MANUFACTURING PROCESSES I

LECTURE 3
Moulding/ Foundry Sand – Desirable Properties

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

1. Good refractory properties - for high temperatures
2. Small grain size for better surface finish on part
3. Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to
escape during pouring
4. Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
5. Good permeability and porosity
6. High hot strength
7. Good collapsibility
Disadvantage: interlocking reduces permeability
Moulding/ Foundry Sand – Composition

1. Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay

(Bentonite clay, Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O) or Kaolinite or fire clay
(Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O)
2. Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
3. Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
a. Organic resins (e.g., phenolic resins like phenol formaldehyde
and phenolic urethane)
b. Inorganic binders (e.g., sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Types of Sand Mold

1. Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay and water. “Green"

means mold contains moisture at the time of pouring

2. Dry-sand mold : Organic binders replace clay. Mold is baked

to improve strength

3. Skin-dried mold: Drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand

mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating
lamps
Two types of Casting Processes

▪ Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove part

a) Advantage: more complex shapes possible
b) Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make
mold rather than casting itself
▪ Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can be used
to make many castings
a) Advantage: higher production rates
b) Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
Examples of Expendable mould processes

• Sand Casting
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Examples of permanent mould processes

1. Continuous casting
2. Permanent mould casting
3. Die casting
4. Centrifugal Casting
Shell Molding
This is a casting process in which the mould is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin
Steps:
1. A metal pattern is heated and placed over a box
containing sand mixed with TS resin

2. Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall

onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell

3. Box is repositioned so loose uncured

particles drop away
 STEPS…

(4) Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing;
(5) shell mold is stripped from pattern
Advantages & Limitations of Shell Moulding
Expanded-Polystyrene Process

Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which

vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
• Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
 Steps Involved
(1) Polystyrene foam pattern is coated
with refractory compound

(2) Foam pattern is placed in mold box,

and sand is compacted around the
pattern
(3) Molten metal is poured into the
portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal
enters the mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, thus filling the
mold cavity
Expanded-Polystyrene Process: Advantages &
Disadvantages

Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

• Pattern need not be removed from the mold
• Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not
required as in a conventional green-sand mold
Disadvantages:
• A new pattern is needed for every casting
• Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of
producing patterns
Aluminum engine head produced by expanded-polystyrene casting process
Investment Casting (Lost-Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make the

mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal

• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to

cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern

• It is a precision casting process, capable of producing castings of high

accuracy and intricate detail
Steps Involved
(1) Wax patterns are produced
(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
(3) Pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) Full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory
material to make it rigid
Steps..
(5) Mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit
it to drip out of the cavity
(6) Mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it
solidifies
(7) Mold is broken away from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue
One-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made by
investment casting (courtesy of Alcoa Howmet)
Making wax pattern and Assembly of patterns
Steps in making the mould on pattern

The assembly is
coated with a fine
ceramic liquid slurry

While the slurry is still wet, the

assembly is completely covered
with a fine sand
Steps in making the mould on pattern

The assembly dries

for 24 hours or more
depending on the
configuration.

Layers of slurry and sand are

applied to build a strong, thin
ceramic shell, drying completely
between applications.
Steps in making the mould on pattern

The assembly finalized

The ceramic shells are processed

in a steam autoclave to melt out
the wax.
Steps in making the mould on pattern

The ceramic shell is cured in

a 1600 - 1800° F oven. This
adds strength to the ceramic
and burns out the residual
wax.

The fired ceramic shells are

preheated before the molten
metal is poured..
Steps..

The preparation of molten metal

is critical to casting quality. The
metal is melted and degassed in
a crucible lined furnace and
poured into the ceramic shell.

The assembly cools to room

temperature, the shell is removed
and the metal investment casting is
the shape of the assembly.
Steps ..

The assembly is
cleaned of ceramic
with a high pressure
water blast.

