GYROSCOPE

A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular

velocity. It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin axis) is
free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this
axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the
conservation of angular momentum.

Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also exist, such as the microchip-
packaged MEMS gyroscopes found in electronic devices (sometimes called gyro
meters), solid-state ring lasers, fibre optic gyroscopes, and the extremely sensitive
quantum gyroscope.

Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems, such as in the

Hubble Space Telescope, or inside the steel hull of a submerged submarine. Due
to their precision, gyroscopes are also used in gyro theodolites to maintain
direction in tunnel mining.

Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or

replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and spacecraft, vehicles in general),
to assist in stability (bicycles, motorcycles, and ships) or be used as part of an
inertial guidance system.
Description and diagram of Gyroscope:
A gyroscope is an instrument, consisting of a wheel mounted into two or three
gimbals providing pivoted supports, for allowing the wheel to rotate about a
single axis. A set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other with orthogonal
pivot axes, may be used to allow a wheel mounted on the innermost gimbal to
have an orientation remaining independent of the orientation, in space, of its
support. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer gimbal, which is
the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane
determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational
freedom and its axis possesses none. The second gimbal, inner gimbal, is mounted
in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane
that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer
gimbal). This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom.

The axle of the spinning wheel (the rotor) defines the spin axis. The rotor is
constrained to spin about an axis, which is always perpendicular to the axis of the
inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its
axis possesses two. The rotor responds to a force applied to the input axis by a
reaction force to the output axis.

A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon
whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration. An example of
some free-output-gimbal devices is the attitude control gyroscopes used to sense
or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.

The Centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor
simultaneously spins about one axis and is capable of oscillating about the two
other axes, and it is free to turn in any direction about the fixed point (except for
its inherent resistance caused by rotor spin). Some gyroscopes have mechanical
equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements. For example, the
spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being mounted in gimbals.
A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device
that is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing
direction using the gyroscopic resistance force.

In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that
the rotor has only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the Centre of gravity of
the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and thus the Centre of gravity
of the rotor and the Centre of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.

Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond
to forces applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa.
History of Gyroscope:
Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals. Tops were
invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and
China. Most of these were not utilized as instruments.

The first known apparatus similar to a gyroscope (the "Whirling Speculum" or

"Serson's Speculum") was invented by John Serson in 1743. It was used as a level,
to locate the horizon in foggy or misty conditions. The first instrument used more
like an actual gyroscope was made by Johann Bohnenberger of Germany, who
first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the "Machine". Bohnenberger's
machine was based on a rotating massive sphere. In 1832, American Walter R.
Johnson developed a similar device that was based on a rotating disc. The French
mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, working at the École Polytechnique in Paris,
recommended the machine for use as a teaching aid, and thus it came to the
attention of Léon Foucault.

Foucault's gyroscope
In 1852, Foucault used it in an experiment demonstrating the rotation of the
Earth. It was Foucault who gave the device its modern name, in an experiment to
see the Earth's rotation (Greek gyros, circle or rotation), which was visible in the 8
to 10 minutes before friction slowed the spinning rotor.

Gyroscope designed by Léon Foucault in 1852. Replica built by Dumoulin-Froment

for the Exposition universelle in 1867. National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts
museum, Paris.
Commercialization
In the 1860s, the advent of electric motors made it possible for a gyroscope to
spin indefinitely; this led to the first prototype heading indicators, and a rather
more complicated device, the gyrocompass. The first functional gyrocompass was
patented in 1904 by German inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe. American
Elmer Sperry followed with his own design later that year, and other nations soon
realized the military importance of the invention—in an age in which naval
prowess was the most significant measure of military power—and created their
own gyroscope industries. The Sperry Gyroscope Company quickly expanded to
provide aircraft and naval stabilizers as well, and other gyroscope developers
followed suit. In 1917, the Chandler Company of Indianapolis created the
"Chandler gyroscope", a toy gyroscope with a pull string and pedestal. Chandler
continued to produce the toy until the company was purchased by TEDCO Inc. in
1982. The chandler toy is still produced by TEDCO today.

In the first several decades of the 20th century, other inventors attempted
(unsuccessfully) to use gyroscopes as the basis for early black box navigational
systems by creating a stable platform from which accurate acceleration
measurements could be performed (in order to bypass the need for star sightings
to calculate position). Similar principles were later employed in the development
of inertial navigation systems for ballistic missiles.

