Encyclopedic Entry For Educator

geothermal energy

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Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within the Earth. (Geo means “earth,” and thermal means “heat” in
Greek.) It is a renewable resource that can be harvested for human use.

About 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) below the Earth’s crust, or surface, is the hottest part of our planet: the core.
A small portion of the core’s heat comes from the friction and gravitational pull formed when Earth was created
more than 4 billion years ago. However, the vast majority of Earth’s heat is constantly generated by the decay of
radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40 and thorium-232.

Isotopes are forms of an element that have a different number of neutrons than regular versions of the element’s
atom. Potassium, for instance, has 20 neutrons in its nucleus. Potassium-40, however, has 21 neutrons. As
potassium-40 decays, its nucleus changes, emitting enormous amounts of energy (radiation). Potassium-40 most
often decays to isotopes of calcium (calcium-40) and argon (argon-40).

Radioactive decay is a continual process in the core. Temperatures there rise to more than 5,000° Celsius (about
9,000° Fahrenheit). Heat from the core is constantly radiating outward and warming rocks, water, gas, and other
geological material.

Earth’s temperature rises with depth from the surface to the core. This gradual change in temperature is known as
the geothermal gradient. In most parts of the world, the geothermal gradient is about 25° C per 1 kilometer of
depth (1° F per 77 feet of depth).

If underground rock formations are heated to about 700-1,300° C (1,300-2,400° F), they can become magma.
Magma is molten (partly melted) rock permeated by gas and gas bubbles. Magma exists in the mantle and lower
crust, and sometimes bubbles to the surface as lava.

Magma heats nearby rocks and underground aquifers. Hot water can be released through geysers, hot springs,
steam vents, underwater hydrothermal vents, and mud pots.

These are all sources of geothermal energy. Their heat can be captured and used directly for heat, or their steam
can be used to generate electricity. Geothermal energy can be used to heat structures such as buildings, parking
lots, and sidewalks.

Most of the Earth’s geothermal energy does not bubble out as magma, water, or steam. It remains in the mantle,
emanating outward at a slow pace and collecting as pockets of high heat. This dry geothermal heat can be
accessed by drilling, and enhanced with injected water to create steam.

Many countries have developed methods of tapping into geothermal energy. Different types of geothermal energy
are available in different parts of the world. In Iceland, abundant sources of hot, easily accessible underground
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water make it possible for most people to rely on geothermal sources as a safe, dependable, and inexpensive
source of energy. Other countries, such as the U.S., must drill for geothermal energy at greater cost.

Harvesting Geothermal Energy: Heating and Cooling

Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy

Almost anywhere in the world, geothermal heat can be accessed and used immediately as a source of heat. This
heat energy is called low-temperature geothermal energy. Low-temperature geothermal energy is obtained from
pockets of heat about 150° C (302° F). Most pockets of low-temperature geothermal energy are found just a few
meters below ground.

Low-temperature geothermal energy can be used for heating greenhouses, homes, fisheries, and industrial
processes. Low-temperature energy is most efficient when used for heating, although it can sometimes be used to
generate electricity.

People have long used this type of geothermal energy for engineering, comfort, healing, and cooking.
Archaeological evidence shows that 10,000 years ago, groups of Native Americans gathered around naturally
occurring hot springs to recuperate or take refuge from conflict. In the third century BCE, scholars and leaders
warmed themselves in a hot spring fed by a stone pool near Lishan, a mountain in central China. One of the most
famous hot spring spas is in the appropriately named town of Bath, England. Starting construction in about 60 CE,
Roman conquerors built an elaborate system of steam rooms and pools using heat from the region’s shallow
pockets of low-temperature geothermal energy.
The hot springs of Chaudes Aigues, France, have provided a source of income and energy for the town since the
1300s. Tourists flock to the town for its elite spas. The low-temperature geothermal energy also supplies heat to
homes and businesses.

The United States opened its first geothermal district heating system in 1892 in Boise, Idaho. This system still
provides heat to about 450 homes.

Co-Produced Geothermal Energy

Co-produced geothermal energy technology relies on other energy sources. This form of geothermal energy uses
water that has been heated as a byproduct in oil and gas wells.

