and
sentence-level problems students have in exams, and how students can be
helped to make the best use of their language knowledge during exams.
The Toolkit includes a series of objectives accompanied by tasks. There are
two types of task: ‘Reflective Tasks’ and ‘Practical Tasks’. The Reflective Tasks
encourage you to think about your own particular students and school, while
the Practical Tasks provide an opportunity to consider and practise some of
the strategies suggested in the Toolkit. Ideally, you would carry out these tasks
with other content and English language teachers. Refer to the Answer key on
pages 54–68 for some suggested answers.

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Section 1:

Classroom
How does the content teacher support academic language
in the classroom?
In this section, we will look in greater detail at exactly what is meant by
supporting students with language in the content classroom.
We will begin (Objectives 2–4) by looking at the type of language needed to
master content.
Subject-specific language that is essential in order to master content is often
referred to as content-obligatory language and includes specialist vocabulary
(Objectives 2 and 3) as well as functional language (Objective 4). This
language is distinguished from content-compatible language, which is helpful
but not essential for a particular subject. (For more information on this, see,
for example, the work of Snow, Met and Genesee.1)
We will then (Objective 5) take examples of tasks that content teachers
would ask their students to do in class and identify the language demands of
those tasks and suggest specific strategies that provide support.
These tasks will be broken down into the three areas we mentioned in the
introduction: vocabulary, word and sentence level functional language, and
language skills.

Objective 2: Identifying CALP vocabulary

Vocabulary, therefore, can be divided into content-obligatory vocabulary and
content-compatible vocabulary. Content-obligatory vocabulary is essential to a
particular topic and includes specialist terms. Content-compatible vocabulary
is generally useful in the content subject.

1
Snow, M., Met, M. and Genesee, F. (1989) ‘A Conceptual Framework for the Integration
of Language and Content in Second / Foreign Language Instruction’, TESOL Quarterly,
23, pp. 201–217.

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1 Classroom 9

For example, if students are going to carry out a laboratory experiment

in Science that produces salt crystals resembling a stalagmite, the content-
obligatory vocabulary could include:

stalagmite, crystallisation, saturated solution, sodium acetate, beaker,

Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze, goggles, low / high flame

This is called content-obligatory vocabulary because students are only

likely to come across these words in particular lessons or departments in
their school.
The content-compatible vocabulary that is generally useful when carrying
out experiments could include:

carry out, observe, set up, add, measure, give off, react (violently)
with, form

Students may come across such words in a variety of contexts.

Identifying content-obligatory and content-compatible

vocabulary
It is useful to be able to identify both kinds of vocabulary in order to select
which vocabulary students will be supported with. They may need help with
both types, but a content teacher needs to be particularly aware of vocabulary
that students will only experience in his or her specific subject.

Practical task 2

Identify content-obligatory and content-compatible vocabulary in the following

topic areas. Try to do this for all the topics, whether you teach the subject or not.
Use your first language if you don’t know the words in English.
Geography
1 List content-obligatory vocabulary on the topic ‘Glaciation’,
e.g. tarn lake.
2 List content-compatible vocabulary that you think is generally useful for
this topic.

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10 Toolkit for content and language teachers

History
1 List content-obligatory vocabulary on the topic ‘Slavery during the American
Civil War era’.
2 List content-compatible vocabulary that you think is generally useful for this topic.
Maths
1 List content-obligatory vocabulary on the topic ‘Ratios and proportion’,
e.g. equivalent ratio.
2 List content-compatible vocabulary that you think is generally useful for
this topic.
Science
1 List content-obligatory vocabulary on the topic ‘Photosynthesis’.
2 List content-compatible vocabulary that you think is generally useful for this topic.
Refer to the Answer key on pages 55–56 for some suggested answers.

Objective 3: Pre-teaching CALP vocabulary

First, the content teacher, perhaps with the help of an English language teacher,
needs to identify the vocabulary that students need support with for a task.
Then, the teacher will need some strategies for dealing with this vocabulary.
Many teachers would build in a new stage before the task where the content
vocabulary is pre-used or pre-taught.

Practical task 3

What strategies could you use to help students understand the meaning of the
following items? Make notes.
1 conical flask, beaker, test tube, pipette, tripod
2 ribbon development, nucleated settlement, green belt, Central Business
District, urban sprawl
3 multiply, divide, cube root, greater than, less than, decimal point, pi
4 first, then, wheat, harvest, export, store, silo, finally, insecticide, separate,
chaff, next
5 robust, hasty, unnerving, heroic, solitary
Refer to the Answer key on page 56 for some suggested answers.

