Foreword

Abstract
1. Preliminaries
2. The Introduction
3. Review of Related Literature
4. Research Design and Methodology
5. Data Collection, Analysis and Presentation
PART ONE: Data Collection
PART Two: Data Organization, Analysis and Presentation
6. Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
7. References
8. Appendices
Conclusion: Getting an Overall Picture
References

FOREWORD
proposal and thesis writing are areas of research that have provided challenges to
many students and scholars. However, the ability to identify, define and research an
issue or problem impacting on education, business or society is a necessity for
students undertaking undergraduate/postgraduate studies. Students are required
to prepare scholarly research papers that examine in detail issues or problems and
provide recommendations or solutions.

This text has therefore been written to address these challenges and to provide
guidelines for the preparation of a scholarly research document. It will aid in the
teaching and learning of social science research methodology in higher institutions
of learning, co4leges and research institutions. The text attempts to use various
examples to illustrate basic issues in research methodology. The illustrations draw
heavily on the Kenyan context.
The authors invite readers’ contributions and criticisms towards the improvement
of the text. Please feel free to send us an e-mail at [email protected] or
[email protected]. The authors acknowledge the invaluable services provided by
various people.

ABSTRACT
This text attempts to analyze the five major chapters in proposal and thesis writing.
It also pinpoints how the references should be formulated. In the appendix readers
are informed on ways of preparing effective budgets and work plans. This text is
divided into eight major sections. These are as follows:

Preliminaries This section gives a brief overview of what research is. It also
defines a research proposal and thesis. Research variables are discussed. The types
of research and their applicability are discussed.

The section also discusses strategies in topic and title selection.

Introduction This section discusses the first chapter of the research proposal and
thesis. This includes: Background of the study; Statement of the problem; Objectives
of the study; Research questions; Justification of the study; Scope of the study;
Limitations of the study and the Conceptual framework.

Review of Related Literature- This section discusses the second chapter of the
research proposal and thesis. It pinpoints the importance of Literature Review in
Research. It also discusses qualities of an effective Literature Review, guidelines in
formulating effective Literature Reviews and challenges faced in the formulation of
a Literature Review.

Research Design and Methodology — This section discusses the third chapter of
the research proposal and thesis. It discusses the Research design, Research Site,
Study Population, Sampling, Sampling Design, Target Population (Selection of
Respondents), Research Instruments, Data Collection Procedure and Data Analysis.
Data Analysis and Presentation — This section discusses the fourth chapter of the
thesis. It defines data analysis and indicates pitfalls in data analysis and
interpretation. Errors in data analysis and problems with interpretation are
highlighted.

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations — This section discusses the fifth

chapter of the research thesis. It points out ways of summarizing, concluding and
giving recommendations.

References — This section pinpoints various ways of writing the reference section.
Appendices — In this section ways of preparing an effective budget and time frame
are discussed.

CHAPTER ONE
PRELIMINARIES
Proposal and thesis writing are areas of research that have caused a lot of
challenges to scholars and rise archers. These challenges are at times caused by the
researcher’s inability to clearly define what is expected in a research proposal or
thesis. Proposal and thesis writing constitute part of the research process. This
chapter therefore gives a brief overview of research proposal and thesis writing and
the variables therein.

The Concept of Research

The term “research” means to look for, examine, investigate or explore. Orodho and
Kombo (2002:2) define research as the process of arriving at dependable solutions
to problems through the planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation
of data.

Kerlinger (1973:11) defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and

critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomena.
Tuchman (1978:1) describes research as a systematic attempt to provide answers
to questions.
Keywords in these definitions include: process, systematic, collection, analysis and
interpretation. Research can therefore be defined as a systematic process of
collecting, examining and interpreting data.

Research involves the following components:

a) It is systematic. Research attempts to solve problems whether social, economic,
political, cultural or health-related in a systematic way. It is systematic in that a
general system is followed. This involves the Identification of the problem,
review of related literature and data collection. The process of data collection
requires proper organization and control so that the data will enable valid
decisions to be made about the research problem at hand. This is followed by
data analysis, conclusions and recommendations.
b) It is objective. Research attempts to find an objectives unbiased solution to the
problem. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources (first
hand) and secondary sources (using existing data). It attempts to find an
objective unbiased solution to the problem.
c) It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence. It demands accurate
observation and description.
d) It employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

Types of Research
Research can either be qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative Research
This is a form of research that involves description. Qualitative research seeks to
describe and analyze the culture and behaviour of humans and their groups from
the point of view 0f those being stud.ied. Examples of qualitative research include
case studies of communities and institutions. Qualitative research uses the natural
setting, for instance, a classroom setting and not a laboratory. This means the
scenario is not artificial. Qualitative research relies on a research strategy that is
flexible and interactive. This includes interviewing, focus group discussions and
questionnaires. In qualitative research, feelings and insights are considered
important (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). Sometimes qualitative research is called
naturalistic inquiry or field studies.

APPLICABILITY
Qualitative research is appropriate inkier the following conditions:
When the subject matter is unfamiliar. For example, when one wants to know the
causes and effects of a certain phenomenon and the answer is unfamiliar to the
researcher. For example, The effect of free primary education on school accessibility
and retention or The effect of price increases on commodity consumption.

 When a researcher wants to relate particular aspects of behaviour to the wider

context. For example when one wants to find out the effects of abortion on
academic performance, a few schools and students will be sampled. The findings
of the study will be applicable to a wider context.
 When meanings rather than frequencies are sought. For example when
analyzing the effect of abortion on education, the researcher may be more
interested in why students procure abortions and the effect abortion has on
their education. The emphasis will be on the causes and impact of abortion.
 When flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected
and in depth investigation of particular topics. for example in finding out the
effect of abortion on education, the researcher may interview those who have
carried out an abortion and are willing to be interviewed. Focus group
discussions may be used. The researcher can also change a research instrument
depending on the respondents. For example, a researcher may have planned to
use a questionnaire written in English but may discover the majority of
respondents are semi-illiterate. The researcher may therefore choose to
interview and use the language which the respondents are most comfortable in.
The researcher may also want to determine if there is any relationship between
the academic performance of a student prior to and after the abortion.
 This method is used for studying selected issues, cases or events in depth and
detail (Orodho and Kombo, 2002).

FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research include the following:
Ethnographies, which are observations of groups.
 Phenomenological studies which study subjects over a period of time through
developing relationships with them and reporting findings based on research
experiences.
 Case studies which use various data to investigate the subject over time and by
activity.

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research relies on the principle of verifiability. That means
confirmation, proof, corroboration or substantiation. Knowledge emerges from
what can be proven by direct observation. The researcher’s values, interpretation
and1 feelings are not considered. Objectivity is reinforced. This approach1 is mainly
applicable in scientific studies. In quantitative research, the researcher tries as much
as possible to be detached from the subject of study or respondent. This research
establishes the cause-effect relaitj05in Quantitative research focuses on
measurement i.e. the of numerical events according to rules. The numbers are
specified, for example, sex: male or female.

APPLICABILITY
Quantitative research is applicable under the following conditions:
 When the research incorporates the Statistical (how many?) element, designed
to quantify the extent to which a target group is aware of, thinks this, believes
that or is c1ined to behave in a certain way.
 When frequencies are sought to meanings. The quantitative approaches involve
the collecti0 of numerical data in order to explain certain phenomena.
 When control of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected
and in-depth investigati0 of particular topics. For example in finding out the
effect, control of one phenomenon of interest is needed. Rigid methodological
and all procedures must be specified before the beginning of data collection and
followed in an unalterable course.
 When data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process).
 When the scenario is artificial, for instance in a laboratory.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research are complimentary. Where
appropriate, they should be combined to maximize the strengths and minimize the
limitation of each. For example, in a study on the effect of abortion on education, a
researcher can first use qualitative research and interview respondents to find out
their views on the effect of abortion. The researcher can then segregate one group of
students who have terminated their pregnancies, and another group that has not
terminated pregnancy and observe them keenly based on specific psychological
tests. The researcher can therefore make deductions on the effect of abortion on
education.

The Research Proposal

To propose means, to put forward, suggest, intend or advise. Proposals therefore
refer to suggestions, intentions, plans or schemes. A research proposal can
consequently be referred to as a research plan, suggestion or request. It is a plan
since it puts forward for consideration one’s plan of intent. It is a suggestion as it
attempts to persuade people reading it to do something. This is either to fund a
study, recommend that research should be carried out or to recommend the
implementation of a project. Therefore, a research proposal is a request to
implement a programme/study.
A research proposal includes three main chapters. (These will be discussed in detail
in the following chapters). The first chapter is the introduction. It consists of the
background to the study; statement of the research problem; purpose and objectives
of the study; hypothesis; conceptual or theoretical framework. The second chapter
is the review of related literature while the third chapter deals with the research
methodology. References and appendices are included after the third chapter.

Qualities of an Effective Proposal

An effective research proposal clearly states:
a) What is being proposed, what the project is about?
b) How it will be carried out
c) When it will be carried out
d) How much it will cost.

The Research Thesis

A research thesis is a written scientific report that deals with concerns related to a
problem or series of problems in one’s area of research. A thesis consists of the first
three chapters of the proposal, plus the research findings, conclusions and
recommendations. The body of the thesis includes the following:
Chapter one: Introduction.
Chapter two: Literature review.
Chapter three: Research methodology.
Chapter four: Research findings.
Chapter five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations. It also
includes references and appendices. (These will be
discussed further in the following chapters). A thesis
also includes an abstract. The past tense is used in the
thesis.
The thesis paper should begin with an introduction of the subject matter being
explored, provide background information related to the subject and provide the
reader with information regarding the significance of the subject. The author should
present the reader with supporting documentation that either proves or disproves
the theory being presented. A discussion of the findings and conclusions sums up
the paper. The final thesis report can only be written after data collection, analysis,
conclusion and recommendations. The thesis focuses on presenting a unique and
original idea to the audience, which the author intends to prove. It describes
concerns in society, particularly, what is already known about the issues, what the
author did towards solving the problem, what the author thinks the results mean,
and where or how further progress in the field can be made. The author is expected,
through the thesis, to make an original contribution to human knowledge.

Qualities of an Effective Research,. Thesis

Phillips and Pugh (1994), point out that a good thesis should have the following
characteristics:
 It should be contestable; that means, it should propose an aruab1e point with
which people could reasonably disagree.
 It is should be provocative: it takes a stand and justifies the discussions and
conclusions the author presents, but also allows readers to analyze the findings
and make their own conclusions either in support or against.
 It should be specific and focused. There is a systematic link from the research
title, problem statement, objectives, data collection an4 analysis and the
conclusion.
 It should flexible. The evidence may lead one to a conclusion one did not
expect.
 It avoids vague language (like “it seems”) and avoids the first person (“I
believe,”“In my opinion”).

Topic Selection
The term “topic” refers to subject, issue or area under discussion. The topic (subject)
one selects to research is essential in the success of the research project. This is
mainly because one’s interest in the topic will sustain the research. If a researcher is
interested in a particular area, he/she will enjoy reading materials related to that
subject, and will put time and effort into the work. The researcher will be keen on
collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out the results. All research
requires painstaking thought, writing, and reading before the proposal/thesis is
finalized. If the researcher is interested in the topic, this will be an exciting venture.
It is therefore imperative that a researcher selects a topic that interests him/her.
The following are some of the steps that should be followed in topic selection.

a) Identify what interests or puzzles one in an area of study

There are many issues in life that may puzzle or interest a researcher. These may be
social,, economic, health, political or cultural issues. However, it is important to
identify a puzzling aspect in one’s area of study. This not only enables the researcher
to go in-depth in one’s professional area, but also to defend the researched work
with authority.