During World War II, the gyroscope became the prime component for aircraft and
anti-aircraft gun sights. After the war, the race to miniaturize gyroscopes for
guided missiles and weapons navigation systems resulted in the development and
manufacturing of so-called midget gyroscopes that weighed less than 3 ounces
(85 g) and had a diameter of approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm).

Some of these miniaturized gyroscopes could reach a speed of 24,000 revolutions

per minute in less than 10 seconds.
Gyroscopes continue to be an engineering challenge. For example, the axle
bearings have to be extremely accurate.

A small amount of friction is deliberately introduced to the bearings, since

otherwise an accuracy of better than 10 ^ (-7) of an inch (2.5 nm) would be
required.

Three-axis MEMS-based gyroscopes are also being used in portable electronic

devices such as tablets, smartphones, and smartwatches. This adds to the 3-axis
acceleration sensing ability available on previous generations of devices.

Together these sensors provide 6 component motion sensing; accelerometers for

X, Y, and Z movement, and gyroscopes for measuring the extent and rate of
rotation in space (roll, pitch and yaw). Some devices additionally incorporate a
magnetometer to provide absolute angular measurements relative to the Earth's
magnetic field. Newer MEMS-based inertial measurement units incorporate up to
all nine axes of sensing in a single integrated circuit package, providing
inexpensive and widely available motion sensing.
Gyroscopic principles:
All spinning objects have gyroscopic properties. The main properties that an
object can experience in any gyroscopic motion are rigidity in space and
precession.

Rigidity in space
Rigidity in space describes the principle that a gyroscope remains in the fixed
position on the plane in which it is spinning, unaffected by the Earth's rotation.
For example, a bike wheel. Early forms of gyroscope (not then known by the
name) were used to demonstrate the principle.

Precession
A simple case of precession, also known as steady precession, can be described by
the following relation to Moment:

Where 𝜙′ represents precession, 𝜓′ is represented by spin, 𝜃 is the nutation

angle, and 𝐼 represents inertia along its respective axis. This relation is only valid
with the Moment along the Y and Z axes are equal to 0.

The equation can be further reduced noting that the angular velocity along the z-

axis is equal to the sum of the Precession and the Spin: 𝜔𝑧 = 𝜙′ cos (𝜃) + 𝜓′,
Where 𝜔𝑧 represents the angular velocity along the z axis.

Or

Gyroscopic precession is torque induced. It is the rate of change of the angular

momentum that is produced by the applied torque. Precession produces
counterintuitive dynamic results such as a spinning top not falling over.
Precession is used in aerospace applications for sensing changes of attitude and
direction.
Contemporary uses:
• Steadicam
A Steadicam rig was employed during the filming of the 1983 film Return of the
Jedi, in conjunction with two gyroscopes for extra stabilization, to film the
background plates for the speeder bike chase. Steadicam inventor Garrett Brown
operated the shot, walking through a redwood forest, running the camera at one
frame per second. When projected at 24 frames per second, it gave the
impression of flying through the air at perilous speeds.

• Heading indicator
The heading indicator or directional gyro has an axis of rotation that is set
horizontally, pointing north. Unlike a magnetic compass, it does not seek north.
When being used in an airplane, for example, it will slowly drift away from north
and will need to be reoriented periodically, using a magnetic compass as a
reference.

• Gyrocompass

Unlike a directional gyro or heading indicator, a gyrocompass seeks north. It

detects the rotation of the Earth about its axis and seeks the true north, rather
than the magnetic north. Gyrocompasses usually have built-in damping to
prevent overshoot when re-calibrating from sudden movement.

• Accelerometer
By determining an object's acceleration and integrating over time, the velocity of
the object can be calculated. Integrating again, position can be determined. The
simplest accelerometer is a weight that is free to move horizontally, which is
attached to a spring and a device to measure the tension in the spring. This can be
improved by introducing a counteracting force to push the weight back and to
measure the force needed to prevent the weight from moving. A more
complicated design consists of a gyroscope with a weight on one of the axes.
Variations:
• Gyrostat
A gyrostat consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid casing. Its behavior
on a table, or with various modes of suspension or support, serves to illustrate
the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic
behavior of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated rapidly. The first gyrostat
was designed by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more complicated state of motion of
a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun
on the pavement, or a bicycle on the road.[38] Kelvin[39] also made use of
gyrostats to develop mechanical theories of the elasticity of matter and of the
ether.[40] In modern continuum mechanics there is a variety of these models,
based on ideas of Lord Kelvin. They represent a specific type of Cosserat theories
(suggested for the first time by Eugène Cosserat and François Cosserat), which
can be used for description of artificially made smart materials as well as of other
complex media. One of them, so-called Kelvin's medium, has the same equations
as magnetic insulators near the state of magnetic saturation in the approximation
of quasimagnetostatics.