The unwanted gates and risers are

sawed off .The casting is finished
by grinding
 Investment Casting: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
• Close dimensional control and good surface finish
• Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
• This is a near net shape process - additional machining is
minimal
Disadvantages:
• Many processing steps are required
• Relatively expensive and time consuming process
PLASTER-MOLD CASTING

1. The mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O) instead of sand

2. Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control
contraction and setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength.
3. To make the mold, the plaster mixture combined with water is poured over a plastic or
metal pattern in a flask and allowed to set.
4. Wood patterns are generally not used due to the extended contact with water in the
plaster.
5. The mold must set for about 20 minutes before the pattern is stripped The mold is
then baked for several hours to remove moisture.
6. Even with the baking, not all of the moisture content is removed from
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7. It is not permeable thus limiting escape of gases

Plaster-Mold Casting: Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Capability to make thin cross sections

▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Mold must be baked to remove moisture
▪ Moisture can cause problems in casting
▪ Mold strength is lost if over-baked
▪ Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
▪ Limited to lower melting-point alloys
 CERAMIC-MOLD CASTING

1. Mold is made up of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand

high temperatures than plaster
2. It can be used to cast steels, cast irons and other high temperature
alloys
3. Advantages are good accuracy and surface finish

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Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Permanent mold casting processes

• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new

mold is required for every casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
• The processes include:
–Basic permanent mold casting
–Die casting
–Centrifugal casting

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 Permanent mold casting

• Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy,

precise opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly
made of mild steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material,
due to the very high pouring temperatures

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 Permanent mold casting - Steps

(1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and heat dissipation

(2) Cores (if any are used) are inserted and mold is closed;
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Steps..

(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies

(4) Mold is opened and casting is

removed
 Advantages and Limitations:

Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the metal mold results in a finer
grain structure, so stronger castings are produced
Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the need to
open the mold
– High cost of mold

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Applications

1. Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume

production and can be automated accordingly
2. Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings
for aircraft and missiles
3. Metals commonly cast: Aluminum, Magnesium, Copper-base alloys,
and cast iron
4. Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring temperatures

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 Slush casting (Permanent mold process)

1. The molten metal is poured into the metal mold and after a desired
thickness is obtained, the mold is inverted and the remaining liquid
metal is poured out.
2. The mold halves are opened and the casting is removed.
3. Generally used to cast ornamental products like statues, toys, candle
sticks etc.
Die casting/ Pressure Die Casting

1. A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into

mold cavity under high pressure.
2. Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and
part is removed.
3. Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die
casting.
4. Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes
this from other permanent mold processes.

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 Die casting Machines

1. Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves

and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity
2. Two main types:
3. Hot-chamber machine
4. Cold-chamber machine

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Hot and cold chamber die casting

1. The main difference between these two types is that in hot chamber, the holding
furnace for the liquid metal is integral with the die casting machine, whereas in
the cold chamber machine, the metal is melted in a separate furnace and then
poured into the die casting machine with a ladle for each casting cycle which is
also called 'shot’.

Cold chamber die casting

For materials such as steel and Cu, their high melting temperatures make it difficult
to cast them by hot chamber process, because gooseneck of the hot chamber
machine is continuously in contact with the molten metal.

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Hot chamber die casting

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 Cold chamber die casting process

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Advantages and Limitations of Die Casting

Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities.
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
– Thin sections are possible.
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and strength to good
casting.
Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low melting points.
– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity.

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Die casting

The typical products made by die casting are carburettors, crank

cases, handle bar housings, and other parts of scooters, motor cycles
and mopeds, zip fasteners, head lamp and other decorative items on
automobiles.

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Molds for Die Casting
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• Usually made of tool steel, die steel or maraging steel.

• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to
die cast steel and cast iron.
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens.
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking.

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Squeeze Casting

1. Combination of casting and forging in which a molten metal is poured

into a preheated lower die, and the upper die is closed to create the
mold cavity after solidification begins
2. Differs from usual closed-mold casting processes in which die halves
are closed before introduction of molten metal
3. Compared to conventional forging, pressures are less and finer surface
details can be achieved
Squeeze Casting