For example, in identifying an area of study, a student in the department of

Sociology may be puzzled as to why people still consume illicit brews despite the
dangers experienced and the warnings given by the government. A student in the
department of Curriculum Development may be puzzled as to why, despite the
reduction of examinable subjects at the primary level, pupils are still overworked. A
doctor may be puzzled as to why, despite awareness creation on malaria prevention
and the provisions of mosquito nets to a certain district, malaria prevalence was still
high. A student in the department of Religious Studies may be puzzled at the
mushrooming of churches in Kenya. An educationist may be puzzled about free
primary education and school accessibility, retention and performance. These are
fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.

b) Identify keywords for the topic

The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and
express it in specific keywords. These keywords can include words representing the
issue that has puzzled the researcher. For example if the researcher is puzzled about
illicit brews, the keywords may be increase of illicit brews. The keywords for the
student in Curriculum Development department may be curriculum reduction
verses student overwork. The doctor’s keywords may be awareness creation verses
malaria prevalence. For the student in education, the keywords may be free primary
education, school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher should
think of what to concentrate on based on these words.

c) Define the topic

After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/she has
to define the topic. Defining the topic involves analyzing selected keywords keenly.
Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied. For example
on illicit brews, the researcher has to decide on what to concentrate on, whether it is
causes and effects or the costs. A researcher analyzing student overwork may study
the causes and effects or analyze the implementation aspect. At this point, the
researcher has to filter and come up with the topic to be studied. For example, on
the issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to concentrate on
free primary education and student accessibility, or free primary education and
student retention, or free primary education and learners’ performance or all of the
above, thus analyzing free primary education and school accessibility, retention and
performance. The researcher has to identify specifically what he/she wants to
concentrate on. This enables the study to be focused.

d) Formulate the topic

After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it. For
example the prevalence of illicit brews in Kenya. The researcher should search for
articles and other materials relevant to the research topic. This information will
assist the researcher develop clarity over the topic selected. This will also assist the
researcher in the formulation of the research problem later on. The researcher
should take notes, paraphrase and summarize what has been read on relevant
materials. This will be included in the literature review. Relevant information
related to the selected topic can be found in a library or the Internet.
Qualities of an Effective research Topic
A good research topic has the following qualities:
a. It is researchable: That means it is a subject where the research instruments can
be easily formulated and the study population sampled. The objectives that will
be formulated based on the topic are measurable.
b. It captivates the interest of the researcher: The topic selected should be one that
the researcher has an interest in.
c. It makes a contribution to knowledge: A good research topic is one in which the
researcher is aware that the findings of the study will contribute to the body of
knowledge.
d. It is provocative: It is open to varied views and interpretations.
e. It is clear and focused: The topic is not vague or alien to the researcher.

a) Challenges Encountered in Topic Selection

Selecting a topic in research is essential and requires a lot of care. This is because
the topic selected has a lot of influence on the success of the project/study. There
are various challenges encountered in topic selection, and some have resulted in
researchers abandoning the project halfway, or the project taking longer to be
completed than anticipated. The following are some of the problems encountered in
topic selection.

b) Choosing a topic that is too wide

A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to limit the scope.
This occurs due to underestimating the dimension of the topic. For example, The
effects of drought. This topic may be problematic since the effects of drought and its
intensity varies by region and gender. The impact of drought in Turkana may not be
similar to its impact in Makueni. It is also vague since the effect of drought on
education may be different from its effect on politics. A topic such as Truancy in
schools may also be problematic unless the scope is clearly specified. This topic may
be too wide because the causes and effects of truancy on education vary by gender
and region. Truancy also has diverse effects on school accessibility, retention and
academic performance. It maybe impossible for this researcher to conduct an in-
depth study. To avoid selecting a topic that is too wide, the researcher should be
very clear and focused on what they want to research. If it is issues related to
drought or truancy, then they have to be very certain on what they want to
investigate in relation to drought or truancy and make that the focus of the study.

d) Choosing a topic that is too complex

At times a researcher may choose a topic that is too complex for research at the level
of the student. This complexity is based on the fact that some of the research may
require large samples. For example a study on Consumer reaction to price increases
may require a large population sample. A study on The mushrooming of churches in
Kenya is complex in that it requires clear definition of the term “mushrooming.” A
single researcher cannot usually undertake this type of research. It may require
different approaches and a lot of capital besides expertise. This topic may present
the researcher with problems particularly during data collection and analysis.

c) Poor timing
Most research works have a limited time span for which data should be collected
and presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualifications or penalties.
Some topics, for example, Effects of free primary education over a five year period
may not be feasible for a master’s programme. This is mainly because these
programmes usually cover a span of two years. If for some reasons, gathering
information will take many months or even years, then the topic may not be
suitable, particularly if the researcher has a specific deadline to meet.

d) Limited accessibility to materials and respondents

A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no ready
accessibility to the requisite source materials. It is common for some source
materials not to be made available for some years after an event or during the
lifetime of an individual. In Kenya, for example, materials on tribal clashes that
occurred in 1992 are not easily available. Other materials may not be available in
libraries. Some research works have been delayed or changed due to the problem of
unavailability of subjects. For example, a study based on Aids patients at Kenyatta
National Hospital may not be easy as accessibility to respondents may be limited.
The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy and refuse to respond.

Topic selection is vital in proposal writing as it contributes to the success of the

research. The researcher should therefore ensure that he/she is certain about the
topic to be researched, is interested in the topic and the required materials and
resources are available.

Title Selection
The term “title” refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the proposal or thesis
describes what the study is about. The title is a mini- abstract. It portrays a quick
summary of the key idea(s) in a proposal or thesis. For example the following title
by Kombo (2005), Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its causes and effects on
female students in secondary schools and colleges indicates that the study is on
abortion. It also indicates that the study will analyze the causes and effects of
abortion. It can be deduced from the title that the respondents will include female
students in secondary schools and colleges.

In title selection, a researcher may discuss topical issues in society. This may include
issues such as businesses that are not making any profit, the effect of business
location on the success of a business, in- security in urban and rural areas or the
mushrooming of churches. In business management-a researcher may analyze
factors hindering the success of income generating activities. The title should be
formulated after the researcher has identified the research topic.

The following steps are essential in title selection:

a) identify keywords for the title
Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues in the topic the
researcher is interested in.
b) Reflect on the key issues
The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes
attempting to find out the independent and dependent variables. For example if the
researcher is puzzled over price increase and commodity consumption, questions
that the researcher should attempt to answer are:
 Does price increase affect consumption
 Does price increase influence consumption
 Does consumption influence price increase

The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues describe linked to form a
title.

c) Formulate the title

After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent variables, the
title can be formulated. The formulation of the title involves trying to link the key
variables. This can be formulated by using terms such as The effect of..., The impact
of..., An assessment of..., for instance, The effect of price increase on consumption or
The effect of free primary education on school accessibility.

d) Evaluation
After formulating the title, the researcher has to ensure that it is clear and specific.
This means the independent and dependent variables are easily identified (variables
will be discussed later). For example, if the title is on the effect of price increase on
consumption the researcher may specify it as The effect of price increase on sugar
consumption in Kenya. If the title is on free primary education, the title can be The
effect of free primary education on student accessibility, retention and academic
performance.

Qualities of an Effective Title

An effective research title should portray the following qualities:
It should be brief and specific: For example, The impact of drug abuse on education.
This brevity makes the title stand out and have a strong impact. It is easier to
identify the independent and dependent variables. The title becomes clear and
focused.

 It should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief summary of what
the study is about. It should portray the aims and objectives of the study. The
words used in the title should clearly reflect the focus of the study.
 It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to various
interpretations of the study.
 It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent
variables, for example, the effect of price increase on food consumption.
 The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question
should be measurable.

Challenges Encountered in Title Selection
There are various challenges faced by researchers in title selection. These include
the following:
a) Choosing a title that is not specific
A researcher may select a title that is open to varied interpretations. For example,
Crime in Kenya is a wide title that is open to various interpretations. This is because
there are also varied forms of crime. For it to be effective, it has to be specific. To
avoid this in title selection, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what
the independent and dependent variables of the study are.

b) Writing a title that is too wordy

A brief title is more effective than a long one. This is because variables are easily
identified. Some titles have too many words. To avoid• this, researchers should
ensure that words that are not necessary for understanding the title are omitted.
For example, the title The effect of free primary education on the academic
performance of boys and girls in boarding and day schools in Kenya can be
summarized as The effect of free primary education on academic performance.
When all else fails, a two- part title can be used with the parts separated by a colon.

c) Poorly formulated titles

Some titles are difficult to comprehend for example, Understanding drug abuse in
Kenya. It is difficult to comprehend what the term “understanding” means.

d) Lack of consistency
Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives, nor with the problem
statement or methodology applied. For example a researcher who in a study on The
effect of price increase on sugar consumption in Kenya, concentrates on finding out
about student indiscipline in schools is not addressing the title selected.

Variables
The term “variable” is derived from variations. This refers to differences. Variables
are attributes or qualities of the cases that we measure or record. For example, if the
cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height, weight, level of
empowerment, ability, and so on. They are referred to as variables because it is
assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes. For example, if
the variable is age, we obviously recognize that people can be of different ages. In
any particular study, variables can play different roles. For example the reaction of
people towards price increase may vary according to commodity use and
availability. An increase in beer and cigarette prices may be viewed positively by
those who do not drink and smoke but negatively by the consumers. There are two
major forms of variables: the independent and dependent variables.

Independent Variable
The independent variables are also known as the predictor or explanatory variables.
These are the factors that the researcher thinks explain variation in the dependent
variables In other words, these are the causes. In Figure 1, the physiotherapy
strategy used is the independent variable. This strategy includes the provision of
health care, rehabilitation, economic empowerment and awareness creation. If a
study is on The impact of price increase on beer consumption in Kenya then price
increase is the independent variable. This is because it can explain or affect the
increase or decrease in beer consumption.

Dependent Variable
Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable the
researcher is attempting to predict. In Figure 1: Physiotherapy Strategy, the
researcher attempts to predict the effect of the physiotherapy strategy on
community-based rehabilitation programmes for the physically impaired. A
community-based rehabilitation programme therefore is the dependent variable.
Variation in the dependent variable is what the researcher is trying to explain. In the
study on The impact of price increase on beer consumption in Kenya, beer
consumption, or more specifically, its increase or decrease is the dependent
variable. in other words, the dependent variable “depends” on the independent. For
instance, the fluctuation in beer consumption is seen in so far as it is caused by the
price increase — independent variable — which is expected to change or alter in
some way the dependent variable.

To understand the independent and dependent variables let us analyze the example
below:

The role of physiotherapy strategy in community-based rehabilitation of the

physically disabled. In this title, there are two keywords, physiotherapy strategy and
community-based rehabilitation. In this study an attempt is made to find out how
the physiotherapy strategy influences community-based rehabilitation. This can be
put in a diagram as follows:
CHAPTER Two
THE INTRODUCTION
The first section of the proposal is referred to as The Introduction. It serves to
discuss the background for the proposed research, state and define the problem that
the proposal/thesis is attempting to address or solve, state the aims and objectives
of the research work and give an indication of how the work will progress. This
section is referred to as the introduction since it can be regarded as the opening of
the study. It attempts to establish that a problem exists and there is need for a study
to be carried out. It also justifies the study. The author in this chapter attempts to
analyze the study in these divisions: background to the study, statement of the
problem, aims and objectives of the study, research hypothesis, research questions,
significance of the study, limitations of the study and the conceptual and theoretic
frameworks.

Background to the Study

In research the term “background” refers to the setting or position of the study. It is
a brief overview of the problem the researcher aspires to tackle. Background
information plays a major role in research. This includes the following:
 It helps to convince the readers that the problem or opportunity exists and that
it should be addressed.
 It helps clarify what has brought about the need for the study.
 It points out the challenges faced due to the identified issue.
 It indicates the opportunities for improvement.
 It demonstrates the researcher’s view of the research problem.
 It shows the reader that the researcher knows the study area as he/she is
familiar with what has preceded.

Qualities of an Effective Background to the Study

An effective background to the study has the following qualities:
 It is brief and specific. Though it borrows a lot from the literature review, it is a
summary of the information in the literature review.
 It engages the interest of the reader. An effective background should get the
reader concerned about the problem, excited about the opportunity of having
the problem addressed and interested in the eventual solution proposed by the
research.
 It gives the reader a glimpse of the research problem.
 It gives the reader an idea of how the proposal is structured.
 The language used is simple and straightforward.
 It is informative and persuasive since it attempts to enlighten the reader about
the research problem and the urgency of addressing the problem.

Steps in Writing an Effective Background to the Study .

