HISTORY NOTES

UNIT-II The Nehru Era

 Political developments.
 Foreign Policy.
 Five Year Planning for Economic Development.
 Assessment of Nehru.
ABOUT NEHRU
 Born on November 14, 1889, in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, to a wealthy Kashmiri Brahmin family.
 His father, Motilal Nehru, was a prominent lawyer and leader of the Indian independence movement.
 Educated at Harrow School in England and Trinity College, Cambridge.
 Married Kamala Nehru in 1916, and they had one daughter, Indira Gandhi, who later became the Prime
Minister of India.
Political Career:
 Influenced by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru joined the Indian National Congress and
became a leading figure in the independence struggle.
 Spent several years in British prisons for his involvement in the civil disobedience movement against
British rule.
 Served as the President of the Indian National Congress in 1929, 1936, 1937, and 1946.
 After India's independence in 1947, he became the country's first Prime Minister, a position he held until
his death in 1964.
Meeting with Mahatma Gandhi:
 Nehru first met Gandhi in 1916 and was deeply influenced by his philosophy of non-violence and civil
disobedience.
 He became one of Gandhi's closest associates and played a pivotal role in the Indian independence
movement.
 Their relationship was occasionally strained due to ideological differences, but they maintained a deep
respect for each other.
Books by Nehru:
 Nehru was a prolific writer and authored several books, including:
 "Toward Freedom" (his autobiography)
 "The Discovery of India"
 "Glimpses of World History"
 "Letters from a Father to His Daughter"
 Here are the additional details about Jawaharlal Nehru's relation with his daughter, his association with
Gandhi, books authored by him, his role in the Indian National Congress (INC), and his involvement in
the Constituent Assembly:
Relation with Daughter Indira Gandhi:
 Nehru shared a close bond with his daughter Indira Gandhi, who later became the Prime Minister of
India.
 He was deeply involved in her upbringing and education, and they shared a deep love for each other.
 Indira Gandhi was often referred to as Nehru's "darling" or "closest companion."
 After the death of his wife Kamala in 1936, Indira Gandhi became Nehru's constant companion and
confidante.
Meeting with Mahatma Gandhi:
 Nehru first met Gandhi in 1916 and was deeply influenced by his philosophy of non-violence and civil
disobedience.
 He became one of Gandhi's closest associates and played a pivotal role in the Indian independence
movement.
 Their relationship was occasionally strained due to ideological differences, but they maintained a deep
respect for each other.
Books by Nehru:
 Nehru was a prolific writer and authored several books, including:
 "Toward Freedom" (his autobiography)
 "The Discovery of India"
 "Glimpses of World History"
 "Letters from a Father to His Daughter"
Newspaper by Nehru:
The National Herald was an influential English-language newspaper published by the Indian National
Congress during the Indian independence movement.
 It was founded in 1938 by Jawaharlal Nehru, who was then the President of the Indian National
Congress.
 The newspaper was intended to be the official publication of the Congress party and serve as a
mouthpiece for its views and ideologies.
 The first issue of the National Herald was published on September 9, 1938, from Lucknow.
Role in the Constituent Assembly:
 Nehru was a key member of the Constituent Assembly, which was responsible for drafting the
Constitution of India.
 He served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee and played a significant role in shaping the
constitutional principles and structure of the Indian government.
  Nehru advocated for a strong central government, secularism, and the protection of fundamental rights
in the Constitution.
Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, passed away on May 27, 1964, in New Delhi, after a prolonged
illness. He was 74 years old at the time of his death