In the United States, about 25 billion barrels of hot water are produced every year as a byproduct. In the past, this
hot water was simply discarded. Recently, it has been recognized as a potential source of even more energy: Its
steam can be used to generate electricity to be used immediately or sold to the grid.

One of the first co-produced geothermal energy projects was initiated at the Rocky Mountain Oilfield Testing
Center in the U.S. state of Wyoming. The facility continues to produce about 200 kilowatts of power using fluids
discarded from nearby petroleum and natural gas wells.

Newer technology has allowed co-produced geothermal energy facilities to be portable. Although still in
experimental stages, mobile power plants hold tremendous potential for isolated or impoverished communities.

Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) take advantage of the Earth’s heat, and can be used almost anywhere in the
world. GHPs are drilled about 3 to 90 meters (10 to 300 feet) deep, much shallower than most oil and natural gas
wells. GHPs do not require fracturing bedrock to reach their energy source.

A pipe connected to a GHP is arranged in a continuous loop—called a "slinky loop"—that circles underground and
above ground, usually throughout a building. The loop can also be contained entirely underground, to heat a
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parking lot or landscaped area.

In this system, water or other liquids (such as glycerol, similar to a car’s antifreeze) move through the pipe. During
the cold season, the liquid absorbs underground geothermal heat. It carries the heat upward through the building
and gives off warmth through a duct system. These heated pipes can also run through hot water tanks and offset
water-heating costs.

During the summer, the GHP system works the opposite way: The liquid in the pipes is warmed from the heat in
the building or parking lot, and carries the heat to be cooled underground.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has called geothermal heating the most energy-efficient and
environmentally safe heating and cooling system. The largest GHP system was completed in 2012 at Ball State
University in Indiana. The system replaced a coal-fired boiler system, and experts estimate the university will save
about $2 million a year in heating costs.

Harvesting Geothermal Energy: Electricity

In order to obtain enough energy to generate electricity, geothermal power plants rely on heat that exists a few
kilometers below the surface of the Earth. In some areas, the heat can naturally exist underground as pockets
steam or hot water. However, most areas need to be “enhanced” with injected water to create steam.

Dry-Steam Power Plants

Dry-steam power plants take advantage of natural underground sources of steam. The steam is piped directly to a
power plant, where it is used to fuel turbines and generate electricity.

Dry steam is the oldest type of power plant to generate electricity using geothermal energy. The first dry-steam
power plant was constructed in Larderello, Italy, in 1911. Today, the dry-steam power plants at Larderello continue
to supply electricity to more than a million residents of the area.

There are only two known sources of underground steam in the United States: Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming and The Geysers in California. Since Yellowstone is a protected area, The Geysers is the only place
where a dry-steam power plant is in use. It is one of the largest geothermal energy complexes in the world, and
provides about a fifth of all renewable energy in California.
Flash-Steam Power Plant
Flash-steam power plants use naturally occurring sources of underground hot water and steam. Water that is
hotter than 182° C (360° F) is pumped into a low-pressure area. Some of the water “flashes,” or evaporates
rapidly into steam, and is funneled out to power a turbine and generate electricity. Any remaining water can be
flashed in a separate tank to extract more energy.

Flash-steam power plants are the most common type of geothermal power plants. The volcanically active island
nation of Iceland supplies nearly all its electrical needs through a series of flash-steam geothermal power plants.
The steam and excess warm water produced by the flash-steam process heat icy sidewalks and parking lots in the
frigid Arctic winter.

The islands of the Philippines also sit over a tectonically active area, the "Ring of Fire" that rims the Pacific Ocean.
Government and industry in the Philippines have invested in flash-steam power plants, and today the nation is
second only to the United States in its use of geothermal energy. In fact, the largest single geothermal power plant
is a flash-steam facility in Malitbog, Philippines.

Binary Cycle Power Plants

Binary cycle power plants use a unique process to conserve water and generate heat. Water is heated
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underground to about 107°-182° C (225°-360° F). The hot water is contained in a pipe, which cycles above
ground. The hot water heats a liquid organic compound that has a lower boiling point than water. The organic
liquid creates steam, which flows through a turbine and powers a generator to create electricity. The only emission
in this process is steam. The water in the pipe is recycled back to the ground, to be re-heated by the Earth and
provide heat for the organic compound again.

