II: Nature and Uses of Psychological Test

Overview
In the first module, we have learned about the basic concepts and principles in psychological tests and
assessments. In the field of psychological assessment, a Test refers to the many tools used in the field
of psychology since it is a device or method that allows behavior to be quantified or to be predicted.
In Module 1, it was also discussed the major differences between Testing and Assessment. When we
say Testing, the main objective in performing this method is to maintain a numerical estimate with
regard to ability or attribute (i.e., kindness, industriousness), in contrast to Assessment, which is
typically performed to answer a referral question (Does the patient has substance use disorder?), solve
a problem (intervention for speech delay), to arrive at a decision through the use of tools of evaluation
(insanity pleas in Court).
Likewise, we can now explain the brief history of testing and assessment, and history shows that
psychological tests have evolved in a complicated environment in which hostile and friendly forces
have produced a balance characterized by innovation and a continuous quest for better methods
(Kaplan & Sacuzzo,,2013)
Now that we know the basic concepts and principles of psychological testing and assessment let's
study the nature and uses of psychological tests.

Defining features of a Test

As cited by Apruebo in 2010, Gregory (1996) stated that a test should have the following defining
characteristics:

1. Standard Procedure
An important characteristic and requirement of any psychological test should include a uniform
administration procedure.

2. Behavior Sample
Apruebo (2010) explained that a psychological test is a limited amount of sample of behavior. This
means, for a short period of time, using a psychological test enables a clinician to gather data about the
behavior of a person. This sample of behavior allows the clinician to make inferences and
interpretations about the total domains of relevant behavior. For example, using an intelligence test
such as Purdue Non-language Test helps the clinician to determine the intellectual functioning of
his/her client.

3. Scores/ Categories
Another important defining feature of a test has scores/categories. A psychological test should provide
one or more scores, meaning it provides the data/person that it belongs to one category and not
another. In simpler terms, a psychological test calculates the performance in numbers or
classifications.

4. Norms or Categories.
Another essential feature of a psychological test is possessing norms or standards.
Kaplan & Sacuzzo (2016) defined norms as the performances by defined groups on particular tests.
Means, norms consisted of a summary of test results from a large and representative group of subjects
in which a test score is interpreted by comparing it with scores obtained by others on the same test.

5. Prediction of Non-test Behavior

 The result of a psychological test should help the clinician predict behaviors (i.e., aggression)
by interpreting the score obtained by the examinee.
For example, a person who scored high in a hypothetical Acting-out Frustration Test is
predicted to display behavior of impulsively expressing his/her anger, whether physically or verbally,
whenever he/she feels frustrated when perceived goals are considered unattainable.

Characteristics of a Good Test

Tests, as discussed in the previous module, are tools that are very important in the discipline of
psychology. Since these make the psychologists’ work possible, a good test is a must in order for the
practitioner to deliver the service expected from them. But then, what makes a test good? How does a
practitioner in the field of psychology determine the test to be good for the purpose that they are
utilizing it? For a test to be considered an adequate device, it should be psychometrically sound. The
psychometric soundness of a test pertains to the technical qualities or specifications of a test or an
assessment tool (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2017).

Standardized
A good test is standardized when it follows a uniformed process from administration, scoring, and
interpretation as well as the norms of the test. Standardization of the test ensures that the same
procedure will be given to everyone who takes the test, thus lessening the bias as well as mistakes that
can affect the results of the test.
This process covers how the test will be done - what materials will be utilized in the testing process,
the time limit, directions and instructions that will be given on the test, and other details that will
directly affect the process of testing (Santos & Pastor, 2009). All of these factors should be exactly the
same for every test taker.
Another aspect of a standardized test is the norms. Norms help the test used to make sense of the
results of the psychological tests since these kinds of tests cannot be easily interpreted as pass or fail.
Interpreting a psychological test is different as the test user will have to compare the results of an
individual to the scores of other test takers on the same test. By standardizing the norms of a test, the
results can be easily understood - what is the difference between this individual in this measure
compared to other people.