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Strategies for dealing with CALP vocabulary

Here are some suggestions for dealing with vocabulary that can be used in
both the content and English language classroom:
• At the beginning of your class, you could put a few key words from
the lesson onto the whiteboard and ask students to guess the theme
of the lesson. You could then ask them to very quickly brainstorm
in small groups other words they would expect to come across in
your lesson. This has the advantage of creating interest in your topic
and of acting as a diagnostic of what they already know. When they
have finished brainstorming, you can ask groups to call out words,
and write those key words on which you want to focus on the
whiteboard. You can then add other words that you identified when
planning the lesson.
• Alternatively, you can put the words that you want to focus on directly
onto the whiteboard. Then, divide your students into groups. Each
group is represented by a different colour. Give the definition of one of
the words. The group that calls out the correct word first has the word
circled in their team colour. Once you have defined all the words, go
back to the groups and this time ask them to define the words.
• You can put a simple matching exercise on a handout asking students
to match words in the left-hand column to jumbled-up definitions in
the right-hand column. Similarly, you could give your students words
and sentences with gaps, and ask them to put the correct words into
each gap.
• You could ask students to use dictionaries although you may find that
this is too time consuming or that the definitions are not specific enough
for your content subject.
• You can use your classroom wall displays as a resource. Your walls
should have displays of useful key vocabulary, such as the names of
important equipment in Science, as well as useful verbs and adjectives
for your subject. Such display boards can either be bought commercially
or produced by the students as project work. If your students’ work is
supposed to provide language support, you need to make sure that
what they have written is correct and can be used as a model.
• You may be able to use translation if everyone in your class speaks the
same first language. This needs care, as students may not know content-
specific words in their own language. Also, overuse of translation may
lead to students ignoring the English and waiting for the first language

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Creative Thinking Skills: Cognitive processes that relate to functional language

Language for describing

1. Language of classication 2. Language of description

Examples Examples
• classifying • observing
• grouping • describing
• categorising • comparing
• attributing • contrasting
• dening • describing:
7. Language for self-reecting

• naming / labelling / drawing characteristics

• prioritising function
• comparing properties
• contrasting events
• critically evaluating

Language for interpreting

• self-correcting
• questioning

4. Language of analysis 5. Language of evaluation

• monitoring
• reecting

Examples Examples
Examples

• recognising arguments, • evaluating

reasoning and explanations • assessing
• detecting errors in reasoning • judging
• dissecting arguments • criticising
• clarifying meaning • justifying
• identifying purpose • making analogies
• identifying bias • making decisions
• problem solving • recommending
• conceptualising • predicting and hypothesising
• interpreting data
• visualising

Adapted from Shaw, 2011 (unpublished). Builds on Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, 1956;
Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy, 2001; Mohan’s Knowledge Framework, 1986;
Black et al. Critical Thinking Taxonomy, 2007; suggested IELTS skills taxonomies; contributions from
Chadwick, 2011

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3. Language of process
Examples
• describing a process
• sequencing
• using spatial temporal relationships
• describing cause and effect
• forming personal opinions
• making generalisations
• making analogies
• making connections
• selecting relevant material
• constructing arguments
• producing
• planning
• responding
• decision making
• communicating
• generating
Examples
8. Language for creating

6. Language of conclusion
Examples
• explaining
• suggesting
• hypothesising
• drawing conclusions
• developing
• considering
• reasoning
• presenting arguments
• presenting conclusions
• expressing personal opinions
• determining cause and effect
• evaluating

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14 Toolkit for content and language teachers

explanation. Nevertheless, there are occasions when translation is the

quickest and easiest way to clear up any confusion.
• Vocabulary for a content lesson can also be learned in advance in the
English language classroom.

NB: One strategy that is not a good idea is to point to a word on the
whiteboard and ask, ‘What does this mean?’. This is actually a very difficult
thing for your students to do because they need very precise vocabulary. Try it
for yourself with simple words like saucepan, table and cushion. For example:
‘A saucepan is a round cooking utensil with a long handle and a lid used for
cooking food.’

Objective 4: Identifying the functional language of CALP

The table on pages 12–13 shows a wide range of creative thinking skills that
students are expected to be able to draw on and demonstrate in their lessons.
They are exactly the kind of higher-order thinking skills that teachers require
from their students in today’s classrooms. It is important when planning the
different stages of lessons and the tasks that you want your students to carry
out, that you are aware of precisely what the different cognitive demands
in their lessons are. In order to help students develop and use these creative
thinking skills in English, they need support with the functional language that
goes with these processes.

Patterns in the Creative Thinking Skills model

The taxonomy, or model, represented in the table on pages 12–13 can be used
for many different purposes. Here is an overview of how this model works for
our Toolkit.
Boxes 1–6 list creative thinking skills that can be linked to the kinds
of tasks students are asked to do in their lessons. In order for students to
carry out these tasks, especially when working in pairs or groups, they need
to be provided with the functional language that goes with these creative
thinking skills.
Many of the examples in Boxes 1, 2, 4 and 5 include thinking skills and
therefore language that may come in the early stage of a lesson when students
are in the process of understanding a concept.
Boxes 3 and 6, to the right, include thinking skills and language that are
used when the students feel they have understood a concept and are ready to
demonstrate that understanding.

