MODULE 1 From a saturated vapor state, imagine that the

steam evaporating from the boiling water was

A phase is a state, such as solid, liquid or gas,
taken and further heated. The temperature of
in which a material exists under certain
this saturated vapor rises even more and
temperature and pressure conditions.
beyond this saturated vapor point, the water
1. Melting – change from solid to liquid loses its tendency to condense back to liquid.
This steam is now called a superheated vapor.
2. Freezing – change from liquid to solid
MODULE 2
3. Sublimation – change from solid to gas
ISOCHORIC PROCESS or ISOMETRIC - constant
4. Deposition – change from gas to solid volume
5. Vaporization – change from liquid to gas ISOBARIC PROCESS - the constant pressure is
6. Condensation - change from gas to liquid obtained when the volume is expanded or
contracted. This basically neutralizes any
A phase diagram tells us whether a material is pressure change due to the transfer of heat. In
a solid, liquid or gas at a given temperature and an isobaric process, when the heat is
pressure. transferred to the system some work is done.
How Phase Changes Occurs Moreover, there is also a change in the internal
energy of the system.
A. Compressed Liquid (Subcooled Liquid) to
Saturated Liquid ISOTHERMAL PROCESS - often used as the
basis for compression with other compression
For water at a liquid state, it is being processes.
compressed by the atmospheric pressure
exerted by the earth’s atmosphere. At this ISENTROPIC PROCESS - entropy of the fluid or
phase the water is called compressed liquid or gas remains constant. It means the isentropic
subcooled liquid. Assuming that the process is a special case of an adiabatic process
temperature of water is increased to its boiling in which there is no transfer of heat or matter.
point indicated by the point on the left side of POLYTROPIC PROCESS - describe gas expansion
the graph. This point corresponds to the water and compression which include heat transfer.
being saturated or a saturated liquid which by The exponent n is known as the polytropic
definition is a point where the water boils. index and it may take on any value from 0 to ∞,
B. Saturated Liquid to Saturated Vapor depending on the particular process.

Heating the water further as it reached is n = 0, p= constant, ISOBARIC

saturation point, the temperature remains n = 1, pV = constant, ISOTHERMAL
constant until it reaches a point on the right
side of the graph. In this point, water vapor n = k, pV = constant, ISENTROPIC
evaporates readily from the saturated liquid
n ➝ ∞, ISOCHORIC
which is indicated by water readily condensing
back to liquid when we put a lid while the 1 < n < k, in this process heat and work flows go
water boils. The water at this state is called in opposite directions, This process occurs, in
saturated vapor. In this state, the steam can vapor compression refrigeration during
readily turn back to its liquid state given a slight compression
decrease in temperature.
k < n < ∞, in this process heat and work flows
C. Saturated Vapor to Superheated Vapor go in the same direction, this process occurs,
for example, in an internal combustion engine
(e.g., Otto cycle), in which there are heat loses within the system remains the same. Thus,
through the cylinder walls during gas isothermal expansion occurs.
expansion (power stroke).
Reversible adiabatic process of compression
(Process D-A) -No heat exchange occurs in this
process however; the surroundings continue to
MODULE 2.1
do work on the system. Adiabatic compression
CARNOT CYCLE occurs which raises the temperature of the
system and puts the piston back to its original
– most efficient Thermodynamic Cycle
state (Prior to process A-B).
– heat is transferred during Isothermal Process

– during Isentropic Compression, the pressure

MODULE 3
increases
A steam power plant consists of a boiler (a kind
– during Isentropic Expansion, the pressure
of steam generating unit), steam turbine and
decreases
generator, and other auxiliaries. The boiler
– Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is the ratio of generates steam at high pressure and high
the Net Work and the Volume Displacement temperature. The steam turbine converts the
heat energy of steam into mechanical energy.
Carnot Heat engine or Carnot Cycle was a The generator then converts the mechanical
concept developed by Nicolas Leonard Sadi energy into electric power.
Carnot (1796-1832, a French Military Engineer
and Physicist) so that one can visualize a Steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir
reversible heat engine in practice. Carnot Charles Parsons, first model was connected to
engine is a reversible heat engine which works a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of
on Carnot cycle. electricity.

Reversible isothermal process of heat DEFINITION OF TERMS

addition (Process A-B) - In this process heat is
Rankine Cycle – is the standard or most
released from the hot reservoir and is
common steam cycle. The working fluid is
absorbed by the ideal gas particles within the
water.
system. Thus, the temperature of the system
rises. The high temperature causes the gas PSME Boiler Construction Code – The term,
particles to expand hence pushing the piston PSME Boiler Construction Code, shall mean the
upwards and doing work on the surroundings. Boiler Construction Code of the Philippine
Society of Mechanical Engineers with
Reversible adiabatic process of expansion
amendments and interpretations there to
(Process B-C) - In this process expansion
made and approved by the council of the
continuous, however there is no heat exchange
Society.
between the system and the surroundings.
Thus, the system is undergoing adiabatic Unfired Pressure Vessel – a vessel in which
expansion. The expansion allows the ideal gas pressure is obtained from an external source,
particles to cool, decreasing the temperature or from an indirect application of heat.
of the system.
Locomotive Boiler – a boiler mounted on a
Reversible isothermal process of heat self-propelled track locomotive and used to
rejection (Process C-D) - In this process furnish motivating power for travelling on rails.
surroundings do work on the system which
Portable Boiler – an internally fired boiler
causes heat to be released. The temperature
which is self – contained and primarily
intended for temporary location and the 3. The fluid is incompressible (V1 = V2)
construction and usage is obviously portable.

Internal Inspection – an inspection made when

PURE SUBSTANCE
a boiler or unfired pressure vessel is shut down
and handholes, manholes, or other inspection Sub-cooled liquid or Compressed liquid – The
openings are opened or removed for liquid is not about to vaporized
inspection of the interior.
Saturated liquid – The liquid is about to
External Inspection – an inspection made on vaporized
the external parts accessories and/or
component even when a boiler or unfired Saturated Vapor – The vapor is about to
pressure vessel is in operation. condense

Fusion Welding – a process of welding metals Superheated Vapor – The vapor is not about to
in a molten or molten and vaporous state, condense
without the application of mechanical pressure Vapor – Gaseous Phase that is in contact with
or blows. Such welding may be accomplished the Liquid phase
by the oxy- acetylene or hydrogen flame or by
electric arc. Thermit welding is also classed as Degrees Superheat – the difference between
fusion welding. the actual temperature of Superheated Vapor.

Degrees Sub-cooled – the difference between

the saturation temperature for the given
Boiler And Condenser Conditions: pressure and the actual sub-cooled liquid
1. Changes in KE and PE are negligible. temperature.

2. There is no work crossing the control Wet vapor or Mixture – combination of

surface. Saturated Vapor and Liquid

3. The process is constant pressure heat Critical point – the point at which the saturated
addition. liquid and saturated vapor are identical.

Quality – The ratio of the mass of vapor to the

total mass of liquid and vapor
Turbine Conditions:

1. The turbine is adiabatic. (Q = 0, S1 = S2)

2. There change in kinetic energy across the

turbine is not negligible but in the ideal
analysis, the KE is being ignored since we have
no specific means of determining inlet and
discharge velocities.

Pump Conditions:

1. The turbine is adiabatic. (Q = 0) and

reversible (S1 = S2)

2. There change in kinetic and potential energy

are negligible.