THE NEHRU ERA :POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The Nehru era, spanning from India's independence in 1947 to Nehru's death in 1964, was a crucial period in
the country's political development. Here are some of the key political developments during this time:
1. Consolidation of Democracy: Nehru played a pivotal role in establishing a democratic system in India.
He believed in democratic values, secularism, and the parliamentary form of government. Under his
leadership, India held its first general elections in 1952, laying the foundation for a stable democratic
tradition.
2. Socialist Policies: Nehru advocated for a socialist pattern of society and implemented policies aimed at
reducing economic disparities. This included the adoption of five-year plans, the establishment of public
sector undertakings, and land reforms.
3. Non-Alignment Movement: Nehru was one of the founding leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement,
which sought to maintain a neutral stance in the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet
Union. This foreign policy principle aimed to promote world peace and avoid aligning with either of the
two superpowers.
4. Integration of Princely States: After independence, India faced the challenge of integrating over 500
princely states into the Union of India. Nehru played a crucial role in this process, negotiating with the
rulers of these states and facilitating their accession to India.
5. Reorganization of States: In 1956, the States Reorganization Act was passed, which reorganized the
states of India along linguistic lines. This was a significant step in addressing the linguistic and cultural
diversity of the country.
6. Handling of Domestic Conflicts: Nehru's tenure witnessed several domestic conflicts, such as the
Kashmir issue, the Naga insurgency, and the Telangana peasant uprising. His government employed a
combination of political negotiations and security measures to address these challenges.
7. Foreign Policy Initiatives: Nehru played a significant role in shaping India's foreign policy, advocating
for decolonization, disarmament, and peaceful coexistence. He promoted India's active involvement in
international organizations like the United Nations.
8. Challenges and Controversies: The Nehru era was not without its challenges and controversies. Issues
like the Hindu Code Bill, the Ayodhya dispute, and the India-China war of 1962 tested Nehru's
leadership and exposed some limitations of his policies.
Overall, the Nehru era laid the foundations for India's democratic system, socialist economic policies, and a
non-aligned foreign policy. While facing various domestic and international challenges, Nehru's leadership
played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of independent India.
FOREIGN POLIY IN NEHRU ERA
Jawaharlal Nehru's foreign policy during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947-1964)
was guided by several key principles and objectives. Here are the major highlights of India's foreign policy
under Nehru's leadership:
1. Non-Alignment Movement: Nehru was one of the founders and leading advocates of the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM), which sought to maintain a neutral stance in the Cold War between the United States
and the Soviet Union. India's policy of non-alignment aimed to avoid aligning with either of the two
superpowers and instead pursued an independent foreign policy.
2. Anti-Colonialism and Decolonization: Nehru was a firm believer in the principle of self-determination
and strongly supported the decolonization efforts of various countries in Asia and Africa. He advocated
for the end of colonial rule and the granting of independence to countries under colonial subjugation.
3. Peaceful Coexistence: Nehru promoted the concept of peaceful coexistence among nations, emphasizing
the need for peaceful resolution of conflicts and respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all
countries. He believed in the peaceful settlement of disputes through negotiations and diplomacy.
4. Promotion of World Peace and Disarmament: Nehru was a strong advocate for world peace and
disarmament. He supported the United Nations' efforts towards global peace and played a significant
role in promoting international cooperation and dialogue.
5. Strengthening of Relations with Neighboring Countries: Nehru sought to strengthen India's relations
with its neighbors, particularly through the concept of "Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai" (Indians and Chinese are
brothers). However, this policy was challenged by the Sino-Indian War of 1962, which strained relations
between India and China.
6. Participation in International Organizations: India actively participated in international organizations
like the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Non-Aligned Movement under Nehru's
leadership. He saw these platforms as avenues for promoting India's interests and advocating for global
peace and cooperation.
7. Promotion of Asian Unity and Solidarity: Nehru worked towards fostering unity and solidarity among
Asian nations, believing that a united Asia could play a significant role in world affairs. He supported
initiatives like the Bandung Conference in 1955, which brought together newly independent nations
from Asia and Africa.
While Nehru's foreign policy was largely successful in establishing India's position on the global stage and
promoting its values of non-alignment, anti-colonialism, and peaceful coexistence, it also faced challenges, such
as the Sino-Indian War and border disputes with neighboring countries like Pakistan. Nevertheless, Nehru's
foreign policy laid the foundation for India's approach to international relations and its pursuit of an independent
and non-aligned stance in the post-colonial era.

The Five Year Plans for economic development :

First Five Year Plan (1951-56)
 Based on the Harrod-Domar model, it emphasized rapid industrialization through public investments in
heavy industries like steel, machine tools, power etc.
 Allocated 29% of expenditure towards industrial development.
 Focused on agriculture and irrigation projects like the Bhakra Nangal dam to boost food production.
  The plan was ultimately handicapped by inflation, drought and inadequate foreign exchange reserves.
 Annual growth rate averaged 3.6% against a target of 2.1%.

Second Five Year Plan (1956-61)

 Continued the thrust on heavy industrialization with a focus on building machine tools, locomotives and
mining industries.
 27% expenditure share for industries and mining.
 Major projects included Sindri fertilizer plant, Chittaranjan locomotive works, Bhilai steel plant among
others.
 Promoted import substitution by encouraging domestic production of industrial products previously
imported.
 Agricultural production rose with the spread of tube-wells, better seeds and fertilizers.
 Plan achieved 4.5% annual GDP growth surpassing its modest 4.1% target.

Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)

 This plan encountered severe drought and wars with China and Pakistan which disrupted its
implementation.
 Aimed to establish a self-reliant economy with reduced dependence on foreign aid.
 Prioritized the development of the machine building industry to produce capital goods domestically.
 Promoted labor-intensive industries like food processing, textiles etc to generate employment.
 Agricultural growth disappointed due to the successive droughts of 1965-66.
 Overall GDP growth slipped to 2.8% per annum during this period.

Features of Economic Planning

 Public Sector Dominance - The Plans depended heavily on public sector investment in capital-intensive
heavy industries.
 Import Substitution - Policies encouraged domestic production of industrial products instead of imports.
 State Intervention - The Plans enforced strict regulations and licenses governing private sector economic
activity (License Raj).
 Closed Economy - There was heavy reliance on internal resources and little interaction with the global
economy.

Critique of Planning
 The excessive emphasis on capital goods and neglect of consumer goods industries led to shortages and
bottlenecks.
 Industrial growth was skewed towards the capital-intensive heavy industries while labor-intensive
sectors lagged.
 Agriculture did not receive adequate investment, technology and incentives leading to low productivity
growth.
  Export pessimism and import substitution led to inefficiencies, lack of competitiveness and foreign
exchange shortages.
 Overregulation through the License Raj choked the private sector and entrepreneurship.
While the Plans enabled the development of India's industrial base, critics argue that the state-led, inward-
looking strategy delivered lackluster growth and held back India's economic potential during the Nehru era.