The following steps are essential in writing an effective background

a) Reflection - Before writing the background to the study, the researcher should
analyze the selected topic and title and identify the variables. The identification of
the variables will assist in locating the relevant literature related to the research
problem. This literature will assist in background formulation.

b) Brainstorming -The researcher should think about the relevant literature

related to the topic that will specifically bring out the need for the study. The
challenges related to the selected topic should also be reflected in the selected
literature.

c) Material compilation- The researcher should use the library to peruse through
and read various books and articles related to the topic. The researcher should
note down essential information related to the topic. d) Formulation — The
researcher should use part of these materials, which will later on be used in the
literature review to write the background to the study. The researcher should
cite previous studies that are similar to what he/she is proposing.
Challenges Faced in Writing an Effective Background
There are various challenges that researchers experience in writing an effective
background. This includes the following:
 Lack of differentiation between the background to the study and the literature
review. While the literature review expounds on various studies related to the
area of study, the background should be a short summary briefly expounding on
factors that have brought about the need for the study and opportunities for
improvement.
 Some researchers use the background content to justify the need for the study.
Yet this section should give a brief overview of the research problem.
 Lack of clarity due to poor language use. This involves the use of jargon such as
slang, trendy words, abbreviations, colloquial expressions, redundant phrases
and confusing language.
 Quoting studies but not explaining how they fit in the background section.
In analyzing these backgrounds, the following points emerge:
 They are brief, specific and give an overview of the problem.
 The language used is simple and straightforward.
 This section engages the interest of the reader. Previous studies that justify what
the authors are proposing are cited.
 The authors portray their familiarity with current happening in relation to the
problem being addressed.

Statement of the Problem

A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles the researcher. This
may be due to its effect or consistence despite measures taken. For example, -a
researcher may be puzzled as to why beer consumption is still high despite the
increase in prices. A researcher may also wonder why the rate of school dropouts is
still high in rural areas despite free primary education. These are concerns that may
result in the formulation of a research question.

Qualities of an Effective Research Problem

The following qualities are reflected in an effective research problem
 The research problem is clearly stated. It is concise. The reader is made aware
that there is a definite issue that needs to be solved. This is mainly because the
problem stands out-clearly and is easily recognized.
 The research problem has an impact on the whole topic being investigated.
 The research problem clearly indicates the urgency of the research- and shows
that the research is definitely needed.
 The problem is “researchable” -it is a problem that can be investigated through
the collection and analysis of data.
 The problem has supported statements.
 The language used is simple and objective. No poetic, comical or emotional
language is used.
Steps II Writing an Effective Statement of the Problem
There are various steps that should be taken in order to write an effective research
problem.
a) Reflection — The statement of a problem usually starts with an idea the
researcher might have as to what kind of a problem he/she wants to solve or what
questions the researcher wants to answer in a selected topic. Everyday practices
and experiences usually bring up questions the researcher wants to answer. These
are fertile grounds for identifying the research problem.
The researcher should write down some research ideas/puzzles he/she has been
debating based on the selected topic. Reflection involves assessing the selected
research topic and title and thinking of the best way to reflect the riddle in the
topic/title. The researcher should also attempt to reflect on key issues in the topic
and the independent and dependent variables of the study.
b) Identification -After identifying the key variables, the researcher should attempt
to identify the key uncertainties. The researcher should attempt to answer the
following: Is there something wrong or disturbing in society, theoretically unclear
or in dispute related to the topic/title selected? Why is this a problem?

c) Formulation -After identifying the problem, the researcher should formulate it

by clearly explaining why this is a problem and how it affects people or institutions.
The researcher should indicate what it is he/she knows about the problem, through
personal observation and research.

d) Justification -After stating what the researcher thinks is the problem he/she
should explain briefly the repercussions likely to follow in the long run if the
problem is not addressed. The researcher should use the statement of the
problem to show that the research is definitely needed.

Challenges Faced in Articulating the Research Problem

a) Defining the research problem -One problem faced by researchers in stating
the research problem is lack of clarity. The issue being addressed is hardly
noticeable in the research problem. Let us take the example of Problems faced by
street children in Nairobi. In this statement

From the above samples, it is clear that all the aims formulated are linked to the
title. The aims do not refer to specific issues, and state the accomplishment of a
group rather than of individuals.

Objectives
Objectives are intentions or purposes stated in specific measurable terms. They
provide opportunities for evaluating the end results. In research, an objective is a
specific statement relating to the defined aim of the study. Specific objectives
constitute the means by which the aim/ goal of the study could be achieved. They
specify what the researcher will do in the study. Objectives are operational. They
state specific tasks that will be carried out by the researcher to accomplish the aims
of the study. These tasks are measurable.
IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVES
Objectives play a vital role in research. This includes the following:
 Objectives guide decisions in the selection of respondents, research instruments
and the study area. This assists the researcher to avoid the collection of data,
which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem
identified.
 Objectives influence all components of the research design including data
analysis and report writing.
 A clear statement of objectives helps to limit the scope of the literature review.
This is necessary for valid outcomes. They assist the researcher to be precise
about what to accomplish. They help organize the study in clearly defined parts
or phases.
 Objectives serve to clarify the variables of the study. This helps in the evaluation
of the study.
 Objectives break up the aim into achievable and measurable components. They
serve as a guide for evaluation.
 Objectives provide a common consistent focus for the many activities in
research. Some unity in emphasis and some common focus are needed to
achieve the goal of the study. This facilitates sequencing.

QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES

Effective objectives display the following qualities:
a) They are specific - This means that the objectives selected clearly state what the
researcher will do in order to fulfill the purpose of the study.
b) They are measurable - thus can be evaluated.
c) They are focused- The objectives should narrow the study to essentials. They
should also cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in
a coherent way and in a logical sequence. They should systematically address the
various aspects of the problem, particularly the key factors that are assumed to
influence or cause the problem.
d) They are operational - They should be clearly phrased in operational terms,
specifying exactly what the researcher will do.
e) They are realistic -therefore achievable.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING OBJECTIVES

In order to write specific objectives that will be effective to the researcher, the
following guidelines should be followed:

Reflection -This involves analyzing the aim of the study, the topic, and title before
formulating the specific objectives. Specific objectives should relate to all these
aspects.

Formulation -The researcher should write down the specific objectives ensuring
that they are measurable and if accomplished will answer the research question.

Evaluation - After the formulation of objectives, the researcher should attempt to

answer the following questions: Do the objectives address all parts of the research
problem? Do the objectives measure what is being researched? Are the objectives
feasible? If too ambitious, could the scope of the study be reduced? Answers to these
questions will assist the researcher formulate effective objectives.

CHALLENGES FACED IN SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE FORMULATION

There are various challenges faced in objective formulation. This include the
following:
a. Lack of clarity - In some studies, the objectives are not clearly articulated. The
objectives do not focus clearly what the study hopes to accomplish.
b. Overambitious objectives - At times the objectives stated by the researcher are
too many and cannot be achieved within the time frame stated and the finance
implied. The scope may also be too wide.
c. The objectives do not follow a logical order.
d) Unrelated objectives - Formulating objectives that do not deal with all aspects
of the research problem.

e) Not specific - Some stated objectives are not specific and therefore difficult to
evaluate. Objectives stated by non-action verbs such as, to appreciate, to
understand or to study, are difficult to assess.
One notable fact about these objectives is that they are specific. There is something
the researchers want to determine, to establish, to identify and to investigate. The
objectives therefore clearly state what the researchers will do in order to fulfill the
purpose of the study. These objectives can be evaluated. The objectives also narrow
the study to essentials. They are phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly
what each researcher will do. The objectives stated are realistic and achievable. An
aim is a general statement, which reflects the intention or purpose of your chosen
area of research, whilst an objective is a specific statement relating to the defined
goal/aim of your research. It is not uncommon to have more than one objective to
satisfy your research aim.

In simple terms the aim and objectives are interrelated. The aim is what you want to
achieve, and the objective describes how you are going to achieve that aim.

Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a guess or an assumption. It is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviour patterns, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur (Gay,
1996). For example, price increase influences commodity consumption. This is only
a guess. It may or may not be true, or it may be applicable to some commodities and
not others. In this guess, a relationship is perceived between price increase and
commodity consumption. It therefore has to be verified. In research, a hypothesis is
a statement that describes an unknown but tentatively reasonable outcome for the
existing phenomenon. It is a tentative answer to what the researcher considers as
ought to be the possible outcome of an existing problem or phenomenon. It is a
likely solution to a problem being studied, which is advanced before the actual
research is undertaken. Orodho and Kombo (2004) define hypothesis as educated
guesses about possible differences, relationships or causes of research problems.
They state what the researcher thinks the outcome of the study will be.

Types of Hypothesis
There are three types of hypothesis: the conceptual, research and statistical
hypothesis.

CONCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
This is a statement about the relationship between theoretical concepts. These are
mainly ideas that can never be directly tested because they cannot be measured.
They must be operationalized or made measurable before they are tested. For
example, discipline facilitates academic achievement or negative attitudes retard
development.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
This is a statement about the expected relationship between observable or
measurable events. An experimental research hypothesis states expected
relationships between independent and dependent variables. For example, rewards
after an accomplishment of a task will increase the frequency of the performance of
the task. This is an example of an experimental research hypothesis.

For example, a teacher notes that students who complete the mathematics
examinations half an hour before the expected time usually perform poorly as
compared to those who complete in the expected time. The teacher may decide to
investigate the relationship between the number of minutes needed to complete an
examination and the score on the examination. The teacher may use the data to
determine whether there is a significant negative relationship between these two
variables. The research hypothesis may be formulated as follows: The length of time
needed to complete tile mathematics examination will be negatively correlated with
the score on the examination for students.

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
This hypothesis states an expected relationship between the numbers representing
statistical properties of data such as the mean, variance and correlation. This
hypothesis is a guess about the value of a population parameter or about the
relationship between values of two or more parameters the hypothesis is testing.
The statistical hypotheses consist of the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative
hypothesis (H1). An example of a statistical hypothesis can be stated as following:
The mean different scores in Sociology by students in the Institute of Open Learning
and those in the Department of Sociology at Kenyatta University is zero.

Ways of Stating the Hypothesis

There are two forms of stating the hypothesis: the null and alternative forms.

THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the variables studied.
The aim of testing is to show that the hypothesis is false and thereby accept the
alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis refers to the guess the researcher tests
and hopes to prove wrong, reject or nullify. The null hypothesis states that no
relationship exists between the variables studied. Confirmation of the research
hypothesis is based on rejecting the null. For example, there is no significant
difference in the academic performance of students who attend private schools and
those who attend public schools in national examinations.

If the researcher wishes to show that a difference exists in national examination

performance among students. in public and private schools, then the researcher
must prove that there are no differences. The null hypothesis specifies the expected
value of a single population parameter or the expected relationship between two or
more parameters.

The first step in testing a hypothesis is to make the assumption that there is no
significant difference between variables or conditions being studied. This
assumption is called Null and it refers to nothing or no relationship. Null is
symbolized by H0.
The aim of testing is to show that the hypothesis is false and thereby accept the
alternative one. The null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between the
variables being studied. Confirmation of the research hypothesis is based on
rejecting the null.

Examples:
H01: There is no significant difference in the academic performance of students who
attend private schools and those who attend public schools in national
examinations.

If the researcher wishes to show that a difference in performance exists in national

examinations among students in public and private schools, then he/she must prove
that there are no differences.

Other examples are:

H02: There is no significant difference between an individual’s success in life and
his/her academic certificates.

H03: There is no significant difference between business locale and profit margin.
H04: There is no significant difference in performance between female and male
entrepreneurs.

H05: There is no significant difference between the behaviour of female and male
pastors.

H06: There is no significant difference between managerial skills of male and female
managers.

Null hypotheses specify the expected value of single population parameter or the
expected relationship between two or more parameters. Therefore, it is important
to note that all the hypotheses should be tested. There is no way a verdict can be
passed without an investigation.

THE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

This hypothesis states a value or relationship and it is different from the null. It
asserts that the value of relationship in the null is not ‘cruel in research, the null
hypothesis is tested, and if rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
Alternative hypothesis is the opposite of null and it is symbolized by H1.

Examples:
H1: There is a significant difference between the perception and attitude of
entrepreneurs.

H2: There is a significant difference between success in business and determination.

H3 Teachers determine the success or failure of their students in life.

All stated hypotheses require testing. Therefore, it is imperative for a researcher to

know that all the hypotheses should be backed up by evidence.