Reliability
A good measuring tool consistently measures a factor on different occasions. A good test is said
to be reliable when a person shows consistent scores when examined on the same test but in separate
periods of time. Suppose that you wanted to know how a student's Math skills are, so you gave him a
20-item test covering different areas of mathematics. You gave that test to him on three trials - in the
first trial, the student scored 15; on the second try, the score was seven; and in the last, the score was
10. Given these scores, did the test show reliability? In the scenario mentioned, the test was not
reliable, seeing that the scores deviate in a random fashion. The test needs to be able to accurately
measure the facet it has to measure in order for the test to be useful, and one way of testing its
reliability is when it yields consistent measurements at different times.

Validity
Reliability is not enough to say that a test is good; a test needs to be valid as well. This property
of psychometric soundness measures how well a tool assesses a factor that it claims to measure. Let's
say that you are holding a test that you are told will measure knowledge in history. Knowing this, you
will be expecting questions or items relating to events that have happened in the past. However, upon
II: Nature and Uses of Psychological Test
perusal, you see that there were items related to grammar rules and tenses of verbs. Do these items
make the test valid?
For a test to be considered valid, it has to measure the purpose for which it is intended. Who
then deems a test to be valid? In the earlier example, about the history test, the test has to be
scrutinized by experts in the field of history since they are knowledgeable of the events that took place
in the past. These experts are also the ones who can help assess if the test covers enough areas to say
that the test will adequately measure the historical knowledge (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2017).

Scorability and Interpretability

A test will not mean anything if it cannot be scored and interpreted. Scoring of the test should
be simple so the test user will have little difficulty getting the scores and analyzing the results. If the
scoring is done well, then it would not be difficult to make sense of the results. A clear score will allow
better analysis since it shows where the performance of an individual lies. Some tests come with
scoring manuals as well as stencils and computer programs that will score the test automatically.
Understanding the scores will pave the way for better interpretation. It is not enough that one
will get the numerical data that symbolizes the performance of the individual on the test this should
be interpreted as well. Interpretation explores the numerical score, differentiating the performance of
the individual from the normative sample; it also gives descriptive explanations of the findings from
the score, which can help a lot in decision-making.

Categories of Test
Apruebo (2010) maintained that a psychological test is typically considered and categorized as
a psychometric test and projective test.
He defined the psychometric test as a structured, voluntary, objective, and specifically designed
to measure intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits. Meanwhile, the projective test is the exact
opposite of the abovementioned test, as it is an unstructured and subjective way of measuring covert
(non-observable) or unconscious characteristics of behavior in which the results are discussed in a
qualitative/reflective manner.

As cited by Apruebo in 2010, Campbell discussed the categories of tests in terms of the following
three (3) dimensions:

1. Structured- Nonstructured (Psychometrics-Projective Techniques)

This category includes the degree of freedom the subject can respond in a variety of ways. For
example, in a structured (psychometric test), clients only have limited ways of answering by choosing
only what are the choice (forced choice, i.e., True or False, multiple-choice tests), whereas a non-
structured test (projective test), clients can freely respond as they like (i.e. Rorschach Inkblot Test,
Draw a Person Test).

2. Disguised- Non-Disguised (Projective- Subjective)

This category includes the degree of clients’ knowledge of the purpose of the test.,
Apruebo (2010) emphasized that in a disguised (projective) test, the examiner interprets the test in
way other than what the client assumed it would be when responding. As an illustration, you
administered an objective test to a suspected manipulative client. So you disguised (projective) test
as a test of perceptual ability when in fact, it is a test of psychopathology.
On the contrary, in a non-disguised (subjective) test, both the client and the
examiner/researcher are informed and understand the purpose of the test. For example, an interview
or intelligence test to be used for Court proceedings such as Adoption Cases has the qualities of a non-
disguised test.

3. Voluntary –Objective (Psychometric-Behavioral)

The third and last dimension pertains to a voluntary and objective test. Voluntary
tests enable the client to give his answer freely. As an example, a career attitude preference
questionnaire will require the client to write his preferences among given alternatives on a self-report
basis. While in an objective test, the client is instructed to give a correct response to choices given in
contrast to the self-report questionnaire. On the other hand, Pervin ( as cited by Apruebo in 2010)
recommends another way of categorizing the test into four (4) major categories by assessment
techniques and personality theories, as shown below:

Test Test Examples Obtained Data Theoretical Approach Illustrative

Catego Characteristic Theory and
ry s Theorist

Projecti Nonstructured, TAT, DAP, HTP Organization of Psychodynamic Psychoanalysis-

ve disguised conscious/unconscious Sigmund Freud
motives and conflicts

Subject Nonstructured Interview, Rep Individual perceptions of Phenomenological Self- Rogers

ive or semi- Test, Q-Sort self and world
Personal Construct
structured,
- Kelly
undisguised