ASSESSMENT OF NEHRU
Here is an assessment of Jawaharlal Nehru's legacy and contributions as the first Prime Minister of independent
India:
Positives:
1. Nation-building: Nehru played a pivotal role in laying the foundations of modern India. He was
instrumental in establishing democratic institutions, a parliamentary system, and promoting the values of
secularism, socialism, and non-alignment.
2. Economic Development: The Five-Year Plans initiated under Nehru's leadership aimed at rapid
industrialization and economic growth. The establishment of public sector undertakings and heavy
industries contributed to India's industrial base.
3. Foreign Policy: Nehru's leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and his advocacy for decolonization,
disarmament, and peaceful coexistence earned India respect on the global stage. His efforts promoted
India's independent foreign policy.
4. Social Reforms: Nehru supported progressive social reforms, such as the Hindu Code Bills, which aimed
to improve the status of women and promote gender equality.
5. Scientific Temperament: Nehru encouraged a scientific temper and the promotion of scientific education
and research in India, which laid the groundwork for the country's future technological advancements.
6. Linguistic Reorganization: The reorganization of states along linguistic lines, as recommended by the
States Reorganization Commission, helped address the linguistic diversity of the country and promoted
cultural identities.
Limitations and Criticisms:
1. Centralized Planning: The overemphasis on centralized economic planning and the public sector led to
inefficiencies and a lack of private sector growth in certain sectors.
2. Kashmir Issue: Nehru's handling of the Kashmir issue and the decision to take it to the United Nations
has been criticized by some as a strategic misstep.
3. Sino-Indian War: The 1962 Sino-Indian War exposed weaknesses in India's defense preparedness and
foreign policy assumptions, leading to criticism of Nehru's handling of the situation.
4. Lack of Decentralization: Some argue that Nehru's emphasis on a strong central government hindered
the devolution of power to states and local governments.
5. Indira Gandhi's Succession: Nehru's decision to groom his daughter Indira Gandhi as his political heir
has been criticized by some as an instance of dynastic politics.
Despite these limitations and criticisms, Nehru's contributions to the nation-building process and his role in
shaping India's identity as a democratic, secular, and non-aligned country are widely recognized. His vision,
leadership, and commitment to democratic values and social progress have left an indelible mark on India's
political and social landscape.

UNIT-III India After the Nehruvian Era

 From Shastri to Indira Gandhi, 1964–1969 .
 The Indira Gandhi Years, 1969–1973 .
 The JP Movement and the Emergency.
 The Janata Interregnum and Indira Gandhi’s Second Coming, 1977–1984.
 Indian leadership Run-up to the New Millennium and After.

ABOUT SHASTRI
Before Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India, Lal Bahadur Shastri served as the Prime Minister
after Jawaharlal Nehru's death in 1964. Here are some key details about Lal Bahadur Shastri and his tenure as
Prime Minister:
Early Life and Background:
 Born on October 2, 1904, in Uttar Pradesh.
 Came from a humble background and was deeply influenced by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.
 Actively participated in the Indian independence movement and was jailed several times by the British
authorities.
Political Career:
 Joined the Indian National Congress in the 1920s and rose through the ranks of the party.
 Served as the Minister of Police and Transport in the Uttar Pradesh government in the late 1940s.
 Held several key positions in the Central Government under Jawaharlal Nehru, including Minister of
Railways and Minister of Home Affairs.
Becoming Prime Minister:
 After Nehru's death in 1964, Shastri was chosen as the Prime Minister by the Congress party, defeating
contenders like Morarji Desai.
 He took over the leadership at a time of political instability and economic challenges.
Major Events and Policies:
 Led India during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965, which ended with the Tashkent Agreement signed
between India and Pakistan.
 Introduced the Green Revolution, aimed at increasing agricultural productivity through the use of high-
yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation facilities.
  Promoted the "White Revolution" to increase milk production and boost the dairy industry.
 Advocated for the principles of self-reliance, austerity, and anti-corruption measures.
Death and Legacy:
 Shastri's tenure as Prime Minister was cut short by his sudden death on January 11, 1966, in Tashkent
(now in Uzbekistan) after signing the Tashkent Agreement.
 Regarded as a humble and principled leader, Shastri is remembered for his slogan "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan"
(Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer), highlighting the importance of the armed forces and agriculture.
 After his death, Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter, succeeded Shastri as the next Prime Minister of India.
Lal Bahadur Shastri's tenure as Prime Minister, though brief, was marked by his leadership during the Indo-
Pakistan War and his efforts to boost agricultural productivity and self-reliance. His humble beginnings and
commitment to Gandhian values left a lasting impact on Indian politics, and he is remembered as a leader who
prioritized the welfare of the nation and its people.