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
If the researcher’s interest is in finding a difference only in a particular direction,
then a directional hypothesis is used. A directional hypothesis states the
relationship between the variables being studied or difference between
experimental treatments that a researcher expects to emerge. For example if a
researcher is interested in finding out how teacher qualifications influence students’
performance in mathematics in secondary schools, the directional hypothesis can be
stated as following: There is a positive and significant relationship between the
qualification of teachers and student performance in mathematics in secondary
schools.
Importance of Hypotheses in Research
The hypothesis plays a vital role in research. This includes the following:
a. It states the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between the
variables in the research problem.
b. The hypothesis refines the research problem.
c. By defining the variables in the study, the hypothesis enables the researcher to
collect data that either supports the hypothesis or rejects it.

Qualities of an Effective Hypothesis

An effective hypothesis has the following qualities:
 It states as clearly and concisely as possible the expected relationship (or
difference) between two or more variables.
 It defines the selected variables in operational and measurable terms.
 It is testable and verifiable. It is possible to support or not support the
hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data.
 The wordings are clear and precise.
 It gives logical arguments to justify the hypothesis.
 It is consistent with the existing body of knowledge.

Guidelines in Formulating the Hypothesis

In formulating an effective hypothesis the following guidelines should be adhered
to:
a) Reflect — on issues of concern
b) Analyze the research problem, title, objectives and literature review. These
sections will identify key variables that the. r0esearcher’; can use as a base to define
the relationships.
c) Generate operational definitions for all variables.
d) State the research hypothesis - The research hypothesis should clearly state the
relationship that the researcher thinks exists between the independent and
dependent variables.
e) Formulate — The researcher should then write down the relationship between
the variables ensuring that they are measurable and if accomplished will answer the
research question. The researcher should ensure they reflect expected relationships
or differences.
e) Evaluation — After formulating the hypothesis, the researchers should evaluate
it to find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem.

Challenges Faced in Formulating the Hypothesis

There are various challenges faced in hypothesis formulation. These challenges
include:
 Lack of clarity: In some studies, the hypothesis does not clearly state the
relationship between two or more variables. They do not focus on the
relationship the study hopes to portray.
 At times the variables stated in the hypothesis are too many and cannot be
achieved within the time frame stated.
 Some of the formulated hypotheses are not testable or verifiable.
 Some hypotheses do not address all aspects of the research problem.

Hypothesis can be used in both qualitative and quantitative research. They are
applicable when the researcher intends to show that a relationship exists between
the independent and dependent variables.
Research Questions
These are issues that the researcher seeks to answer. They are related to the
research objectives. These questions guide the research process by addressing the
variables of the study.

Significance of the Study

This section outlines the significance or importance of the issue at hand. If for
example the researcher is investigating poor prices, then significance would be
related to improvement of prices. It could also involve creation of awareness of
market forces.

Limitations of the Study

This section indicates challenges anticipated or faced by the. researcher. This
includes time and financial limitations that influenced the scope of the study, data
inaccessibility, and unanticipated occurrences. However the researcher should
make an attempt to state how the challenges were overcome.

Conceptual Framework
A CONCEPT is an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific
instances. A concept is a word or phrase that symbolizes several interrelated ideas.
Unlike a theory, a concept does not need to be discussed to be understood (Smyth,
2004).

CONCEPTUALIZATION is inventing or contriving an idea or explanation and

formulating it mentally. It is the act of creating or formulating something by thinking
up particular ideas or actions intended to deal with a problem or situation. A
conceptualization is an abstract, simplified view of the world that we wish to
represent for some purpose. Every knowledge base, knowledge-based system, or
knowledge-level agent is committed to some conceptualization, explicitly or
implicitly (Genesereth and Nilsson, 1987).
FRAMING is the formulation of plans and important details. Itis a way of conceiving
something.

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK can be defined as a set of broad ideas and principles

taken from relevant fields of enquiry ad used to structure a subsequent presentation
(Reichel and Ramey, 1987).

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to

develop awareness and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to
communicate this. When clearly articulated, a conceptual framework has potential
usefulness as a tool to assist a researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings.
It forms part of the agenda for negotiation to be scrutinized and tested, reviewed
and informed as a result of investigation (Guba and Lincoln, 1989).

Usefulness of Conceptual Frameworks

According to Goetz and LeCompte (1984), and Bliss, Monk and Ogborn (1983) a
conceptual framework increasingly strengthens and keeps the research on track by:
 Providing clear links from the literature to the research goals and questions.
 Contributing to the formulation of the research design.
 Providing reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and
analysis of data.
 Contributing to the trustworthiness of the study.
 Giving a broad scope to thinking about the research.
 Conceptualizing the problem and providing a means to link ideas and data so
that deeper connections can be revealed.

A conceptual framework should assist a researcher to organize his/her thinking and

complete an investigation successfully. It must explain the relationship among
interlinked concepts. It explains the possible connection between the variables and
answers the why questions. To find out how effective one’s conceptual framework
is, one should analyze whether the set objectives have been addressed (Smyth,
2004).

When we understand a concept we understand the links and assoc E’tons that go
with that concept. Researchers who understand concepts become more
knowledgeable in their area of research. Understanding is greater and of higher
quality if we understand the dynamics. In research if one can understand a concept
one becomes very close to “owning” it.

Strategies of Designing Effective Conceptual Frameworks

Learners at all levels of education consistently find the process of designing a
conceptual framework a demanding, abstract and frustrating experience. To come
up with an effective conceptual framework, one has to analyze a set of broad ideas
and principles taken from relevant fields of inquiry, and study various works
illuminating experiences where several threads of thought combine. Extensive
bodies of knowledge could be used as cornerstones for organizing one’s thinking
(Smyth, 2002).

The extent and currency of these bodies of literature provided a sound foundation
for a conceptual framework. This is because one can draw on this extensive and
collaborated theorizing, to devise a common language, guiding principles and
reference points from which to structure discussions and analysis (Smyth, 2002). It
is also useful for a researcher to understand what a conceptual framework is and
entails before attempting to conceptualize.

The following strategies are useful in designing an effective conceptual framework.

a. Reflection - assessing situations from social, economic and
philosophical perspectives. One has to be clear about what the
research is about (title, objectives). Factors such as the independent
and dependent variables, and research questions should also be put
into perspective.
 b. Defining the key issue (problem) to be addressed and defining its
practical boundaries.
c. Identifying key uncertainties (gaps in understanding/knowledge)
about the situation or the social/economic systems, and so on (The
questions that need to be answered by the study).
d. Identifying and assessing different possibilities for action.

A well constructed conceptual framework can guide the entire research writing
process, keep the researcher on track, save time and enable researchers to defend
their arguments soundly and readily.

Qualities of an Effective Conceptual Framework

An effective conceptual framework should have the following qualities:
 Should be clear and concise.
 Language used should be simple and straight forward.
 The conceptual framework should be self explanatory.
 Should have supportive evidence of ideas used.
 It should be logical and address the title, research objectives, and statement of
the problem.
 It should be consistent with the literature review.
 It should also show a link between the literature review and the study problem.
 It should develop a set of guiding principles against which judgments and
prediction might be made.
 It should act as a reference point from which to locate the research questions
within contemporary theorizing.
 It should provide a structure within which to organize the content of research
and to frame conclusions within the context.

Challenges Faced in Designing an Effective Conceptual Framework

There are various challenges faced in designing an effective conceptual framework
and this should be addressed by researchers. One of the major challenges is in
structuring the framework so that one can communicate through it effectively.
Choosing the language for the descriptions needs careful consideration. Descriptors
form the common- language reference points for discussion, judgments and
reporting.

In addition, elements of each theme overlap considerably and it is therefore

important to realize that themes are parts of an intertwined context rather than
isolated strategies making independent contributions to the situation under
consideration. Disunity in themes is a major weakness in conceptual frameworks.
Some researchers write ideas that are isolated, yet in a conceptual framework
elements of each theme should overlap.

The literature review should support the investigation through the conceptual
framework. It should provide reference points from which judgments can be made
following the data analysis in subsequent chapters. One of the challenges faced is
planning and finalizing the conceptual framework without the planner being
conversant with the research objectives. Another major challenge is copying
conceptual frameworks of other researchers without a keen study to find out if the
framework fits in the current study.

Limitations of Conceptual Frameworks

A researcher should be aware of the following limitations when designin a
conceptual framework. A conceptual framework is a construction of knowledge
bound by the life-world experiences of the person developing it and should not be
attributed a power that it does not have (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Moreover, the
nature of a conceptual framework means that it consciously or unconsciously
informs thought and practice by increasing personal sensitivity to particular
occurrences, and so this must be taken into account (Mason and Waywood, 1996).
No researcher can expect that all data will be analyzed using the framework without
the risk of limiting the results from the investigation.
By considering these cautions, one should remain open to new or unexpected
occurrences in the data and the investigation.

Steps in Preparing an Effective Conceptual Framework

There are various steps in preparing an effective conceptual framework. These are
as follows:
a. Selection of concepts — A person selects the concepts to be used in relation to
the problem. At this level of abstraction, the focus is on alternative ideas that
bear directly on the problem or situation. These ideas relate directly to the
problem.
b. Creation of options — the construction of possible actions prior to selection. It
addresses the act of creating the sequences for creating ideas. The perception of
the circumstances or imagining the circumstances immediately gives rise to
mental sets in relation to those circumstances. These mental sets include our
knowledge of what to do, and potential outcomes — these are prior knowledge.
c. Seek the tools to conceptualize — the very tools for the highest level of
abstract thought. At this level ideas are linked and their relationship identified.
d. Direct the conceptualization process — offering certain types of insight and
write the conceptual framework.

Potential for Transferability

The usefulness of the conceptual framework as a research tool is illustrated by the
researcher’s ability to identify and account for occurrences of actions and behaviour
in one’s data through the descriptors in the framework (Smyth, 2004). The
conceptual framework should demonstrate its potential as a meta-analysis tool by
fulfilling the conditions set for it. It should be a useful research tool in the con- text
for which it was developed. The conceptual framework indicates the effect of the
independent variable (cause) on the dependent variable (outcome).
After identifying the variables a researcher should interpret and link the conceptual
framework with the current study. (See figure 1 on page 23 — Physiotherapy
Strategy)
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is a
reasoned set of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or
evidence. A theoretical framework accounts for or explains phenomena. It attempts
to clarify why things are the way they are based on theories. A theoretical
framework is a general set of assumptions about the nature of phenomena. To
understand theoretical frameworks, an analysis of theories has to be made.

Theories in Research
A theory is a reasoned statement or groups of statements, which are supported by
evidence, meant to explain phenomena. They are a systematic explanation of the
relationship among phenomena. Theories provide a generalized, explanation to an
occurrence. There are several kinds of theories in all disciplines. It is impossible for
a researcher to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should be
conversant with those applicable to one’s area of research. When a theory fails to be
supported by data, it can be rejected, or is revised. Theories are testable in a
practical situation. Theories provide indicators and examples of what is
incorporated in the framework. Theories provide tentative theoretical answers to
questions, issues and problems before the researcher practically confirms through
research that the answer is correct. Theories have proponents. Researchers apply
theories to guide their work and help interpret findings. They provide a foundation
for inquiries. The following are some of the theories that. can be used to formulate a
theoretical framework:

a) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY (EMILE DURKHEIM, 1858-1917)

This theory proposes that a human society is like an organism and is made up of
structures called social institutions. These institutions are specially structured so
that they perform different functions on behalf of society. This theory attempts to
provide an explanation on how human society is organized and what each of the
various social institutions does in order for society to continue existing. According
to this theory, as a result of being interrelated and interdependent, one organ can
affect the others and ultimately the whole. The whole can also affect one or all the
social institutions. A researcher can use this theory to point out why and how some
societies operate relatively well compared to others socially.

b) Symbolic Interaction Theory (Max Weber, 1864-1920)

This theory deals with explaining how individuals relate with each other. This is a
theoretic orientation, which contains assumptions proposing that the social world is
made up of symbols, which human beings use as a means of interaction. According
to this theory human beings do not act individually but interact with each other,
thus reacting to each other. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain
and understand how people relate to each other and what is used in facilitating a
relationship between individua1 and groups of people in society. A researcher may
attempt 4o show how the behaviour expressed by members of groups to which one
belongs and by members of one’s personal networks have an influence. The
researcher may show how people rely on the opinions of others, especially when a
situation is highly uncertain or ambiguous and’ no objective evidence is readily
available. “

c) CONFLICT THEORY (KARL MARX 181 8-1883) .