Psycho Structured, 16 PF Personality Traits Trait- Type, Factor Trait - Cattell

metric Voluntary Analytic
MMPI

Objecti Structured, Behavioral Behaviors (responses)in Learning Learning Theory –

ve- Objective Assessment specific learning situations Skinner, Bandura,
Behavi and Mischel
oral

Adapted from Psychological Testing Volume 1 by Dr. Roxel A. Apruebo, RGC Copyright ©2010 Central Book
Supply Inc.

Testing Levels
It should be a common practice that only qualified users/examiners shall handle the administration
and safekeeping of all test materials (including the manuals, answer keys, reusable booklets, etc.) At
the hands of incompetent and unauthorized persons, the usefulness of tests will either be of no use or
may break/destroy a person’s life. Just imagine a Court scenario a rapist received a Scot-free verdict
due to an incompetent psychological assessment report. As we mentioned earlier, in assessment, every
word has the power to either make or break a person's life. Hence, the following are the guidelines for
administering tests according to the level of the test, as elaborately indicated by Apruebo in 2010:

Level A
The qualifications of the psychologist should fall on the following: undergraduate courses in
testing or psychometrics and adequate training/administration in testing. He/she can be administered
paper-and-pencil tests: IQ, Achievement tests, Aptitude Tests, etc.

Level B
II: Nature and Uses of Psychological Test
For this level, the psychologist should at least complete an advanced course in testing (graduate
level) in a university or its equivalent in training under the guidance and supervision of a qualified
clinical psychologist./psychological consultant. Under this level, tests that can be administered are
the following: those that are under Level A and paper-and-pencil tests of personality: Sentence
Completion Tests, Personality Assessment Inventory, 16 Personality Factor, and the Wechsler
Scales.

Level C
To administer and interpret Level C tests, psychologists should have a M.A. or Ph. D. and/or
equivalent experience in training and psychodiagnostic. The tests that can be administered and
evaluated at this level are the following: Level A and Level B tests and projective techniques such as
Thematic Apperception Test, Children Apperception Test, and Rorschach Psychodiagnostic Test, to
name a few.

Control of Psychological Tests

Just like any other tool, not everyone has the knowledge and can use psychological tests.
Qualified test users are needed to handle these tests as these will need technical knowledge as to when
to use the test - selection, how to use it - administration, as well as how to score and interpret this.
If the test user does have the qualification to use the test, then the likelihood of misusing it is
higher. Given this, the test developers and distributors require certification of the test user first before
allowing the latter party to purchase the test.
The purchase and use of psychological tests it is categorized into three levels. Level A tests can
be administered and scored by people in all professions with the aid of the test manual.
Then there are Level B tests which require a degree in psychology and behavioral statistics.
Tests at this level require a thorough understanding of statistics in order to see how different the
person's scores are from the rest of the sample representatives. Level C tests require more stringent
qualifications with a master's degree in psychology and supervised practice.
These tests are projective tests that demand a higher understanding of personality theories and
mathematics in behavioral science (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2014).
Aside from categorizing the tests, the American Educational Research Association, the American
Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement education have written the
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.
This document addresses the issues regarding the test construction and evaluation, test
administration and use, as well as applications of tests for special situations. The Standards were
written in 1954 and revised several times, with the recent publication in 2014.
One of the responsibilities of the test user is to secure the contents of the test. Securing the test
will help preserve its reliability and validity of the test. However, securing the test does not mean that
the interpretation should be relayed ambiguously.
The test user needs to discuss the basic information of the test in order for the test takers to
fully understand the test, its purpose, and the information that it will yield.
Also, ensuring the test is employed by a competent and qualified examiner so that the scores
are properly used is a MUST. Remember, an unqualified examiner has a high tendency to commit an
error in the selection, administration, scoring, or interpretation of psychological tests, which may
cause harm that should not happen at all costs.