ABOUT INDIRA GANDHI

Here is a detailed overview of Indira Gandhi, one of India's most influential and controversial Prime Ministers:
Early Life and Background:
 Born on November 19, 1917, in Allahabad, to Jawaharlal Nehru and Kamala Nehru.
 Grew up in an atmosphere of the Indian independence struggle and was deeply influenced by her father,
Jawaharlal Nehru.
 Studied at Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, and the University of Oxford.
 Married Feroze Gandhi in 1942, and they had two sons, Rajiv and Sanjay Gandhi.
Political Career:
 Actively participated in the Indian independence movement and was imprisoned several times by the
British authorities.
 Became a member of the Congress Working Committee in 1955 and was elected as the President of the
Indian National Congress in 1959.
 Served as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting in Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet (1964-1966).
 Became the first female Prime Minister of India in 1966 after Shastri's death.
Major Achievements and Policies:
 Nationalized major commercial banks in 1969 to control credit delivery and support economic
development.
 Abolished the Privy Purses paid to the former rulers of princely states in 1969.
 Led India to victory in the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, which resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
 Initiated the Green Revolution, which helped India achieve food self-sufficiency.
  Promoted the nuclear program and conducted the first nuclear test in 1974 (Pokhran-I).
 Implemented the 20-point program aimed at poverty alleviation and social reforms.
Controversies and Challenges:
 Imposed a state of emergency from 1975 to 1977, curtailing civil liberties and censoring the press.
 Faced allegations of authoritarianism and nepotism during the Emergency period.
 Suffered a defeat in the 1977 general elections, but returned to power in 1980.
 Ordered the military operation on the Golden Temple in Amritsar in 1984, leading to a backlash from
Sikh separatists.
 Assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards on October 31, 1984, in retaliation for the Golden Temple
operation.
Indira Gandhi's legacy remains a subject of intense debate, with her supporters hailing her as a strong and
visionary leader, while her critics accuse her of authoritarian tendencies and divisive policies. However, her
impact on India's political and economic landscape is undeniable, and she remains one of the most influential
and controversial figures in modern Indian history.

FROM SHASTRI TO INDIRA GANDHI 1969

After the sudden death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in
January 1966. Here are the key events and developments during her tenure as Prime Minister from 1966 to
1969:
1. Assumption of Power (1966):
 After Shastri's demise, Indira Gandhi was chosen as the Prime Minister by the Congress
Parliamentary Party, defeating her rival Morarji Desai.
 She became India's first female Prime Minister and the world's most powerful woman leader at
the time.
2. Split in the Congress Party (1969):
 Indira Gandhi faced opposition from the conservative faction of the Congress party, known as
the 'Syndicate,' led by party bosses like K. Kamaraj and S. Nijalingappa.
 This led to a split in the Congress party in 1969, with Indira Gandhi forming the Congress (R) or
Congress (Requisitionists) faction, and the opposition forming the Congress (O) or Congress
(Organization) faction.
3. Nationalization of Banks (1969):
 In a bold move, Indira Gandhi nationalized 14 major commercial banks in 1969, aiming to
control credit delivery and support the economic development of the country.
 This move was criticized by her opponents as a step towards socialism but was popular among
the masses.
 4. Abolition of Privy Purses (1969):
 In 1969, Indira Gandhi abolished the Privy Purses, which were the payments made to the former
rulers of the princely states by the Government of India.
 This move was seen as a step towards ending the privileges of the erstwhile royalty and
promoting a more egalitarian society.
5. Garibi Hatao (Abolish Poverty) Slogan:
 Indira Gandhi introduced the slogan "Garibi Hatao" (Abolish Poverty) during the 1971 general
elections, which resonated with the masses and became a rallying cry for her populist policies.
6. Foreign Policy Developments:
 In 1968, India and the Soviet Union signed the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and
Cooperation, strengthening ties between the two countries.
 India also played a mediatory role in the Vietnam War, hosting peace talks between the United
States and North Vietnam in 1969.
During her initial years as Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi consolidated her power within the Congress party,
launched populist economic policies, and pursued an independent foreign policy. Her actions laid the foundation
for her subsequent emergence as a strong and influential leader in Indian politics.

Lal Bahadur Shastri to Indira Gandhi's (1964-1969):

Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966)
o Succeeded Nehru as Prime Minister after the latter's death in 1964
o Gave the slogan "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan" highlighting priorities of military and agricultural development
o Oversaw the Indo-Pak War of 1965 over Kashmir which ended in a stalemate
o Signed the Tashkent Agreement with Pakistan in 1966 to restore status quo ante
o Launched the Green Revolution program to boost food production through high-yielding seeds
o Promoted the White Revolution to increase milk production
o Declared "No ā ā ā profit No rent" during a drought year to provide relief to farmers
o His tenure was cut short by his sudden death in Tashkent in 1966

Indira Gandhi's Early Years (1966-1969)

o Appointed Prime Minister in 1966 after Shastri's demise, becoming the world's first woman PM of a
democratic nation
o Continued Shastri's pro-farmer policies and emphasis on self-sufficiency in food production
o Split the Congress party in 1969 after clashing with the old guard over policy issues
o Her faction retained the Congress name and symbol while others formed Congress (O)
o Promoted the Garibi Hatao (Abolish Poverty) slogan and populist pro-poor policies
o Nationalized 14 commercial banks in 1969 to expand mass credit
o Abolished privy purses and privileges of former royal families in 1971
 o Relations soured with USA after backing Bangladesh's liberation in 1971 war against Pakistan

Foreign Policy
o Strongly supported the policy of Non-Alignment and India's leadership of the Non-Aligned
Movement
o Established closer ties with the Soviet Union while relations cooled with USA
o Formally ended India's membership of the British Commonwealth in 1971
Economic Policy
o Continued state control, regulation and public sector domination of the economy
o The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) emphasized growth with self-reliance and social justice
o But the economy slowed down with GDP growth declining from 4.2% to 3.3% annually

This period marked a transition in Indian politics and policies under the new leadership after Nehru's towering
presence. While Shastri provided continuity, Indira Gandhi soon carved out her own populist and increasingly
authoritarian socialist path in the years leading up to the Emergency of 1975-77.

Indira Gandhi's leadership from 1969 to 1973

 Rise to Power: Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1966 following the death of Lal
Bahadur Shastri. However, it was during this period (1969) that she consolidated her power within the
Indian National Congress party.