This theory emphasizes the existence of opposing forces in the fife of individuals,
groups, social structures and society in general. This theory views human society as
a collection of competing interest groups and individuals, each with their own
motives and expectations. The principle assumption underlying this theory is that
all members in society do not have the same values, interests or expectations. These
vary according to one’s position, privileges, ability, class and wealth. Agreement
tends to appear among those who share similar privileges. This is likely to
encourage unequal distribution of the scarce but valuable resources and
opportunities. This results in divisions in society resulting in hostility and
opposition. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain why conflicts
occur in society.
d) BASIC NEEDS THEORY (ABRAHAM MASLOW, 1943)
‘According to this theory, there sare certain minimum requirements that are
essential to a decent standard of living. These are known as physiological needs.
They include food, shelter, health and clothing.. They are primary needs and have to
be catered for before other needs such as security and shelter, sense of belonging
and affection, love, esteem and finally self-actualization are pursued. A researcher
can apply this theory when attempting to prove that lack of basic survival needs
may be a contributory factor to the situation of the phenomenon under study.

Importance of Theoretical Frameworks

A theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These include the following:
a. It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research prob1cm. This enables
the researcher to understand the total realm of the problem.
b. It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an
outgrowth of the larger society. This helps the researcher to acknowledge the
problem from a wider perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-
interest approach. This enhances the researcher’s objectivity.

Qualities of an Effective Theoretical Framework

An effective theoretical framework should:
a. Account for and explain a phenomenon.
b. Be specific and well articulated.
c. Reflect the research problem being addressed.
d. Be measured in a practical situation.
e. Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the
research problem.
f. Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly
the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
Guidelines in Formulating a Theoretical Framework
In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to
the following:
a. Reflect - On the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context.
b. Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables.
The researcher should then reflect on the relationship between these variables.
c. Find cut which theories best explain the relationship between the variables. This
can be achieved by using the library and reading books with articles related to
the topic selected. The researcher should read through various theories related
to one’s research topic. The sources include professional publications, journals
in education, theses, abstracts from doctoral dissertations and masters’ theses
and psychological abstracts. These readings will present various studies related
to one’s study area. This will assist in the formulation of the theoretical
framework.
d. Formulation -The researcher should then write down the theories applicable,
link the ideas and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should
formulate the theoretical framework. This will involve discussing the selected
theories in an attempt to answer the research question.
e. Evaluation - After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should
evaluate it to find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem.

Challenges Faced in Formulation of Theoretical Frameworks

Lack of differentiation between a theory and a theoretical framework. While a
theory simply states what proponents have discovered in relation to a certain issue,
a theoretical framework uses this theory to account for and clarify why things are
the way they are. The researcher should therefore avoid simply stating the theories
applicable to the study. Moreover, some researchers quote theories that do not
explain the phenomenon under study.
Relationship between Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks
Many researchers get confuse,1 whether to use conceptual or theoretical
frameworks in their studies. Although both these frameworks are tools to assist a
researcher make meaningful findings, they vary. A conceptual framework bases on
ideas that may be formulated from a researcher’s own perception. This may be from
observation or experience. On the other hand, the theoretical framework is based on
recognized theories.
A conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through research. A theoretical
framework is testable and can be rejected or revised. Ideas raised in a theoretical
framework have proponents while those in a conceptual framework are mainly the
researcher’s with a few references to support them. A theoretical framework is a
discussion of related theories attempting to predict a phenomenon. A conceptual
framework is an idea stated.
 CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The term “literature” refers to the analysis of textbooks or manuscripts. Although
many people rightly associate literature with novels and poetry, in research the
term is more specific. In terms.: of a literature review, “the literature” means the
works the researcher consulted in order to understand and investigate the research
problem. A literature review therefore is an account of what has been published on
a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a critical look at the existing
research that is significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying out. It
involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals and dissertations
that have a bearing on the study being conducted. This chapter analyzes the
importance of literature review in research. It also expounds on the qualities of an
effective literature review and guidelines in writing the literature review.

Importance of Literature Review in Research

Literature review is essential in research. This is due to the following:
a. It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research. Literature
review enables the researcher to study different theories related to the
identified topic. By studying these theories, a researcher gains clarity and better
understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the current research.
b. It gives the researcher insight into what has already been done in the selected
field, pinpointing its strengths and weaknesses. This• information guides the
researcher in the formulation of a theory that aims at addressing the identified
gaps.
c. It enables the researcher to know the kind of additional data needed in the
study. This helps avoid duplication of work.
d. An understanding of previous works helps the researcher to develop a
significant problem which will provide further knowledge in the field of study. It
also helps in delimiting the research problem This is through portraying what
has already been done and what would be useful to focus on in the current study.
e. Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches of dealing with
the research issue. This contributes to a well-designed methodology. The
researcher can avoid methods indicated in the literature to have failed and adopt
new approaches. This will result in a significant study.
f. it helps in developing an analytic framework or a basis for analyz1fl and
interpreting data
Qualities of an Effective Literature Review
The following are qualities expected from an effective ‘literature review

a. It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation — In an effective study the

literature review is used to analyze issues such as: whether the hypotheses in
the studies reviewed were logically formulated. The methodology used in the
studies and the quality of interpretation of the 1’ndings are also analyzed. Other
issues addressed by the researcher while reviewing literature relate to the
sampling procedures adopted and their appropriateness for the study. The
interpretation of data particularly on whether it is based on logical deduction of
findings is also examined. An investigation is also made on research findings and
their statistical significance. The applicability of the research findings to a wide
population is discussed.
b. It Justifies the need for the study—An effective literature review identifies he
gaps in the studies quoted. By identifying these gaps and highlighting the
identified controversies, it helps to indicate that further research needs to be
carried out on the identified topic. It also points3 out how the current study will
contribute positively towards filling; the identified gaps.
c. It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study — An
effective literature review links the current study with past studies. It evaluates
and shows the relationships between the work ‘already done by other scholars
and the researcher’s work. This link brings consistency and continuity in relation
to the identified topic.
d. It puts the research problem into perspective — By quoting and analyzing
various studies related to the selected topic, the literature review helps define
 the research problem. It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research
questions.

Guidelines in Formulating an Effective Literature Review

The following techniques are essential in reviewing literature:
a. Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature review -Before the
researcher begins to search for articles and materials relevant to the research
topic, he/she should identify the key issues that will guide the literature search.
These key issues can be formulated by the researcher clearly identifying the
research topic, title and the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. The objectives of the study should also be identified. The
researcher should also be certain of the specific problem the literature review
will help address. The researcher should know what type of literature review
he/she is conducting. That is, does it deal with issues of theory, methodology,
policy or social issues? For example in a study by Kombo (2005), Abortion in
Kenya: An examination of its causes and effects on female students in secondary
schools and colleges, the research topic was on abortion and its influence on
education. The key issues to be tackled therefore were “abortion, its causes and
its effects.” The literature review therefore focused on these aspects.
b. Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem — The researcher. should
formulate a preliminary statement. This will assist the researcher to be focused
in material selection. For example, what are the causes and effects of abortion on
the education of female students in secondary schools and colleges? What has
been done and can be done to assist these students? After the preliminary
statement, the researcher can now begin to identify sources of information
relevant to the research topic.
c. Identify sources of information — The researcher needs to identify-books,
articles, professional papers and other relevant publications that relate to the
research title and the research problem. There are a wide variety of sources
available for locating articles for the review of literature. Many of these sources
are available in the libraries. The Internet can also be used to locate articles.
 Some of the sources of in.formati0 include journal articles. These are good
especially for up- to-date information. They are frequently used in literature
reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research,
and because all reputable journals are peer reviewed and refereed (that is,
editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research). Books offer a good
starting point from which to find more detailed sources. Conference proceedings
are useful in providing current research findings or research that has not been
published. Information can also be gathered from government/corporate
reports. Many government departments and corporations or commissions carry
out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of
information, depending on the researcher’s field of study. Newspapers can also
offer useful information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g.
announcing changes in government policy. Specialized magazines are very useful
(for example business magazines for management students) in providing
general information about new discoveries and policies. Theses and
dissertations can be useful sources of information. The researcher should
identify the scope of the literature review. He/ she should be clear on what types
of publications will be used (for example, journals, books, government
documents). The researcher should also identify the discipline he/she is working
in (Sociology, Psychology, Curriculum, Medicine, Business Studies eta.). This will
hasten the search for materials.
d. Analyze critically the articles identified — After identifying the articles to be
used, the researcher should critically analyze each book or article selected by
reflecting on the following:
 Has the author formulated a problem/issue? Is it clearly defined? Is its
significance clearly established?
 Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/ issue?
 Is there an objective basis to he reasoning or is the author merely “proving’
what he or she already believes?
 How does the author structure the argument, for example, does it establish
cause-effect relationships?
  How does the. book or article relate to the specific objectives or questions the
researcher is attempting to study?
To answer these questions, the researcher should read the article’s abstract or
summary. This will enable the researcher to deduce how applicable the article is to
the current study. In the selection of articles, the most recent works on a subject
area must be identified. This shows or demonstrates how the researcher is
conversant with current trends in knowledge in the subject area.

e) Classify and code the article — The researcher should abstract and code each
relevant article based on a system of his/her devising. This includes taking notes
and paraphrasing any relevant literature that the researcher would want to
include in the literature review. The researcher should mark these notes with
some codes for easy retrieval. This involves putting the code on an index card or
on the photocopied article (if you photocopied it). The researcher should add on
the coded article any thoughts that come to his/her mind about the article. The
author should indicate any statements that are direct quotations (use quotation
marks and also jot down the page number). The researcher should keep
personal reactions separated from direct quotations. The details of the source
e.g. author, title, date of publication and the publisher should be indicated.
f) Create an outline for the review - To create an outline of the literature review,
the researcher should identify the main points in the order they should be
presented. The article codes will assist in this. The researcher should also
differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. Points that are similar
should be grouped together.
g) Synthesize the information gathered - The researcher should synthesize the
information gathered before writing the literature. This involves analyzing each
reference in terms of the research variables. The researcher should also analyze
all references identified for the relationships or differences between them.
h) Write the review of related literature - Orodho (2003) indicates that in
reviewing literature, the author should do the following:
 Select studies that relate most directly to the problem at hand.
 Tie together the results of the studies so that their relevance is clear.
 Indicate that the research area reviewed is incomplete or requires extension.
 Organize the review along major points relevant to the problem.
 Give the reader some indication of the relative importance of the results from
the studies reviewed.

One way of reviewing literature in an organized manner is by reviewing it according

to the objectives. The researcher selects an objective and reviews information
related to the achievement of that particular objective under the sub-headings of the
objective itself. The objectives provide guidelines on what should be put under them
and how it should be.