In modern times, the gyrostat concept is used in the design of attitude control
systems for orbiting spacecraft and satellites. For instance, the Mir space station
had three pairs of internally mounted flywheels known as gyro dynes or control
moment gyros.

In physics, there are several systems whose dynamical equations resemble the
equations of motion of a gyrostat. Examples include a solid body with a cavity
filled with an inviscid, incompressible, homogeneous liquid, the static equilibrium
configuration of a stressed elastic rod in elastica theory, the polarization dynamics
of a light pulse propagating through a nonlinear medium, the Lorenz system in
chaos theory, and the motion of an ion in a Penning trap mass spectrometer.
 • MEMS gyroscope
A microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) gyroscope is a miniaturized gyroscope
found in electronic devices. It takes the idea of the Foucault pendulum and uses a
vibrating element. This kind of gyroscope was first used in military applications
but has since been adopted for increasing commercial use.

• HRG
The hemispherical resonator gyroscope (HRG), also called a wine-glass gyroscope
or mushroom gyro, makes use of a thin solid-state hemispherical shell, anchored
by a thick stem. This shell is driven to a flexural resonance by electrostatic forces
generated by electrodes which are deposited directly onto separate fused-quartz
structures that surround the shell. Gyroscopic effect is obtained from the inertial
property of the flexural standing waves.

• VSG or CVG
A vibrating structure gyroscope (VSG), also called a Coriolis vibratory gyroscope
(CVG), uses a resonator made of different metallic alloys. It takes a position
between the low-accuracy, low-cost MEMS gyroscope and the higher-accuracy
and higher-cost fiber optic gyroscope. Accuracy parameters are increased by
using low-intrinsic damping materials, resonator vacuumization, and digital
electronics to reduce temperature dependent drift and instability of control
signals.

• DTG
A dynamically tuned gyroscope (DTG) is a rotor suspended by a universal joint
with flexure pivots. The flexure spring stiffness is independent of spin rate.
However, the dynamic inertia (from the gyroscopic reaction effect) from the
gimbal provides negative spring stiffness proportional to the square of the spin
speed (Howe and Savet, 1964; Lawrence, 1998). Therefore, at a particular speed,
called the tuning speed, the two moments cancel each other, freeing the rotor
from torque, a necessary condition for an ideal gyroscope.

• Ring laser gyroscope

A ring laser gyroscope relies on the Sagnac effect to measure rotation by
measuring the shifting interference pattern of a beam split into two separate
beams which travel around the ring in opposite directions.

When the Boeing 757-200 entered service in 1983, it was equipped with the first
suitable ring laser gyroscope. This gyroscope took many years to develop, and the
experimental models went through many changes before it was deemed ready
for production by the engineers and managers of Honeywell and Boeing. It was an
outcome of the competition with mechanical gyroscopes, which kept improving.
The reason Honeywell, of all companies, chose to develop the laser gyro was that
they were the only one that didn't have a successful line of mechanical
gyroscopes, so they wouldn't be competing against themselves. The first problem
they had to solve was that with laser gyros rotations below a certain minimum
could not be detected at all, due to a problem called "lock-in", whereby the two
beams act like coupled oscillators and pull each other's frequencies toward
convergence and therefore zero output. The solution was to shake the gyro
rapidly so that it never settled into lock-in. Paradoxically, too regular of a
dithering motion produced an accumulation of short periods of lock-in when the
device was at rest at the extremities of its shaking motion. This was cured by
applying a random white noise to the vibration. The material of the block was also
changed from quartz to a new glass ceramic Cer-Vit, made by Owens Corning,
because of helium leaks.