 Split in the Congress Party: One of the defining moments of this period was the split in the Indian
National Congress in 1969. This division led to the formation of two factions: the Congress (R) led by
Indira Gandhi and the Congress (O) led by veteran leaders like Morarji Desai and K. Kamaraj. The split
was primarily over ideological and organizational differences within the party.

 Nationalization of Banks: Indira Gandhi's government undertook a significant step towards socialist
economic policies by nationalizing major banks in 1969. This move aimed to increase government
control over the financial sector and extend banking services to rural areas.

 Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) Campaign: Indira Gandhi's administration launched the Garibi Hatao
campaign as part of its focus on poverty alleviation and economic redistribution. This campaign aimed
to uplift the socio-economic conditions of the impoverished sections of society.

 Green Revolution: The period also saw significant developments in agriculture, particularly with the
introduction of the Green Revolution technologies. These technologies, including high-yielding crop
varieties, irrigation, and modern farming techniques, helped boost agricultural production and
contributed to food security.
  India-Pakistan War (1971): One of the most significant events during Indira Gandhi's tenure was the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The conflict resulted in the creation of Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan)
after India intervened on behalf of the Bangladeshi independence movement. India's decisive victory in
the war further enhanced Indira Gandhi's popularity domestically and internationally.

 State of Emergency (1975-1977): Although the period you specified ends in 1973, it's important to note
that Indira Gandhi's tenure also witnessed the declaration of a state of emergency in India in 1975. This
period was marked by a suspension of civil liberties, widespread censorship, and the arrest of political
opponents, leading to controversy and criticism of Gandhi's authoritarian tendencies.
Overall, the years from 1969 to 1973 were characterized by significant political maneuvering, economic policy
shifts, and both domestic and international challenges for Indira Gandhi's government.

Here are detailed notes on the JP Movement that challenged Indira Gandhi's government and the subsequent
imposition of the Emergency in 1975-77:

The JP Movement
o Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), a veteran Gandhian leader, led a nationwide mass movement against
Indira Gandhi's government in 1974-75.
o It brought together opposition parties like BJP, Congress(O), socialists and students under the
banner of "Sampoorna Kranti" (Total Revolution).
o Major grievances were rising corruption, inflation, unemployment and Indira's authoritarian style
seen as undermining democracy.
o JP gave a call for "peaceful, non-violent, total revolution" through mass civil disobedience like
hartals, bandhs and jail bharo.
o There were major student unrests and protests across Gujarat and Bihar, which were met with a
heavy-handed response.
o A national rail strike and intervention by armed forces in Gujarat turned public opinion against
the government.

Imposition of Emergency
o Citing internal disturbances, defections by MPs and threats to national security, Indira Gandhi
declared a State of Emergency on 25 June 1975.
o All opposition leaders like JP, Morarji Desai and Atal Bihari Vajpayee were arrested under
preventive detention laws.
o Fundamental rights like freedom of speech, assembly and press censorship were suspended.
o Additional draconian laws like Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) were enacted.
o Gandhi took control of all State governments by dissolving legislative assemblies.
 o Son Sanjay Gandhi conducted controversial forced sterilization drives as part of population
control.

Legacy of Emergency
o Though proclaimed for only 21 months officially, the Emergency left an indelible mark on Indian
democracy.
o Opposition and public anger grew due to human rights violations, media censorship and Gandhi
family dynastic excesses.
o It ultimately led to Indira Gandhi's big defeat in the 1977 elections and ushered in the post-
Emergency Janata Party government.
o The Emergency period is regarded as one of the darkest periods of India's democracy when
constitutional rights were suppressed.

The JP Movement galvanized widespread opposition to Indira Gandhi's unprecedented centralization of power
and human rights excesses during the Emergency. It exposed the willingness to subvert democracy and
eventually led to her downfall in the 1977 elections.

Here are detailed notes on the Janata Party's brief interregnum government and Indira Gandhi's subsequent
return to power in 1977-1984:

The Janata Party Government (1977-1979)

o After the Emergency excesses, Indira Gandhi called for elections in 1977 which she
unexpectedly lost.
o The Janata Party, an amalgam of erstwhile opposition parties like BJP, Congress(O), Socialists
etc formed the government under Morarji Desai.
o Major challenges were rising prices, unemployment and resolving the Khalistan movement in
Punjab.
o Infighting and ideological differences between constituents like the pro-Westernization and pro-
Socialism factions plagued the coalition.
o Desai resigned after the Congress MPs withdrew support, being succeeded by Charan Singh
briefly.

Return of Indira Gandhi (1980-1984)

- In the 1980 elections, Indira Gandhi rode a pro-poor plank and came back to power in a landslide victory.
o She moved away from her earlier socialist rhetoric and budget and embraced more pro-business
policies.
 o Major initiatives like the Sixth Five Year Plan focused on promoting economic growth over
Garibi Hatao rhetoric.
o Operation Blue Star was launched in 1984 to remove Khalistani separatists from the Golden
Temple in Amritsar, leading to over 1,000 casualties.
o This triggered the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her own Sikh bodyguards on 31 October
1984.
- Her son Rajiv Gandhi subsequently took over as Prime Minister after her death.

Economic Policies
o Gandhi moved away from Nehruvian socialism and undertook limited pro-market reforms in her
second stint.
o Ended the freight rate equalization policy and privatized some segments of the economy.
o But the core "License Raj" controls and public sector domination continued.
o Foreign companies like Suzuki were allowed to invest through joint ventures.
o 1980s saw a rise in corruption scandals involving Gandhi's younger son Sanjay.