EVALUATION
After carrying out the review and writing, the researcher should reflect on the
following:
 How effective was the information search? To answer this, the researcher
should reflect on whether the search was wide enough to ensure he/she had
found all the relevant material. The researcher should also reflect on whether
the search was narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material. The researcher
should also reflect on whether the number of sources used was appropriate
in tackling the issue under discussion.
 Has the literature used been critically analyzed? The researcher should find
out whether he/she has followed through a set of concepts and questions,
comparing items to each other. The researcher should find out whether
instead of just listing and summarizing items, he/she has assessed them,
discussing their strengths and weaknesses.
 Will the reader find the literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?
The researcher should also reflect on the relevancy of the information given
to the readers.
 Does the literature help clarify the research problem? The literature should
help put the ‘research problem into perspective.
Challenges Faced in the Formulation of a Literature Review
There are many challenges researchers encounter while writing the literature
review. This includes the following:
a. Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current study — Some
literature reviews are simply listings of one piece of literature after the other
without any discussion and analysis. The researcher hardly relates the studies to
his/her study. These make the studies unrelated to the current study. The
researcher should show the relationship between the works of different
researchers, showing similarities/differences and how each set of studies,
theories or methodologies in the previous research impacts on his/her study.
b. Poor presentation — Some researchers create too many paragraphs in. their
work by treating each article in a separate paragraph. This makes the work
disjointed particularly if separate paragraphs are addressing a similar point. The
researcher should ensure that similar points are grouped together or combined.
Some researchers start each article with the name of the researcher. This
repetition can become tiresome for readers. This can be varied by quoting the
author after writing about the article. Some researchers devote the same amount
of space to each study without regard to importance or relevance. The review
should be organized according to major points relevant to the research problem.
Some results have more bearing on the problem than others and should be
expounded on adequately.
c. Large quantities of studies to review — Some researchers attempt to read and
review all the materials related to their topic. This is impossible. The idea of the
literature review is not to provide a summary of all the published work that
relates to one’s research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant works.
The researcher should therefore read abstracts of the selected articles, and
select materials that are most relevant to his/her study.
d. Lack of documentation — Some researchers read articles without writing until
they have “finished” reading. This at times results in forgetting or omitting
important points. A researcher should note down important points in the course
of reading.
e. Lack of referencing — Some researchers rarely note down the references in their
work while reading. Some are therefore forced while compiling the literature
review, to spend a lot of time in the library tracking down the references to all
the sources that they quoted. They may also have to go through their writing to
find which information came from which source. To avoid this, researchers
should always put references into their writing.
f. Lack of critique — Some researchers blindly accept research findings and
interpretation without critically examining all aspects of the research design and
analysis. The researcher should critically analyze the work, pointing out
contrary. findings and alternative interpretations.
g. Failure to review current studies — Some researchers base their reviews on
works that were carried out over twenty years ago. Though these studies may
have valid information and cannot be ignored, the researcher should attempt to
base most of the review on current studies. The researcher should make
attempts to analyze studies carried out less than five years ago in relation to
his/her study.

After reviewing literature the researcher should discuss the identified gaps.

Conclusion
The review of literature is critical in any research work. This is because it enables
the researcher to study different theories related to the identified topic and gain
clarity of the research topic. .It also enables the researcher to know the kind of
additional data needed in the study. However a good literature review is critical,
organized and analytical in orientation. It also justifies the need for the study and
highlights the relationship between the past and the current studies. There are
varied challenges faced by researchers in reviewing literature. These include failure
to connect the reviewed studies with the current study, poor presentation, lack of
documentation and referencing, lack of critique and failure to review current
studies. The researcher should make attempts to avoid these mistakes. This is by
taking sufficient time to keenly work on this section.
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
After completing the introduction and literature review, the next task in the
proposal is the methodology. This chapter of the research thesis deals with the
description of the methods applied in carrying out the research study. It is
organized under the following sections: research design, research site, population,
sampling techniques, research instruments, data collection procedures and data
analysis.

Research Design
A research design can be thought of as the structure of research. It is the “glue” that
holds all of the elements in a research project together. A design is used to structure
the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project work
together to try to address the central research questions. Orodho (2003) defines it
as the scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research
problems. A research design can be regarded as an arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance with the
research purpose. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
(Kothari, 2003).

Types of Research Designs

It is important to understand the relationship among various designs. This will
assist the researcher in making design choices and thinking about the strengths and
weaknesses of different designs. The designs are as follows:

DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists. The researcher reports the findings. Kerlinger (1969) points out that
descriptive studies are not only restricted to fact findings, but may often result in
the formulation of important principles of knowledge and solution to significant
problems. They are more than just a collection of data. They involve measurement,
classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation of data.

Descriptive survey is a method of collecting information by interviewing or

administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Orodho, 2003). It can be
used when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of
the variety of education or social issues (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). For example,
teachers in schools can carry out a survey to find out students’ attitudes towards
their teaching styles or discipline. When using this design the researcher should
ensure the following:

 Construct questions that will solicit the desired information.

 Identify the individuals that will be surveyed.
 Identify the means by which the survey will be conducted.
 Summarize the data in a way that provides the designed descriptive information.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which
receives the treatment or to a control group which does not receive treatment.
Assuming the two groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare
their performance. In this design cause and effect can be easily determined. If you
decide to use this design, you must be certain of the independent and dependent
variables and must guard against the influence of extraneous variables.

CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
This design enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationship that exists
between two or more variables. It analyzes .the correlation between two or more
variables (Orodho, 2003). For example, if you compare the examination
performance of a group of university. students who prepare their own meals
everyday and those who eat at the cafeteria, you will use a correlation design.
Suppose the academic performance of students who prepare their own meals is
lower than those who eat at the cafeteria, then you may deduce that preparation of
meals by students has an impact on their academic performance. However, you
might not be able to prove conclusively that the poor performance was caused by
time used for cooking. Nevertheless, if you have carefully controlled other possible
variables that might produce the difference, then a causal relationship exists. The
use-of correlation research designs will enable you to map out the relationship
between two or more educational variables.

CASE STUDY DESIGN

A case study seeks to describe a unit in detail, in context and holistically. It is a way
of organizing educational data and looking at the object to be studied as a whole. In
a case study, a great deal can be learned from a few examples of the phenomena
under study. For example, The impact of pay-as-you-eat on education: A case study
of Kenyatta University. A study of Kenyatta University can allow an in-depth
investigation of the problem at hand. It will bring about deeper insights and better
understanding of the problems faced by students. You should use case study design
if you intend to analyze an issue in detail. Ensure that you have justified why you
selected a case study.

CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH DESIGN

This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures. Using this
design you can perceive how various cultures perceive certain educational and
social outcomes. For example, you can compare the performance of students in
English in rural and urban schools and find out to what extent cultural variations
influence performance.

Steps to Follow n Selecting a Research Design

Below are some of the steps a researcher should follow while selecting a research
design:
a. Identify the kind of research you intend to carry out. Being aware of the purpose
and objectives of your study and your theoretical foundations will considerably
influence how you design your research: where you go, for how long, with whom
you talk, and the kind of questions you ask. Deciding if you intend to test or
elaborate existing theory or are trying to build a new, grand theory, or are using
existing theory in a new way, has implications in the kind of information you
need to collect.
b. Use the library to analyze samples of research designs from books and
periodicals. The Internet is another option.
c. Discuss with colleagues on the validity and reliability of your research and make
a decision on what design will assist in answering your research questions
appropriately.

Qualities of Effective Research Design

 They are systematic and logical. They effectively address the questions raised
in the study. Based on this design the researcher can construct questions that
will solicit the desired information.
 They contribute to accurate and fair interpretation of results.
 They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the means by which the
study will be conducted-
 They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding of the research
topic.

Guidelines in Selecting a Research Design

The following are essential points that researchers should adhere to while selecting
a research design:
a) Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study: The researcher
should identify and reflect on the research questions raised in the study.
Reflection should include brainstorming on issues such as:
  Do the questions raised in the study require systematic manipulation of
independent and dependent variables? If the answer is yes, then the
researcher will use an experimental design.
 Does the study require the researcher to assess the degree of relationship
between two or more variables? If the answer is positive then a correlation
design will be used.
 Does the study seek to describe a unit in detail? If so then a case study design
will be used.
 Does the study seek to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures?
If the answer is positive then a cross-cultural researclti4esign will be
applicable.
b) After identifying the research design to be used, read materials related to that
design to understand its advantages and disadvantages. -
Indicate the research design pointing out its validity and reliability to the current
research.

Pitfalls in Selection of Research Designs

While selecting a research design, a researcher should be on the lookout for the
following pitfalls and avoid them:
a. Choosing a design that cannot assist in meeting the research objectives.
b. Choosing a design that is too complex for research at the level at which the
student is studying.
c. Choosing a design that requires extensive study and a lot of time while the time
assigned to the research is limited.
d. Lack of clarity about the design.
e. A research design that lacks flexibility.

From the above, it is clear that in selecting a research design the researcher should
ensure that it links concepts and questions with the study and it is specific and
flexible and expansive enough to adapt to various complexities.
Research Site
The selection of a research site is essential. It influences the. usefulness of the
information produced. The idea is to start with larger population and through
progressive elimination, end up with the actual site where data is collected (Orodho
and Kombo, 2002). It is important to do the following:

a. Identify the 1argt areas which are relevant to your research questions and
objectives.
b. Consider the heterogeneity of the potential study population and choose areas or
communities which represent the range of variations on the most important
characteristics.
c. Identify and select actual communities which fulfill these criteria by making site
visits, discussing with community leaders.
d. Issues of accessibility should also be considered.

e.
Population
A population is a group of individuals, objects or items from which samples are
taken for measurement (for example a population of students). Population refers to
an entire group of persons or elements that have at least one thing in common, for
instance, students at Kenyatta University). Population also refers to the larger group
from which the sample is taken. It is important for the researcher to find out as
much as possible about the study population. This includes some of the overall
demographics such as age, gender and class of the population. The greater the
diversity and differences that exist in the population, the larger the researcher’s
sample size should be. Capturing the variability in population allows for more
reliability of the study.
The following are qualities of an effective population sample:
a. Diversity: An effective population sample attempts to be as diverse as possible.
The greater the diversity and differences that exists in the population sample the
higher the applicability of the research findings to the whole population.
b. Representative: It is important for the researcher to identify and select
respondents that fulfill the questions the research is addressing. For example, if
a study is on the effect of the slum environment- of basic education, it is
important that the majority of the population of the respondents is from the
slum environment.
c. Accessibility: An effective population sample is one that is accessible to the
researcher.
d. Knowledge: An effective population sample should have some idea of the topic
being investigated.

Guidelines in Population
In population sampling, the researcher should carry out the following:
a. Reflect on the research title particularly the independent and dependent
variables and the study objectives. This enables the researcher to identify the
type of population that will be most suitable for the study.
b. Identify the largest population which can relevantly be used s respondents in
addressing the research questions and meeting the specific objectives.
c. Consider the heterogeneity of a potential study population and choose areas or
communities which represent the range of variations with the most important
characteristics.
d. Evaluate the effectiveness of the selected population in meeting the objectives of
the study. Issues of accessibility to the respondents should also be considered
during evaluation.

Sampling Techniques
e. Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to
study. It is a process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a
population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the
characteristics found in the entire group (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). A sample is
a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can
be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for
the purpose of a survey. Research conclusions and generalizations are only as
good as the sample they are based on. Samples are always subsets r small parts
of the total number that could be studied. Sampling is the act process or
technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population. The way in which a researcher selects subjects for a study will
determine how one is able to generalize the results of the study.

Sampling Design
The term “sampling design” refers to that part f the research plan that indicates how
cases are to be selected for observation. Sampling designs are divided into two
broad areas:

• Probability designs.
• Non-probability designs.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The key component behind all probability sampling approaches is randomization, or
random selection. In probability sampling people, places or things are randomly
selected. Each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This
sampling gives every member of the population equal chances of being included, in
the study. Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize to the larger
population and make inferences. If the purpose of your research is to draw
conclusions or make predictions affecting the population as a whole, then
probability sampling is appropriate Various methods have been established to
accomplish probability sampling. These include the following:

a) Simple random sampling

This method is referred to as simple random sampling as no complexities are
involved. All you need is a relatively small, clearly de- fined population to use this
method. For example in a town of 10,000 residents, the researcher may simply
obtain a-list of all residents, and then using a sequence of numbers from a random
numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips of a coin), selects say 10% or 20%, or some
portion of names on that list, making sure that he/she is not drawing from any letter
of the alphabet more heavily than others. Advantages of simple random sampling
are that the samples yield research data that can be generalized to a larger
population. This method also permits the researcher to apply inferential statistics to
the data and provides equal opportunity of selection for each element of the
population. It is a procedure in which all the individuals in the defined population
have an equal and independent chance of being selected as a member of the sample.

Disadvantages
However this method also has disadvantages. This includes the following:
 It is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling. The researcher
may, just because of luck of draw, not get good representation of subgroups
in a population.
 Bias in selection is common.
  Some samples may be over or under represented.
 Non response error is high. Some of the members selected may have moved
to other areas.

b) Stratified random sampling

Stratified random sampling involves dividing your population into homogeneous
subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. The sample is
selected in such a way as to ensure that certain subgroups in the population are
represented in the sample in proportion to their number in the population. This
method is appropriate when the researcher is interested in issues related to gender,
race or age disparities in the population.