Fiber optic gyroscope

A fiber optic gyroscope also uses the interference of light to detect mechanical
rotation. The two-halves of the split beam travel in opposite directions in a coil of
fiber optic cable as long as 5 km. Like the ring laser gyroscope, it makes use of the
Sagnac effect.
London moment
A London moment gyroscope relies on the quantum-mechanical phenomenon,
whereby a spinning superconductor generates a magnetic field whose axis lines
up exactly with the spin axis of the gyroscopic rotor. A magnetometer determines
the orientation of the generated field, which is interpolated to determine the axis
of rotation. Gyroscopes of this type can be extremely accurate and stable. For
example, those used in the Gravity Probe B experiment measured changes in
gyroscope spin axis orientation to better than 0.5 milliarcseconds [1.4×10^ (-7)
degrees, or about 2.4×10^ (−9) radians] over a one-year period. This is equivalent
to an angular separation the width of a human hair viewed from 32 kilometers
(20mi) away.

The GP-B gyro consists of a nearly-perfect spherical rotating mass made of fused
quartz, which provides a dielectric support for a thin layer of niobium
superconducting material. To eliminate friction found in conventional bearings,
the rotor assembly is centered by the electric field from six electrodes. After the
initial spin-up by a jet of helium which brings the rotor to 4,000 RPM, the polished
gyroscope housing is evacuated to an ultra-high vacuum to further reduce drag on
the rotor. Provided the suspension electronics remain powered, the extreme
rotational symmetry, lack of friction, and low drag will allow the angular
momentum of the rotor to keep it spinning for about 15,000 years.

A sensitive DC SQUID that can discriminate changes as small as one quantum, or

about 2 ×10^ (−15) Wb, is used to monitor the gyroscope. A precession, or tilt, in
the orientation of the rotor causes the London moment magnetic field to shift
relative to the housing. The moving field passes through a superconducting pickup
loop fixed to the housing, inducing a small electric current. The current produces
a voltage across a shunt resistance, which is resolved to spherical coordinates by a
microprocessor. The system is designed to minimize Lorentz torque on the rotor.
Other examples of Gyroscope:
Helicopters
The main rotor of a helicopter acts like a gyroscope. Its motion is influenced by
the principle of gyroscopic precession which is the concept that a force applied to
a spinning object will have a maximum reaction approximately 90 degrees later.
The reaction may differ from 90 degrees when other stronger forces are in play.
To change direction, helicopters must adjust the pitch angle and the angle of
attack.

Gyro X
Gyro X prototype vehicle created by Alex Tremulis and Thomas Summers in 1967.
The car utilized gyroscopic precession to drive on two wheels. An assembly
consisting of a flywheel mounted in a gimbal housing under the hood of the
vehicle acted as a large gyroscope. The flywheel was rotated by hydraulic pumps
creating a gyroscopic effect on the vehicle. A precessional ram was responsible for
rotating the gyroscope to change the direction of the precessional force to
counteract any forces causing the vehicle imbalance. The one-of-a-kind prototype
is now at the Lane Motor Museum in Nashville, Tennessee.
Gyroscope use in consumer electronics:
In addition to being used in compasses, aircraft, computer pointing devices, etc.,
gyroscopes have been introduced into consumer electronics.

Since the gyroscope allows the calculation of orientation and rotation, designers
have incorporated them into modern technology. The integration of the
gyroscope has allowed for more accurate recognition of movement within a 3D
space than the previous lone accelerometer within a number of smartphones.
Gyroscopes in consumer electronics are frequently combined with
accelerometers for more robust direction- and motion-sensing. Examples of such
applications include smartphones such as the Samsung Galaxy Note 4, HTC Titan,
Nexus 5, iPhone 5s, Nokia 808 PureView and Sony Xperia, game console
peripherals such as the PlayStation 3 controller and the Wii Remote, and virtual
reality headsets such as the Oculus Rift.

Nintendo has integrated a gyroscope into the Wii console's Wii Remote controller
by an additional piece of hardware called "Wii Motion Plus". It is also included in
the 3DS, Wii U Game Pad, and Nintendo Switch Joy-Con and Pro controllers,
which detect movement when turning and shaking.

Cruise ships use gyroscopes to level motion-sensitive devices such as self-leveling

pool tables.

An electric powered flywheel gyroscope inserted in a bicycle wheel is sold as an

alternative to training wheels. Some features of Android phones like Photosphere
or 360 Camera and to use VR gadget do not work without a gyroscope sensor in
the phone.