Foreign Policy
o Maintained strong strategic ties with the Soviet Union during the Cold War
o Signed the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1971
o Hosted the first Summit of Non-Aligned Nations in 1983 in New Delhi
o But relations with neighbors Pakistan and Bangladesh remained strained

The brief Janata interregnum was crippled by infighting and was unable to effectively tackle economic woes.
Indira Gandhi's return to power marked a shift towards more pro-business policies while not fully abandoning
state controls. But her brute force handling of the Punjab crisis cut short her term leading to her tragic
assassination.

Indian leadership Run-up to the New Millennium and After.

Here are detailed notes on the Indian political leadership and major developments in the run-up to the new
millennium and the period after:
The Rajiv Gandhi Years (1984-1989)
 Became Prime Minister at 40 after his mother's assassination
 Launched reforms reducing licensing & privatizing some industries
 Negotiated a peace accord with Punjabi militants in 1985
 But it unraveled after his exit, leading to rising separatist violence
 Introduced modern technologies and policies in governance
  But his term was marred by corruption scandals like the Bofors case
 Lost elections in 1989 after Hindu-Muslim violence over Ayodhya issue
V.P. Singh & The Mandal Upheaval (1989-1991)
 Headed a fragile National Front coalition after 1989 polls
 Implemented the Mandal Commission report on OBC reservations
 This sparked nationwide protests by anti- and pro-reservation groups
 But his government collapsed after a year due to BJP withdrawing support
Economic Reforms under Narasimha Rao (1991-1996)
 Became PM leading a minority Congress government after Rajiv's assassination
 Initiated sweeping economic liberalization and pro-market reforms
 Abolished the License Raj, privatized PSUs, opened up to FDI
 But his term was overshadowed by demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992
 Lost the 1996 elections amid allegations of corruption and policy paralysis
The BJP's Rise & The Nuclear Tests
 The BJP under Atal Bihari Vajpayee led shaky coalition govts from 1996-98
 Carried out nuclear tests at Pokhran in 1998, provoking international sanctions
 The 1999 Kargil conflict with Pakistani infiltrators took place
 The National Democratic Alliance formed a full-term govt from 1999-2004
Congress Interregnum & Economic Progress
 Manmohan Singh led the United Progressive Alliance from 2004-2014
 Continued economic reforms & liberalization, saw high GDP growth
 But his second term was plagued by major corruption scandals
 Key legislation like RTI, MNREGA, Nuclear Deal with US passed
 Lost power in 2014 to the Modi-led BJP's election juggernaut
This period saw the opening up of the Indian economy after the 1991 crisis. While initiating pro-market
reforms, political instability, corruption scandals and Hindu-Muslim tensions over Ayodhya and other issues
remained major challenges for successive governments in the 1990s and 2000s.

BJP's Rise to Dominance (2014 onwards)

 In 2014 elections, BJP led by Narendra Modi won a historic majority ending years of coalition
governance
  Modi promised development through schemes like Make in India, Smart Cities, Skill India etc.
 Major economic initiatives included GST, Insolvency & Bankruptcy Code, JAM trinity
 But issues like joblessness, farm distress and economic slowdown persisted
 Religious polarization increased with controversies over cow protection, love jihad etc.
 Modi returned to power with an even bigger majority in 2019 elections
Constitutional Battles
 Modi govt was accused of undermining institutions like RBI, CBI, EC through politically motivated
transfers
 Use of anti-corruption agencies like ED, CBI against opposition leaders drew criticism
 Stripping of J&K's special status in 2019 and its bifurcation into UTs courted controversy
 2020 farm laws led to major protests before being rolled back
 CAA-NRC citizenship policies sparked fears of discrimination against Muslims
Foreign Policy
 "Neighborhood First" focused on improving ties with South Asian neighbors
 But relations with Pakistan remained frosty after Uri & Pulwama attacks
 Closer strategic ties with US, Israel, Arab nations like UAE & Saudi Arabia
 Standoffs with China along the LAC in Ladakh from 2020 onwards
The Covid-19 Pandemic
 One of the world's strictest lockdowns was imposed in March 2020
 But a disastrous second wave in Apr-May 2021 overwhelmed healthcare facilities
 Shortages of oxygen, hospital beds led to many deaths before situation improved
 Economy contracted sharply in 2020 before recovering over 2021-22
 Huge job losses and impact on informal sectors led to major distress
By 2023, the Modi government had firmly consolidated BJP's dominance at the national level while battling
multiple economic and social challenges. Foreign policy recalibrations and managing tensions with neighbors
remained key priorities going forward.