For example, if one is planning to study Factors influencing female enrollment in

architecture and knows that gender is going to be an important factor because
female students rarely take this course or quit before completing the course, the
researcher therefore needs to stratify the sample by the gender strata, making sure
that the female students are over sampled (draw more of random number of female
students) as opposed to male students (which the researcher would under sample).
For example, the department has 1,000 students consisting of 900 male and 100
female students, and the researcher’s intent on sampling 10% of the total, and that
the researcher proceeds as usual, drawing 90 males at random and 10 females at
random. If he/she had used the student list of names, regardless of gender, chances
are that the researcher may not obtain 10 female students at random because they
are fewer in total number. The advantages of this method are that you will be able to
represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population,
especially small minority groups. Stratified random sampling will generally have
more statistical precision than simple random sampling.

Disadvantages
If not carefully stratified, bias can occur resulting in some groups of the population
being unrepresented
c) Systematic random sampling
Suppose a researcher had a large list of people, places or things to select from, such
as 100,000 people or more. The appropriate method to use is to select every 10 th,
20th, or 30th person from such a list. This decision to use every 10 th , 20th , or 30th
person is called the sampling interval, and as it is done systematically and the entire
list is used, the researcher is said to be systematically random sampling.

Advantages
 Large populations can be analyzed.
 Every member of the populations has an equal chance of inclusion.
 Bias is minimized.

Disadvantages
 The response may be low since the respondents’ availability is unpredictable.
 The selection of the first sample member may result in a bias in the entire
sample.
 The list used may not be in a systematic order.

d) Cluster random sampling

In the event that a population is dispersed across a wide geographic region, one may
have to use cluster random sampling. This method allows for the division of the
study population into clusters (usually counties, regions, provinces or other
boundaries) and random sampling of everyone in those clusters. The units within
the sampled clusters should be measured.

For instance, a survey of all secondary schools in Kenya will require the researcher
to visit all the provinces. If one uses the simple random sampling method, he/she
will have to cover the entire country geographically. Instead, one could simply do a
cluster sampling of two districts per province, which would then be visited for the
survey. The advantage of this method is that it needs a detailed sampling frame for
selected clusters only rather than for the entire target area. There are savings in
travel costs and time as well. However, there is a risk of missing important sub-
groups and not having a complete representation of the target population.

Probability sampling is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection. In order to have a random selection method, a researcher must set up
some process or procedure that assures that the different units in the selected
population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Some forms of random
selection include picking a name out of a hat. These days, you can use a computer
and generate random numbers as the basis for random selection. Random sampling
is still regarded as one of the best statistical methods as it is free from bias.

Disadvantage
 There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups
 Lack of complete representation of the target population

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In this method, the researcher is interested in the representativeness of the
concepts in their varying forms. This method of sampling aims to be theoretically
representative of the study population by maximizing the scope or range of
variation of the study. This method is mainly applied to find out how a small group,
or a representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or explanation.
Various methods have also been established to accomplish non-probabilistic
sampling.

a) Quota sampling
This sampling technique begins by dividing the population into relevant strata such
as age, gender or geographical region. The total sample is allocated among the strata
in direct proportion to their estimated or actual size in the population. Once the
researcher identifies the people to be studied, they have to resort, to haphazard or
accidental sampling because no effort is usually made to contact people who are
difficult to reach in the quota. The problem with this method is that bias intrudes
‘On the sampling frame. This is because researchers allowed to self-select
respondents are subject to bias such as interviewing their friends in excessive
proportions or concentrating in areas where there are large numbers of potential
respondents.

b) Convenience sampling
This method is based on using people who are a captive audience,. people the
researcher meets haphazardly or accidentally. Respondents are people who just
happen to be walking by, or show a special interest in your research. The use of
volunteers is an example of convenience sampling.

c) Purposive sampling
In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a group of people believed
to be reliable for the study. For example, to study the effects of abortion on learning,
the researcher may make efforts to contact students who previously had terminated
their pregnancies. The researcher never knows if the sample is representative of the
population. The power of purposive sampling lies in selecting information rich cases
for in-depth analysis related to the central issues being studied.

Purposive sampling can be used with both quantitative and qualitative studies.
Purposive sampling can be carried out in addition to probability sampling. For
example, after completing your baseline study based on a random sample, you may
recognize that certain sections of the project area are quite different from other
areas due to variations in landscape, geography, culture etc. You may then
purposively select those areas to get representative information about how the
variations have influenced the behaviour of the people. Purposive sampling is
particularly relevant when you are concerned with exploring the universe and
understanding the audience. This means, using your common sense and the best
judgment in choosing the right habitations and meeting the right number of the
correct people for the purpose of your study. Types of purposive sampling include
the following:
 Extreme Case Sampling: It focuses on cases that are rich in information because
they are unusual or special in some way, for instance, the only community in a
region that prohibits wife inheritance.
 Maximum Variation Sampling: Aims at capturing the central themes that cut
across participant variations, for instance, persons of different age, gender,
religion and marital status in an area protesting against child marriage.
 Homogeneous Sampling: Picks up a small sample with similar characteristics to
describe some particular subgroup in depth, for example, charcoal burners,
touts, bar maids, and so on.
 Typical Case Sampling: Uses one or more typical cases (individuals,
families/households) to provide a local profile. The typical cases are carefully
selected with the co-operation of the local people/ extension workers.
 Critical Case Sampling: Looks for critical cases that can make a point quite
dramatically, for instance, farmers who have set up an unusually high yield
record of a crop in arid lands.
 Snowball or Chain Sampling: Begins by asking people, “who knows a lot about “
By asking a number of people, you can identify specific kinds of cases, for
example critical, typical, extreme and so on. Snowball sampling begins with a
few people or cases and then gradually increases the sample size as new
contacts are mentioned by the people you started out with.
 Purposive sampling is adequate under the following situations:
 When studying past events and only a fraction of relevant materials is available
or accessible.
 While studying sensitive issues such as abortion, prostitution or crime, certain
individuals or groups of individuals may refuse to cooperate. The researcher
may use a non-probability method.
 If the population contains few relevant cases.
 If the population is unknown or not readily identifiable.

Target Population (Selection of Respondents)
The people a researcher selects as respondents in the study are vital in achieving
the set objectives. Selection of respondents will largely depend on the following:
 Information needed
 Data techniques to be used
 The available funding may pre-specify the sample size.

For reliable conclusions to be drawn from the research, samples for quantitative
research must be representative of the target group. Other things being equal, a
larger sample of respondents is better than a smaller one. In general, the larger the
sample, the more representative it is likely to be, and the more generalizable the
results of the study are likely to be. Minimum acceptable sizes depend on the type of
research.

Generally, a researcher would need 30 subjects in each group for co-relational and
descriptive research but may be able to get by with 15 subjects per group in
experimental or quasi-experimental designs. In general, selection of respondents
will depend on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of
the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will
be made, the number of variables that have to be examined simultaneously and how
heterogeneously a universe is sampled. Population is a set of all the elements of
interest in a study. Efforts should be made by a researcher to ensure that
informants, particularly key informants, possess special knowledge related to the
study. Efforts should be made to ensure the participants are active participants in
the culture or organization under study, that they are involved in the events under
study and have adequate time. They should be willing to talk to the researcher.

Bias and Error in Sampling

There are various challenges faced by researchers during sampling. Some of these
challenges include the following:
Sampling error — Sampling error comprises of the differences between the sample
and the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have
been selected. For example, suppose that a sample of 100 university students is
measured and all are found to be taller than six feet. It is very clear even without any
statistical proof that this would be a highly unrepresentative sample leading to
invalid conclusions. This is a very unlikely occurrence because naturally such rare
cases are widely distributed among the population. But it can occur. Luckily, this is a
very obvious error and can be detected very easily. The more dangerous error is the
less obvious sampling error against which nature offers very little protection. An
example would be a sample in which the average height is overstated by only one
inch or two rather than one foot which is more obvious. It is the unobvious error
that is of much concern.

There are two basic causes for sampling error; chance and sampling bias.
a) Chance - This is the error that occurs due to bad luck. This may result in
untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a
possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. The main
protection against this kind of error is to use a large enough, sample.
b) Sampling bias — Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that
have particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor
sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non-response when for some
reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample. Take a
hypothetical case where a survey is conducted to find out the level of stress that
graduate students are going through. A mail questionnaire is sent to 100
randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 students respond. The results
show that students are not under stress, yet the actual case is that stress levels
may be high except among those who are answering the questionnaire. Bias can
be very costly and has to be guarded against as much as possible. A means of
selecting the units of analysis must be designed to avoid the more obvious forms
of bias.
Non-sampling error (measurement error) The other main cause of unrepresentative
samples is non-sampling error. Non-sampling error may either be produced by
participants in the statistical study or may be an innocent by-product of the
sampling plans and procedures. A non-sampling error is an error that results solely,
from the manner in which the observations are made. The simplest example of non-
sampling error is inaccurate measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or
poor procedures. For example, consider the observation of human eights. If persons
are asked to state their own weights themselves, no two answers will be of equal
reliability. The people will have weighed themselves on different scales. An
individual’s weight fluctuates, so that the time of weighing will affect the answer.
The scale reading will also vary with the person’s state of undress. Responses
therefore will not be of comparable validity unless all persons are weighed under
the same circumstances. Biased observations due to inaccurate measurement can be
innocent but very devastating.

In surveys of personal characteristics, unintended errors may result from the

manner in which the response is elicited, the social desirability of the persons
surveyed, the purpose of the study and the personal biases of the interviewer or
survey writer. In all the sampling procedures the major weaknesses include failure
to identify the accessible and target population and using a sample that is too small
to permit statistical analysis.

Challenges Faced in Population Sampling

In population identification, researchers are sometimes faced with various
challenges. These include the following:
 Scope: A very wide scope for example a study of the whole country may hinder
effective sampling of the population. A narrow scope for example a study on one
school affects the validity and reliability of the findings.
 Lack of representation.
 Bias in sampling: some researchers select a population that is convenient for
them in terms of accessibility.
 Poor accessibility to the population: Some population samples are difficult to
access.

Respondents
In research, the term “respondents” refers to those who will reply to, or respond to
the research instruments. The selection of respondents is crucial to the overall
usefulness of the information produced. This is because respondents help in the
clarification of issues under the study. This contributes to the achievement of set
objectives. The selection of respondents will largely depend on the information
needed and the date techniques to be used. The researcher should ensure that
informants, particularly key informants, possess special knowledge related to the
study area.

Qualities of Effective Respondent Selection

The following should be adhered to by researchers in the selection, of respondents:
 Respondents should be individuals who possess some knowledge about the
topic being studied.
 They should be willing to share the information they have in relation to the topic
with the researcher.
 They should be active participants in the culture or organization under study.
 They must be willing to give their time to the study.
 A large sample of respondents is better than a small one. In general, the larger
the sample, the more representative it is likely to be, and the more generalizable
the results of the study are likely to be.

Challenges Faced in Respondent Selection

The selection of reliable informants has various challenges. These include the
following:
 Unwillingness of respondents to share all they know on the issue with the
researcher.
 Language barrier: the interview or questionnaire may have been written in
Kiswahili yet the respondent can effectively express him! herself in English or,
say, Dholuo.
 Hostility towards the researcher: some respondents may personalize the
questions asked particularly during interviews and become hostile towards the
researcher.
 Time limitations.
In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of the analysis to be
performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind
and number of comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to
be examined simultaneously and how heterogeneously a universe is ‘sampled.

Research Instruments
Research instruments include the following: questionnaires, interview schedules,
observation and focus group discussions.

In formulating research instruments the researcher should ensure the following:

a) The objectives of the study are clear. This will assist the researcher to anticipate
the type of information needed.
b) The population sample. The researcher should be aware that some types of
instruments are unsuitable to some groups of people due to factors such as the
literacy level, profession and culture. A researcher should determine the literacy
level of the study population in advance. For the illiterate, interview and focus
group discussions should be used. The type of language that will be used (either
English or Kiswahili) will depend on the literacy level of respondents.
c) Geographical distribution. The span of the study dictates the type of instrument
to be used. A countrywide study may require the use of postal questionnaires
and telephone interviews.
d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she asks. According to
Orodho and Kombo (2002), a researcher should do the following::
 Begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions.
 Avoid vague questions, for instance, “What do you like?”
 Keep the language simple.
 Limit each question to a single idea. Ensure each item included has a specific
purpose.
 Only include questions that are directly relevant to the study.
 Have a logical sequence.
 Do not put the key questions at the end of the questionnaire. It is best to have
them in the middle.
 Avoid emotionally charged words.
 Avoid leading questions, for example, “Do you think students riot because they
are unfairly treated?”
 Avoid acronyms ‘and abbreviations.
 Consider the order of questions related to each topic.
 A researcher should vary closed and open ended questions. Closed questions
give the respondent a set of choice or options. Open-ended questions are free
response type questions. They allow the respondent to answer in their own
words.
e) Check the consistency of answers. It may be beneficial to ask the same question
again using different wording. This ensures validity.