The Beowawe Geothermal Facility in the U.S. state of Nevada uses the binary cycle to generate electricity. The
organic compound used at the facility is an industrial refrigerant (tetrafluoroethane, a greenhouse gas). This
refrigerant has a much lower boiling point than water, meaning it is converted into gas at low temperatures. The
gas fuels the turbines, which are connected to electrical generators.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems

The Earth has virtually endless amounts of energy and heat beneath its surface. However, it is not possible to use
it as energy unless the underground areas are "hydrothermal." This means the underground areas are not only
hot, but also contain liquid and are permeable. Many areas do not have all three of these components. An
enhanced geothermal system (EGS) uses drilling, fracturing, and injection to provide fluid and permeability in areas
that have hot—but dry—underground rock.

To develop an EGS, an “injection well” is drilled vertically into the ground. Depending on the type of rock, this can
be as shallow as 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) to as deep as 4.5 kilometers (2.8 miles). High-pressure cold water is
injected into the drilled space, which forces the rock to create new fractures, expand existing fractures, or dissolve.
This creates a reservoir of underground fluid.

Water is pumped through the injection well and absorbs the rocks’ heat as it flows through the reservoir. This hot
water, called brine, is then piped back up to Earth’s surface through a “production well.” The heated brine is
contained in a pipe. It warms a secondary fluid that has a low boiling point, which evaporates to steam and powers
a turbine. The brine cools off, and cycles back down through the injection well to absorb underground heat again.
There are no gaseous emissions besides the water vapor from the evaporated liquid.

Pumping water into the ground for EGSs can cause seismic activity, or small earthquakes. In Basel, Switzerland,
the injection process caused hundreds of tiny earthquakes that grew to more significant seismic activity even after
the water injection was halted. This led to the geothermal project being canceled in 2009.

Geothermal Energy and the Environment

Geothermal energy is a renewable resource. The Earth has been emitting heat for about 4.5 billion years, and will
continue to emit heat for billions of years into the future because of the ongoing radioactive decay in the Earth’s
core.

However, most wells that extract the heat will eventually cool, especially if heat is extracted more quickly than it is
given time to replenish. Larderello, Italy, site of the world’s first electrical plant supplied by geothermal energy, has
seen its steam pressure fall by more than 25% since the 1950s.

Re-injecting water can sometimes help a cooling geothermal site last longer. However, this process can cause
“micro-earthquakes.” Although most of these are too small to be felt by people or register on a scale of magnitude,
sometimes the ground can quake at more threatening levels and cause the geothermal project to shut down, as it
did in Basel, Switzerland.
Geothermal systems do not require enormous amounts of freshwater. In binary systems, water is only used as a
heating agent, and is not exposed or evaporated. It can be recycled, used for other purposes, or released into the
atmosphere as non-toxic steam. However, if the geothermal fluid is not contained and recycled in a pipe, it can
absorb harmful substances such as arsenic, boron, and fluoride. These toxic substances can be carried to the
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surface and released when the water evaporates. In addition, if the fluid leaks to other underground water
systems, it can contaminate clean sources of drinking water and aquatic habitats.

Advantages
There are many advantages to using geothermal energy either directly or indirectly:
• Geothermal energy is renewable; it is not a fossil fuel that will be eventually used up. The Earth is continuously
radiating heat out from its core, and will continue to do so for billions of years.
• Some form of geothermal energy can be accessed and harvested anywhere in the world.
• Using geothermal energy is relatively clean. Most systems only emit water vapor, although some emit very
small amounts of sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, and particulates.
• Geothermal power plants can last for decades and possibly centuries. If a reservoir is managed properly, the
amount of extracted energy can be balanced with the rock’s rate of renewing its heat.
• Unlike other renewable energy sources, geothermal systems are “baseload.” This means they can work in the
summer or winter, and are not dependent on changing factors such as the presence of wind or sun. Geothermal
power plants produce electricity or heat 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
• The space it takes to build a geothermal facility is much more compact than other power plants. To produce a
GWh (a gigawatt hour, or one million kilowatts of energy for one hour, an enormous amount of energy), a
geothermal plant uses the equivalent of about 1,046 square kilometers (404 square miles) of land. To produce the
same GWh, wind energy requires 3,458 square kilometers (1,335 square miles), a solar photovoltaic center
requires 8,384 square kilometers (3,237 square miles), and coal plants use about 9,433 square kilometers (3,642
square miles).
• Geothermal energy systems are adaptable to many different conditions. They can be used to heat, cool, or
power individual homes, whole districts, or industrial processes.