India After the Nehruvian Era: Indian leadership Run-up to the New Millennium and After (2024)
Here are detailed notes on major political developments and leadership in India from the Nehruvian era until
2024, in the run-up to the new millennium and after:
The Post-Nehru Period (1964-1984)
 After Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly took over as PM before passing away in 1966
 Indira Gandhi became the first woman PM in 1966 and ruled until 1977 with a brief break
 Her tenure saw the 1971 Bangladesh War, nationalization of banks, and the controversial Emergency
(1975-77)
 The Janata Party government under Morarji Desai ruled briefly from 1977-1979 before Indira returned
in 1980
The 1980s & 90s
 Indira was assassinated in 1984, after which son Rajiv Gandhi took over until 1989
 VP Singh implemented the Mandal Commission briefly in 1990 amid nationwide protests
 Narasimha Rao as PM initiated sweeping pro-market economic reforms in 1991 after a financial crisis
 The BJP first tasted power as the senior partner in coalition governments between 1998-2004
Congress' New Era (2004-2014)
 The Congress-led UPA under Manmohan Singh was in power for 10 years
 Major domestic policies like MGNREGA, RTI, Indo-US Nuclear Deal were enacted
 But Singh's second term was marred by corruption scandals like 2G and Coalgate
 Economic growth slowed while issues like anti-corruption protests erupted
BJP's Dominance (2014-2024)
 In 2014, Narendra Modi led the BJP to a historic single-party majority ending years of coalition rule
 Major economic initiatives like GST, IBC, JAM trinity were implemented
 But unemployment, farm distress and religious polarization remained challenges
 After winning again in 2019, the government revoked J&K's special status in 2019
 Managing the devastating Covid-19 pandemic from 2020-2022 was a major crisis
Foreign Policy
 "Neighborhood First" policy aimed to reset ties with South Asia
 But tensions with Pakistan remained high after Uri, Pulwama terror attacks
 Closer strategic embrace of US, Israel, Arab nations like UAE
 Border standoffs and military tensions with China along the LAC from 2020 onwards
As of early 2024, the BJP under Modi has established its dominance at the national level after ending decades of
Congress prominence. Managing security, economic and social challenges while recalibrating foreign policy
remain key priorities.
The Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) Movement, also known as the Total Revolution Movement, was a significant
political uprising in India during the 1970s. It aimed to challenge the authoritarian tendencies of Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi's government and promote democratic values, social justice, and economic equality. The
movement gained momentum in various parts of the country, including Bihar and Gujarat, where it had a
profound impact. Here's a detailed description of the JP Movement in these two states:

1. **Bihar**:
o **Backdrop**: Bihar was one of the epicenters of the JP Movement due to widespread
dissatisfaction with the state of governance under Chief Minister (later Prime Minister) Indira
Gandhi's Congress government. Rampant corruption, poor governance, and social inequality
fueled discontent among the masses, especially the rural population.

o **JP's Leadership**: Jayaprakash Narayan, popularly known as JP, emerged as the charismatic
leader of the movement in Bihar. His calls for non-violent protest and civil disobedience
resonated deeply with the people, particularly the youth and students.

o **Student Movement**: The JP Movement in Bihar gained significant traction through the
active participation of students and youth. Student unions, particularly the Bihar Chatra
Sangharsh Samiti (BCSS), played a crucial role in mobilizing support and organizing protests
against the government.

o **Sampoorna Kranti (Total Revolution)**: JP's call for "Sampoorna Kranti" or Total Revolution
inspired mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations across Bihar. The movement demanded the
resignation of the state government and called for electoral reforms to restore democracy and
accountability.

o **Government Crackdown**: The intensity of the movement posed a direct challenge to the
authority of the government. In response, the Indira Gandhi-led central government imposed a
state of emergency in 1975, suspending civil liberties and arresting political opponents, including
JP.

o **Legacy**: Despite the suppression of the movement during the Emergency, the JP Movement
left a lasting legacy in Bihar. It contributed to the downfall of the Congress government in the
 subsequent elections and paved the way for the emergence of alternative political forces,
including Janata Party, which formed the government at the center post-Emergency.

2. **Gujarat**:

o **Context**: Gujarat, like Bihar, witnessed significant unrest during the JP Movement. The state
was grappling with issues such as agrarian distress, unemployment, and political corruption,
which fueled resentment against the ruling Congress government.

o **Anti-Congress Sentiment**: The JP Movement in Gujarat tapped into the anti-Congress

sentiment prevalent in the state. Dissatisfaction with the Congress government's policies,
particularly regarding land reforms and economic development, contributed to the mobilization
of support for the movement.

o **Role of Trade Unions and Workers**: Trade unions and workers' associations played a crucial
role in Gujarat's JP Movement. They organized strikes, rallies, and protests to demand better
working conditions, higher wages, and labor rights, aligning their struggle with the broader
objectives of the movement.

o **Urban and Rural Participation**: The JP Movement in Gujarat witnessed participation from
both urban and rural populations. While urban centers like Ahmedabad saw massive protests and
strikes led by trade unions, rural areas also witnessed agrarian unrest and peasant movements
demanding land reforms and fair prices for agricultural produce.

o **Government Response**: The Congress government in Gujarat, led by Chief Minister

Chimanbhai Patel, faced immense pressure from the JP Movement. In response, the government
resorted to repression and crackdowns, including arrests of movement leaders and imposition of
curfews in riot-hit areas.

o **Political Transformation**: The JP Movement in Gujarat contributed to a political realignment

in the state. It led to the erosion of Congress dominance and provided space for opposition
parties, including the Janata Party and later the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), to emerge as viable
alternatives.
In conclusion, the JP Movement in Bihar and Gujarat was a watershed moment in India's political history,
challenging the authoritarianism of the Indira Gandhi government and laying the groundwork for democratic
renewal and political transformation. It mobilized diverse sections of society, including students, workers,
peasants, and intellectuals, in a collective struggle for social justice, democratic rights, and accountable
governance.