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Boxes 7 and 8 include thinking skills that we could describe as a student’s

‘internal dialogue’, that is, skills that don’t always involve language and
communication, but that reflect a student’s individual thought processes.

Creative thinking skills box by box

Box 1: The language of classification is the language students use when trying
to make sense of something they are looking at and to identify patterns and
relationships between items. For example, students check the pH value of
various domestic items such as washing-up liquid, detergent, lemon juice,
vinegar and so on, and group items together if they have common features
or uses.
Box 2: The language of description is used to describe more fully, and give
reasons for, the patterns and relationships students have found.
Box 3: The language of process is the language students use when making
sense of, and then describing, how something works or is made, for example.
Boxes 4 and 5: The language of analysis and the language of evaluation refer
to the language students use when engaging with input and drawing useful
conclusions.
Box 6: The language of conclusion is the language students use to demonstrate
that they have understood something, or formed an opinion about it.
Box 7: The language of self-reflecting represents a thread that runs throughout
a student’s learning experience. Students use these skills to develop their
awareness of the learning process.
Box 8: The language of creating also refers to creative thinking skills that
students use throughout their learning. For example, when they classify,
describe, analyse and evaluate input, they make connections and develop
conceptual understanding as a lesson, and a curriculum, progress.

Creative thinking skills and functional language

Many of the creative thinking skills can appear in more than one box. For
example, hypothesising can be placed in Boxes 5 and 6. In terms of Box 5,
a student may be guessing (rightly or wrongly) what might happen in a
Science experiment. Equally, referring to Box 6, a student may be presenting
their conclusions of what they discovered from that experiment. Some of the
functional language for hypothesising would be the first and zero conditional:
Box 5: If we mix sulphuric acid with water, we think the water will
change colour.
Box 6: We have proved that when we mix sulphuric acid with water, it gets
warmer because it is an exothermic process.

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16 Toolkit for content and language teachers

A further example of functional language relating to thinking skills can be

taken from Box 6, evaluation – if students are asked to present conclusions
they have drawn from doing an experiment, either in a discussion or as a piece
of writing on a laboratory report, the functional language that students need to
carry this out will include structures such as:
Next time we would also try to measure …
One thing we would do differently next time is …
It would have been a more effective experiment if we had …
We were unable to … because …
One part of the experiment that worked well was …
It would be better to …
Sentence stems like these can be included on classroom handouts or be written
on the whiteboard while students complete the task. We will come to how we
support this kind of language in more detail later.
There are many advantages to giving students language support in this way.
In the case of the structures for evaluation:
a It will help those students in class whose language is weak.
b By implication it means it is a part of a teacher’s differentiation
strategies regarding their lessons.
c It keeps all students focused and on the topic.
d It sets an appropriate academic tone for this kind of task, which has the
advantage of making students feel like scientists and engage more with
the task.
e It discourages students from giving a superficial evaluation that
‘everything was fine’.
f It supports the students’ understanding of the teacher’s spoken
instructions when setting up the task.

Practical task 4: matching language to thinking skills

First, match the functional language below (a) to (e) below to the thinking skills
listed in Column 1 of the table. Then, try to write full sentences from this and
similar functions. An example from Geography is provided.
a We know this text is objective / subjective because …
b Firstly, secondly, then, after that, finally … / A is added to B, C is emitted
causing D to occur …

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c X is a … which we use to …
d It is often said that … , but I think / In my view, … / I believe …
e We should / ought to / could try …
Thinking skill What the students are doing
1 classication dening:
2 description compare and contrast:
Limestone is a porous rock whereas granite isn’t.
3 process sequencing / describing a process:
4 analysis detecting purpose / bias (usually in a text):
5 evaluation recommending:
6 conclusion expressing personal opinions:
Refer to the Answer key on pages 56–57 for some suggested answers.

Supporting the language needed to carry out the task

As well as the content vocabulary and structures a student may need for a
task, a teacher may consider giving support with the language of the task. For
example, if in Maths students are playing a board game using dice, they will
need language such as:
You go first.
It’s your turn.
I don’t think that’s the right answer.
Roll again.
You miss a turn.
Some teachers may feel that their students don’t need a focus on this type of
language in the content classroom. However, it is quite easy to provide and as
well as supporting language, it emphasises that students are expected to work
co-operatively and in English.

Objective 5: Identifying the language demands and the support

we need to give for tasks in the classroom
We will now look at some tasks that students could be given to do in their
content classrooms, with four examples taken from Maths, Science, Geography
and History. Both English language teachers and content teachers from any
subject should look at all four subjects as there are useful principles in each
example for any content subject and important implications for the English
language classroom. After each example, there is an opportunity to practise.

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