Disadvantages
Harvesting geothermal energy still poses many challenges:
• The process of injecting high-pressure streams of water into the Earth can result in minor seismic activity, or
small earthquakes.
• Geothermal plants have been linked to subsidence, or the slow sinking of land. This happens as the
underground fractures collapse upon themselves. In some areas of New Zealand, the ground under a geothermal
power plant subsides at a rate of almost a half a meter (1.6 feet) every year. This can lead to damaged pipelines,
roadways, buildings, and natural drainage systems.
• Geothermal plants can release small amounts of greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide.
• Water that flows through underground reservoirs can pick up trace amounts of toxic elements such as arsenic,
mercury, and selenium. These harmful substances can be leaked to water sources if the geothermal system is not
properly insulated.
• Although the process requires almost no fuel to run, the initial cost of installing geothermal technology is
expensive. Developing countries may not have the sophisticated infrastructure or start-up costs to invest in a
geothermal power plant. Several facilities in the Philippines, for example, were made possible by investments from
American industry and government agencies. Today, the plants are Philippine-owned and operated.

Geothermal Energy and People

Geothermal energy exists in different forms all over the Earth (by steam vents, lava, geysers, or simply dry heat),
and there are different possibilities for extracting and using this heat.

In New Zealand, natural geysers and steam vents heat swimming pools, homes, greenhouses, and prawn farms.
New Zealanders also use dry geothermal heat to dry timber and feedstock.

Other countries, such as Iceland, have taken advantage of molten rock and magma resources from volcanic

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activity to provide heat for homes and buildings. In Iceland, almost 90% of the country’s people use geothermal
heating resources. Iceland also relies on its natural geysers to melt snow, warm fisheries, and heat greenhouses.

The United States generates the most amount of geothermal energy of any other country. Every year, the U.S.
generates about 15 billion kilowatt-hours, or the equivalent of burning about 25 million barrels of oil. Industrial
geothermal technologies have been concentrated in the western U.S. In 2012, Nevada had 59 geothermal projects
either operational or in development, followed by California with 31 projects, and Oregon with 16 projects.

The cost of geothermal energy technology has gone down in the last decade, and is becoming more economically
possible for individuals and companies.

VOCABULARY

Term Part of Speech Definition

antifreeze noun liquid used to lower the freezing point of a cooling substance.

aquifer noun an underground layer of rock or earth which holds groundwater.

baseload adjective type of power plant that runs at near-full capacity 24 hours a day, every day.

bedrock noun solid rock beneath the Earth's soil and sand.

binary cycle noun geothermal power plant that uses heated underground water to warm a fluid with a
power plant lower boiling point than water, which creates a steam that powers turbines and
electrical generators.

brine noun water or other fluid pumped through an enhanced geothermal system (EGS).

byproduct noun substance that is created by the production of another material.

coal noun dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the earth.

compact verb to pack tightly together.

co-produced noun heat obtained from the steam and hot water produced as a byproduct of petroleum
geothermal and natural gas wells.
energy

core noun the extremely hot center of Earth, another planet, or a star.

dry-steam noun geothermal power plant that uses natural pockets of steam to drive turbines and
power plant electrical generators.

earthquake noun the sudden shaking of Earth's crust caused by the release of energy along fault lines
or from volcanic activity.

electricity noun set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge.

element noun chemical that cannot be separated into simpler substances.

emission noun discharge or release.

engineering noun the art and science of building, maintaining, moving, and demolishing structures.

enhanced noun geothermal power plant where water or another fluid is injected into bedrock,
geothermal sometimes causing fracturing and creating reservoirs of geothermal heat.
system (EGS)

evaporate verb to change from a liquid to a gas or vapor.