The Green Revolution in India, which occurred during the tenure of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, marked a
significant turning point in the country's agricultural history. Here's a detailed description of the Green
Revolution during the Indira Gandhi period:
1. **Backdrop**:
- In the 1960s, India faced severe food shortages due to a rapidly growing population and stagnant agricultural
productivity. The government recognized the urgent need to increase food production to meet the growing
demand and ensure food security for the population.

2. **Introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs)**:

- One of the key initiatives of the Green Revolution was the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of
seeds. These new varieties, developed through scientific research and breeding techniques, had the potential to
significantly increase crop yields compared to traditional varieties.

3. **Role of Agricultural Scientists and Institutions**:

- Agricultural scientists and research institutions played a crucial role in the Green Revolution. Institutions
like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and agricultural universities collaborated with
international organizations like the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation to develop and distribute
HYV seeds.

4. **Government Support and Policy Measures**:

- The government under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided strong support for the Green Revolution
through policy measures and financial assistance. Initiatives such as the National Agricultural Research System
(NARS) and the Intensive Agricultural District Program (IADP) were launched to promote the adoption of
HYVs and modern farming techniques.

5. **Expansion of Irrigation Facilities**:

- Another important aspect of the Green Revolution was the expansion of irrigation facilities. The government
invested in irrigation infrastructure, including building dams, canals, and tube wells, to provide reliable water
supply for agriculture, especially in regions with erratic rainfall.
6. **Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides**:
- The Green Revolution also witnessed widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to enhance crop
yields. While these inputs contributed to increased productivity in the short term, concerns were raised about
their long-term environmental and health impacts, including soil degradation and water pollution.

7. **Impact on Crop Yields and Agricultural Productivity**:

- The adoption of HYVs and modern farming techniques led to a significant increase in crop yields,
particularly for wheat and rice, the staple food crops in India. The Green Revolution transformed India from a
food-deficit nation to a self-sufficient one, reducing dependence on imports and ensuring food security for the
population.

8. **Regional Disparities and Social Implications**:

- Despite its overall success, the benefits of the Green Revolution were not evenly distributed across regions
and social groups. There were disparities in access to resources and technology, with wealthy farmers and
regions with better infrastructure benefiting more than smallholder farmers and marginalized communities.

9. **Long-Term Challenges and Sustainability**:

- While the Green Revolution brought short-term gains in agricultural productivity, it also posed long-term
challenges, including environmental degradation, depletion of natural resources, and loss of biodiversity. There
were concerns about the sustainability of intensive farming practices and their impact on soil health and
ecosystem resilience.
In conclusion, the Green Revolution during the Indira Gandhi period was a transformative phase in India's
agricultural history, characterized by the adoption of modern farming techniques, the introduction of high-
yielding crop varieties, and government support for agricultural development. While it significantly increased
food production and ensured food security, the Green Revolution also raised questions about its long-term
sustainability and social equity.

REASON FOR DEFEAT FOR CONGRESS PARTY DURING INDIRA GANDHI PERIOD:
The defeat of the Congress Party during the tenure of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi can be attributed to several
factors, including internal party dynamics, external political challenges, and socio-economic developments.
Here are some key reasons for the Congress Party's defeat during the Indira Gandhi period:
1. **Internal Dissent and Factionalism**:
- Indira Gandhi's leadership style, characterized by a centralization of power and decision-making within the
party, led to internal dissent and factionalism. Senior leaders within the Congress Party, including members of
the 'Old Guard', opposed her authoritarian tendencies and attempts to marginalize them.
2. **Economic Challenges**:
- The Indira Gandhi period witnessed economic challenges, including high inflation, unemployment, and
fiscal deficits. The failure of economic policies, such as nationalization of banks and the abolition of privy
purses, contributed to public dissatisfaction and eroded support for the Congress Party.

3. **Emergence of Opposition Parties**:

- The 1970s saw the emergence of opposition parties challenging the dominance of the Congress Party. Parties
like the Janata Party, formed through a coalition of anti-Congress forces, capitalized on public discontent and
offered an alternative to Congress rule.

4. **Alliance with Communist Parties**:

- Indira Gandhi's alliance with Communist parties, particularly during the Emergency period (1975-1977),
alienated sections of the electorate, including moderate and right-wing voters. The imposition of Emergency
and the suspension of civil liberties further eroded public trust in the Congress Party's commitment to
democratic values.

5. **Rise of Regional Parties**:

- The Indira Gandhi period witnessed the rise of regional parties, particularly in states like Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. These parties, often aligned with regional identity and interests, challenged the
Congress Party's hegemony and won support from regional constituencies.

6. **JP Movement and Opposition Mobilization**:

- The Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) Movement, also known as the Total Revolution Movement, mobilized
widespread opposition against the Congress Party's authoritarian rule. The movement galvanized diverse
sections of society, including students, intellectuals, and civil society groups, against Indira Gandhi's
government.

7. **Outcome of General Elections**:

- The defeat of the Congress Party in the 1977 general elections, following the lifting of the Emergency,
reflected the public's rejection of authoritarianism and a desire for democratic renewal. The Janata Party, with
its broad-based coalition, emerged victorious and formed the government at the center.

In conclusion, the defeat of the Congress Party during the Indira Gandhi period can be attributed to a
combination of internal party strife, economic challenges, emergence of opposition forces, and public discontent
over issues such as authoritarianism and erosion of democratic freedoms. These factors, coupled with the rise of
alternative political formations and regional parties, contributed to the decline of Congress dominance and
signaled a shift in India's political landscape.