Chapter 5

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• Physical layer
• Physical layer is the lowest layer of the
OSI reference model.
• It is responsible for sending bits from
one computer to another.
• This layer is not concerned with the
meaning of the bits
• It deals with the physical connection to
the network and with transmission and
reception of signals.
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• FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL LAYER:
• Representation of Bits: Data in this layer
consists of stream of bits. The bits must be
encoded into signals for transmission. It
defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and
1's are changed to electric signal or pulses of
light depending on transmission media.
• Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of
transmission which is the number of bits per
second.
• Synchronization: It deals with synchronization
of transmitter and receiver. The sender and
receiver are synchronized at bit level.
• Interface: The physical layer defines the
transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.
• Line Configuration: This layer connects
devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
• Topologies: Devices must be connected using
the following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and
Bus.
• Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines
the direction of transmission between two
devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
• Deals with baseband and broadband
transmission.
• Multiplexing: Physical signal use
different techniques of multiplexing in
order to improve the channel efficiency.
Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of
sending multiple signals or streams of
information over a communications link at
the same time in the form of a single,
complex signal; the receiver recovers the
separate signals, a process called
demultiplexing (or demuxing).
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Sr. Baseband Broadband
No
1 Digital signals are used Analog signals are used
Frequency division Frequency division multiplexing
2 multiplexing is not possible is possible
Baseband is bi-directional Transmission of data is
3 transmission unidirectional
4 Short distance signal travelling Signal travelling distance is long
The signals are sent on multiple

Entire bandwidth of the cable frequencies and allow all the
is consumed by a single signal multiple signals are sent
in a baseband transmission simultaneously in broadband
transmission
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Multiplexing:
• Network Devices used at Physical Layer
1 All types of hubs
2. Terminators
3. Couplers
4. Connectors
5. Repeaters
6. Multiplexers
7. Receivers
8. Transreceivers
• DATA LINK Layer - OSI Model
• Data link layer is most reliable node to
node delivery of data. It forms frames
from the packets that are received from
network layer and gives it to physical
layer
• FUNCTIONS OF DATA LINK LAYER:
• Framing: Packets are the streams of bits
received from the network layer are
broken into discrete frames.
In order to guarantee that the bit stream is
error free, the checksum of each frame is
computed.
When frame is received , the data link there
precomputes the checksum. If it is different
from checksum of frame, then DLL at receiver
knows that an error has occurred.
It then discards the bad frame and sends back
a request for retransmission.
Breaking bit stream into frame is called
framing
• Framing Methods
1. Character count
2. Starting and ending characters, with
character stuffing.
3. Starting and ending flags with bit
stuffing.
4. Physical layer coding violations.
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• Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds
a header to the frame in order to define
physical address of the sender or receiver of
the frame.
• Flow Control: A flow control mechanism
avoid a fast transmitter from overrunning a
slow receiver.
It is done by buffering the extra bit.
This prevents traffic jam at the receiver side.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by
adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by
using this mechanism.
Data Link Layers adds mechanism to prevent
duplication of frames.
• Access Control: Protocols of this layer
determine which of the devices has control
over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link.
• Network Layer
• The network Layer controls the operation of the
subnet.
• The main aim of this layer is to deliver packets
from source to destination across multiple links
(networks).
• If two computers (system) are connected on the
same link, then there is no need for a network
layer.
• It routes the signal through different channels
towards destination and acts as a network
controller.
• It also divides the outgoing messages into packets
and to assemble incoming packets into messages
for higher levels.
• FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK LAYER:
• Addressing:-It translates logical network address into
physical address.
• Routing:-It determines the quality of service by
deciding the priority of message ,Network condition
etc.and route of message will be decided if there are
several path from source to destination.
• Fragmentation :-Breaks larger packets into small
packets if the packet is larger than largest data frame
the data link layer will accept.
• This layer is concerned with circuit, message or packet
switching.
• It provides connection oriented services including
network layer flow control, network layer error control
and packet sequence control.
• Subnet usage accounting: It does accounting
functions to keep track of frames forwarded
by source & intermediate systems, to produce
billing information.
• Types of routing algorithm
1.Non adaptive routing algorithm-In this routing
algorithm, decisions are not based on estimation
of current traffic & topology. Choice of route is
done in advance. Routing can not be changed in
case of congestion or failure of link. It is also
called as static routing.
2. Adaptive routing algorithm-In this routing
algorithm ,decisions are changed dynamically if
there are changes in current traffic & topology.
Choice of route is not done in advance. Routing
can be changed in case of congestion or failure
of link. It is also called as dynamic routing.
When you or
With this
your computer technolog
In message places a
telephone call, y, packets
switching,
each switch
the switching
equipment within
are sent
stores the the telephone as soon
system seeks out
whole a physical path as they
message all the way from are
and forwards your telephone to
it to the next
the receiver’s available
telephone. This
switch. technique is called
called circuit
switching.
packet
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• Duties of Transport Layer
1. Packetizing- Packetizing is a process of
dividing a long message into smaller one.
These packets are then encapsulated into the
data field of transport layer packet. The headers
containing source & destination address are
then added.
2. Connection Control-Transport layer protocols
are divided into two category
a. Connection oriented &
b. Connection less
3. Addressing. The client needs the address of the
remote computer with which it want to
communicate. Such a remote computer has a
unique address so that it can be distinguished from
all other computer.
4. Flow Control- Similar to data link layer transport
layer also provides flow control. But this flow
control is performed end to end system, not across
a single link.
5. Error Control- Similar to data link layer transport
layer also provides error control. But this error
control is performed end to end system, not across
a single link. It generally achieved by retransmission
of packets discarded due to errors.
• Duties of Session Layer
• The main function of this layer is to establish,
maintain & synchronizes the communication
between interested system.
1. Dialog Control-It allows two system to start
dialog, exchange messages & finally end the dialog.
The communication between two entity take place
either in full duplex or half duplex mode.
2. Dialog Separation- It is a process of inserting a
reference marker called checkpoint into data
stream travelling between sending & receiving
system. It avoids collision situation.
• Duties of Presentation Layer
1. Translation-
The communication system usually exchange information in
the form of strings of characters, numbers etc.
The information needs to be changed into bit streams before
transmission. This is essential because different systems use
different encoding techniques.
The presentation layer at sending end converts the
information into a common format(Encoding) and the
presentation layer at receiving end converts this common
format(Decoding) into the one which is compatible to
receiver.
2. Encryption-
For ensuring the security & privacy of the information,
the process of encryption is needed.
In encryption the sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the transformed
information.
At receiving end, decryption carried out in which
received information is transformed back to its original form.
3. Compression-
It is used for reducing the number of bits required to
send an information. It is essential for transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio & video.
• Duties of Application Layer
1. It is topmost layer of OSI model, which provides the
services that directly supports user applications such as
database access, email & file transfer.
2. Communication between applications of sender system
to applications of receiver system take place using application
layer.
3. This layer allows users to access, retrieve and manage
files in a remote computer.
4. It allows users to log on as a remote host.
5. This layer provides access to global information about
various services. This layer provides services such as e-mail,
transferring files, distributing results to the user, directory
services, network resources and so on.
6. It provides protocols that allow software to send and
receive information and present meaningful data to users.
7. It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation and so on.
• Some of protocol associated with application
layer are
1. FTP-File Transfer Protocol
2. DNS-Domain Name System
3. DHCP-Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
4. HTTP-Hypertext Transfer Protocol
5. NFS-Network File System
6. SMTP-Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
7. SNMP-Simple Network Management Protocol
8. TelNet-Telecommunication Network

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The signals are sent on multiple

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