Planning and Preparing for Test Administration

 Test administration is not a simple task of just distributing the test materials and collecting
these. The administration of the test should be planned out carefully in order to ensure the
psychometric properties of the tests are sustained, as well as to lessen the bias and utilize the test to
its maximum purpose.
There are a lot of factors that need to be considered first. Factors such as what kind of procedure
should be followed in administering a test depend on the type of test that will be used; should the
administration be an individual or a group administration; timed or non-timed, and should the test
focus more on the cognitive or behavioral aspect.
Moreover, careful consideration of psychological factors such as preparedness, "test wiseness,"
motivation, and the emotion of the examinees as these will surely affect their scores.
Personality, skill, and behavior of the examiner have also had an effect on the examinees'
performance.
Last but not least, situational variables, such as time, and place of testing and environmental
/physical conditions such as illumination, temperature, noise level, and ventilation, may also add to
psychological variables like motivation, concentration, test anxiety, and performance of examinees.
This means that the test examiner must be fully prepared before administering tests.

Before Test Administration

1. Scheduling the Test
The examiner must take into consideration the schedule and activities that the examinees
usually engage in at the time. In short, an examiner/should schedule the testing in a way that is
convenient for the examinee.
Everyone deserves an opportunity to prepare intellectually, emotionally, motivationally, and
physically for a test (Apruebo, 2010).

2. Informed Consent
Informed consent refers to the unanimous agreement between a professional and a particular
person and his/her legal representative. Under this agreement, permission is given to administer
psychological tests to the person and to obtain other information from that person for
evaluative/dianoetic reasons.

3. Becoming Familiar with The test

The examiner should be familiar with the test so that he/she can efficiently be administered the
tests and avoid errors in testing.

4. Ensuring Satisfactory Testing Condition

It is the duty of an examiner to see make sure that the testing area is a conducive surrounding,
such as seating, lighting, ventilation, temperature, noise level, and other physical conditions in the
testing situation are appropriate.

During Test Administration

Before the test, the test administrator needs to check the materials for the exam and make sure
that these are all complete with the necessary pages in the correct order. The distribution of the test
materials - the questionnaire and answer sheet. The test administrator needs to direct the test takers
to carefully fill in the required information in the answer sheet carefully. Before the test properly
begins, the administrator also needs to guide the test takers on how to mark the answer sheets. Giving
II: Nature and Uses of Psychological Test
examples are a great way to ensure that the direction is followed, and asking clarificatory questions
from the test takers will help to see if there are directions that were vague.
Read the general instructions of the test aloud for the test takers and explain directions further
should there be any need. A time limit of the exam has to be clarified, and the test administrator needs
to be sure to keep track of it by giving time checks to the test takers from time to time.
When the time limit is done, the test administrator has to gather the test questionnaires and
answer sheets, making sure that all papers are accounted for. These papers - answer sheets are then
prepared for scoring and interpretation of the test.

After Test Administration

After test administration, make sure to retrieve all the data by collecting and securing all test
materials. The examinee should be reassured concerning his/her test results. In clinical testing, it is
vital to interview a parent or significant other who has accompanied the examinee before and after the
administration of the test for collateral information and be informed on what will be done with the
results givens to the examinee. Again, examiners must be reassured of the confidentiality of the test
results and interpretations and will be endorsed to the proper persons or agency to recommend any
further action.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2018). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction
to tests and measurement. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Santos, Z. C., & Pastor, G. N. (2009). Psychological Measurement and Evaluation.
Manila: REX Bookstore.
3. DeVon, Holli & Block, Michelle & Wright, Patricia & M Ernst, Diane & Hayden, Susan &J
Lazzara, Deborah & Savoy, Suzanne & Kostas-Polston, Elizabeth. (2007). A Psychometric
Toolbox for Testing Validity and Reliability. Journal of nursing scholarship: an official
publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing / Sigma Theta Tau. 39.
155-64. 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2007.00161.x.
4. Apruebo, R.A. (2010). Psychological Testing Volume 1 (1 st ed). Quezon City; Central Book
Supply
5. Groth-Marnatt, G., Wright, A.J. (2010). Handbook of Psychological Assessment (6 th Edition).
6. Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2013)). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, & Issues
(8th Edition). Wadsworth. Cengage Learning
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. ELSOUS, A., SARI, A. A., RADWAN, M., MOHSEN, S., & ZAYDEH, H. A. (2017, May). Retrieved August
15, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5442278/
2. Swanson, E. (2014, June). Validity, Reliability, and the Questionable Role of Psychometrics in
Plastic Surgery. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4174233/