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flash-steam noun geothermal power plant where fluid at temperatures greater than 182 degrees
power plant Celsius (360 degrees Fahrenheit) is pumped under high pressure into a tank held at
a much lower pressure, causing some of the fluid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash." The
vapor drives a turbine, which drives an electrical generator.

friction noun force produced by rubbing one thing against another.

frigid adjective very cold.

geothermal noun heat energy generated within the Earth.

energy

geothermal noun gradual change in temperature from the Earth's core (hot) to its crust (cool), about 25
gradient degrees Celsus per kilometer of depth/1 degree Fahrenheit per 70 feet of depth.

geothermal noun heating or cooling system that pipes water in a continuous loop from wells drilled into
heat pump the Earth through the space being heated or cooled, and back again.
(GHP)

geyser noun natural hot spring that sometimes erupts with water or steam.

gravitational noun the physical attraction between two objects.

pull

greenhouse noun gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and ozone, that absorbs solar heat
gas reflected by the surface of the Earth, warming the atmosphere.

habitat noun environment where an organism lives throughout the year or for shorter periods of
time.

hot spring noun small flow of water flowing naturally from an underground water source heated by hot
or molten rock.

hydrothermal adjective related to hot water, especially water heated by the Earth's internal temperature.

impoverished adjective very poor.

income noun wages, salary, or amount of money earned.

infrastructure noun structures and facilities necessary for the functioning of a society, such as roads.

isolate verb to set one thing or organism apart from others.

isotope noun atom with an unbalanced number of neutrons in its nucleus, giving it a different
atomic weight than other atoms of the same element.

lava noun molten rock, or magma, that erupts from volcanoes or fissures in the Earth's surface.

low- noun heat obtained from underground fluids (usually water) of 150 degrees Celsius (300
temperature degrees Fahrenheit) or less.
geothermal
energy

magma noun molten, or partially melted, rock beneath the Earth's surface.

mantle noun middle layer of the Earth, made of mostly solid rock.

mud pot noun natural spring filled with hot, bubbling mud.

Native noun person whose ancestors were native inhabitants of North or South America. Native
American American usually does not include Eskimo or Hawaiian people.

natural gas noun type of fossil fuel made up mostly of the gas methane.

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 neutron noun particle in an atom having no electrical charge.

permeable adjective allowing liquid and gases to pass through.

petroleum noun fossil fuel formed from the remains of ancient organisms. Also called crude oil.

photovoltaic adjective able to convert solar radiation to electrical energy.

portable adjective able to be easily transported from one place to another.

radioactive adjective having unstable atomic nuclei and emitting subatomic particles and radiation.

recuperate verb to recover from an injury or strenuous activity.

refuge noun public land set aside to protect native wildlife.

renewable noun resource that can replenish itself at a similar rate to its use by people.
resource

Ring of Fire noun horseshoe-shaped string of volcanoes and earthquake sites around edges of the
Pacific Ocean.

sophisticated adjective knowledgeable or complex.

spa noun facility, usually with mineral hot springs, offering health benefits.

steam verb to heat something by placing it over boiling water.

subsidence noun sinking or lowering of the Earth's surface, either by natural or man-made processes.

technology noun the science of using tools and complex machines to make human life easier or more
profitable.

toxic adjective poisonous.

turbine noun machine that captures the energy of a moving fluid, such as air or water.

vent noun crack in the Earth's crust that spews hot gases and mineral-rich water.

wind energy noun energy produced by the movement of air, and converted into electricity.

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION

Articles & Profiles

Scientific American: One Hot Island—Iceland’s Renewable Geothermal Power

Maps
U.S. Department of Energy: Geothermal Technologies Program—Geothermal Maps

Websites
National Geographic Environment: Geothermal Energy
U.S. Department of Energy: Geothermal
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Geothermal Energy Basics

© 1996–2015 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.

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