Questionnaires
This is a research instrument that gathers data over a large sample Questionnaires
have various advantages including the following:
 Information can be collected from a large sample and diverse regions.
 Confidentiality is upheld.
 Saves on time.
 Since they are presented in paper format there is no opportunity for interviewer
bias.

However they have their disadvantages in that:

 Response rates can be quite low. -
  There is no direct contact so the researcher cannot deal with any
misunderstanding.
 There is no opportunity to ask for further information related to answers
given.
 No clear reason can be given for incomplete responses.
 To ensure the effectiveness of questionnaires a pre-test should be carried
out. Pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample. This will
enable the researcher to find out if:
 The questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
 The wording is clear.
 If all questions are interpreted in the same way by respondents.
 What response is provoked.
 If there is any research bias.

Steps in Formulating a Questionnaire

The following are essential in the formulation of a questionnaire:
a) Reflection — Before formulating a questionnaire it is important for the
researcher to reflect on the aim and objective of the study. The researcher
should reflect on the type of response expected.
b) Formulation of questions — The researcher should write down questions
related to each stated objective. While constructing the questions the researcher
should begin with a few interesting but non- threatening questions. The
researcher should only include questions that are relevant to his/her study. The
researcher should keep the key questions in the middle.
c) Pilot — After constructing the questionnaire, the researcher should try it out on
a small sample of the population. While piloting the researcher should address
the following questions:
 Are the questions measuring what they are supposed to measure — the
researcher should analyze each answer and see if it is supplying the appropriate
information.
 Is the wording clear? The researcher should analyze the responses to find out if
there was any confusion in the way questions were interpreted by all the
respondents.
 Do the questions provoke a response? If some questions have been omitted, the
researcher should find out why.
 Is there researcher bias? The researcher will analyze whether the questions
asked were skewed towards certain issues more than others.
d) Evaluation — After piloting and making the necessary amendments, the
researcher should carry out an evaluation of the revised questions. This includes
finding out if the questions are clear and specific, where the key questions are
placed and if the balance of questions is correct.

Qualities of an Effective Questionnaire

An effective questionnaire has the following qualities:
 It is simple to understand. The language used is clear and straight forward. This
helps reduce misinterpretation.
 Instructions are clearly given. There are a few words of explanation in each new
section.
 The questions are focused and are limited to a single idea. Sentences are short
and precise.
 Each item included has a specific purpose, and contributes to the study.
 There are no leading questions. ,,‘
 There is a balance of questions per topic.

Advantages
 Can cover a wide area
 No bias on the side of the researcher and the respondents

Disadvantages
Questionnaires have the following disadvantages
 The response rate can be quite low. Since the researcher is not in direct contact
with the respondents they may not feel the obligation to complete the
questionnaire as soon as possible. This postponement in completion can result
in the questionnaire not being answered at all.
 There are no direct contacts between the researcher and respondent. The
researcher cannot therefore deal with or clarify any misunderstanding.
 There is no opportunity for the researcher to ask for further information, or
probe deeper into answers given by the respondent.
 Incase some questions are not answered, the researcher cannot get an
explanation from the respondent as to why some questions are incomplete.
 The researcher is not able to predict if respondents have answered all the
questions until after the collection of the instrument.
 The researcher has no control over the order in which questions are answered.
Yet in research, the way questions are answered can pre-determine their
validity.

Interviews
These are questions asked orally. There are various forms of inter- as follows:

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
In this approach to interviewing, the researcher has some idea in mind of the topics
to be covered and may use some sort of topic list as a reminder. There is minimal
control over the order in which topics are covered and over respondents’ answers.
In unstructured interviewing, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the
range or type of possible answers are pre-defined. They are informal and
conversational. The aim is to get the informants to open up, and the researcher
should stimulate an informant to produce more information.

This approach allows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and

situational characteristics. This approach builds on observation. It is useful in
studying sensitive topics such as sexuality or political topics. To effectively achieve
the aims of an open-ended interview, one must ask a whole series of secondary
questions such as:
 What do I want to get out of these interviews?
 With whom am I going to conduct these interviews?
 How do I know they will talk to me?
 How many interviews must I do?

As much as possible, test your methods in advance. Because there is no set format
for conducting these interviews, each interview is unique. This makes it difficult to
systematize and analyze data.

Advantages
Unstructured interviews have the following advantages:
 They are flexible. This is because there are no pre-defined questions. This allows
the respondents to freely respond to an issue. The researcher can therefore
gather a lot of information.
 The respondent feels part of the team since no rigidity is displayed. He/she can
therefore freely participate in the research.
 Since it is a free response in a relaxed atmosphere situation, the answer given
are more reliable.
 It allows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and
situational characteristics.
 This instrument is useful for studying sensitive topics such as sexuality and
abortion.
Disadvantages
Unstructured interviews have the following disadvantages:
 They are time consuming since a respondent can dwell on one issue.
 They are not systematic as a respondent can comment on issues in a haphazard
way. A respondent can comment on issues already discussed.
 If the researcher is not careful, it can get out of control, with the respondent
getting too emotional or personal.
 Irrelevancies can be displayed by the respondent.
 Since there is no set format for conducting these interviews, it is difficult to
systematize and analyze data.

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
These interviews are based or the use of an interview guide. This is a written list of
questions or topics that need to be covered by the interview. There are several types
of semi-structured interviews.

a) Focused interviews — This intensively investigates a particular topic. They

aim at gaining a complete and detailed understanding of the topic.
b) Case studies — The purpose of case studies is to collect comprehensive,
systematic and in-depth information about particular cases of interest.

Advantages
Semi-structured interviews have the following advantages:
 They are flexible. This is because they consist of both open and closed-ended
questions.
 In-depth information is gathered by closed ended questions.
 By using both the open and closed-ended approach, the researcher gets a
complete and detailed understanding of the issue under research.

Disadvantages
Semi-structured interviews have the following disadvantages:
 They can be time consuming due to the open-ended questions.
 Analysis of data may be problematic.
 The respondent may be cautious of the answers given in close -ended questions.

STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
These involve subjecting every informant in a sample to the same stimuli, for
instance, asking each informant similar questions, as in the case of a survey.
Advantages
Structured interviews have the following advantages:
 The reliability of the information gathered is high. This is because each
informant is subjected to similar questions with the others.
 It gives in-depth information about particular cases of interest to the
researcher. This is because the researcher seeks information on specific
issues.
 It is systematic. Researchers intensively investigate a particular issue before
moving to the next.
 It is time-saving since the respondents simply answer what has been asked
by the researcher.
 The researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue from
the respondent.
 It is comprehensive and systematic since questions are formulated before the
interview.
 The data collected is quantifiable.

Disadvantages
Structured interviews portray the following disadvantages:
 The rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect the responses given. The
respondent may feel as if he/she is under investigation and is being probed. This
may affect the response. Some of the respondents may become hostile.
 it is too formal. Since the researcher does the questioning and the respondent
simply answers, the respondent may be too cautious in the answer given. The
respondent may give answers he/she thinks are acceptable or will impress the
researcher.
 The researcher may miss out on some important points that are not included in
the questions formulated.
Focus Group Discussions
This is a special type of group in terms of its purpose, size, composition and
procedures. A focus group is usually composed of 6-8 individuals who share certain
characteristics, which are relevant for the study. The discussion is carefully planned
and designed to obtain information on the participants’ beliefs and perceptions on a
defined area of interest. Special predetermined criteria are used in selecting focus
group participants. This includes the following:
a) The topics to be discussed are decided beforehand.
b) There is a predetermined list of open ended questions.
c) Focus relies on discussion among participants about the topics presented.

This method requires thorough planning and training of group moderators. Focus
groups should usually be composed of homogeneous members of the target
population, for instance, similar in age, education level, gender, profession. Focus
group discussions can produce a lot of information quickly and are good for
identifying and exploring beliefs, ideas or Opinions in a community. However, the
researcher has less control over the ‘flow of the discussion and results are hard to
analyze. Focus group discussions are used to assess needs, develop intervention,
test new ideas or programmes or improve existing programmes.

Observation
This is a tool that provides information about actual behaviour. Direct observation is
useful because some behaviour involves habitual routines of which people are
hardly aware. Direct observation allows the researcher to put behaviour in context
and thereby understand it better. Observation can be made of actual behaviour
patterns. Forms of observation include the following:

a) PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The investigator becomes an active functioning member of the culture under study.
An investigator participates in any activity appropriate to the status which is
assumed. This participation helps reduce reactivity. Respondents become more
comfortable with the researcher. It gives a researcher an intuitive understanding of
what is happening in a culture. However, it can be time consuming.

b) UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
The observer takes the position of an onlooker. Data is collected in the form of
descriptive accounts. Unstructured observations are helpful in understanding
behaviour patterns in their physical and social context.

c) STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
The observer is an onlooker. The focus is on a small number of specific behaviour
patterns, and only those appearing on a pre-defined observation list are recorded.
This requires the researcher to be clear on the behaviour being observed.

Standardized Tests
Standardized tests of one sort or another are used in most educational research
studies. A researcher will frequently use standardized tests to measure one or more
of the variables in a study. It is important that one gets as much information as
possible about the tests to be used in the study. in some cases no suitable
instrument exists to measure the variables of the study. In that case, the researcher
will have to design their own instrument. One can look at the instruments (such as
questionnaire forms), which have been used in similar studies and modify these for
use in his/her own study. There are many different types of tests that one might
consider for use in their study. Some of the most commonly used types of tests
educational research are:
 Achievement tests
 Personality tests
 Aptitude tests, including tests of academic aptitude (intelligence tests)
CHARACTERISTICS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS
Validity - the validity of a test is a measure of how well a test measures what it is
supposed to measure. The examiner’s manual or technical manual for most tests will
have information on the validity of the test.

Reliability — reliability is a measure of how consistent the results from a test are. If
you administer a test to a subject twice do you get the same score on the second
administration as you did on the first? The reliability of the test is the answer to this
question.

Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

No two interviewers are alike and the same person may provide different answers
to different interviewers. The manner in which a question is formulated can also
result in inaccurate responses. Individuals tend to provide false answers to.
particular questions. For example, some people want, to feel younger or older for
reasons known to themselves. If a researcher asks such a person their age in years,
it is easier for the individual just to lie by overstating their age by one or more years
than it is if the researcher asked which year they were born since it will require a bit
of quick arithmetic to give a false date. A date of birth will definitely be more
accurate.

The respondent effect. Respondents might also give incorrect answers to impress
the interviewer. This type of error is the most difficult to prevent because it results
from outright deceit on the part of the respondent. For example in asking farmers
how much maize they harvested, the farmers may lie by saying a figure which is the
recommended expected yield that is 25 bags per acre. The responses may therefore
appear uniform. The researcher should be suspicious and can compared this with
the responses of the farmers’ spouses. To decide which answer is most accurate,
whenever possible the researcher should in a tactful way verify with an older son or
daughter. It is important to acknowledge that certain psychological factors induce
incorrect responses and great care must be taken to design a study that minimizes
this effect.

Data Collection Procedure

A researcher will require a research permit before embarking on the study. The
researcher will then administer research instruments to the respondents.

Data collection must be accurate. Where, tests are used they must be scored
correctly, and observations must be made systematically. In some cases data may be
coded, for example males coded as 1 and females coded as 2. An electronic
spreadsheet is an excellent place for the researcher to keep the data for the study.
This includes both raw data and coded data. In most cases you will also be able to
perform the desired statistical calculations from within the spreadsheet. The MS
Excel spreadsheet programme, for example, has an Analysis Tool Pack that will
allow one to calculate such statistics as chi-square, correlation coefficient, t-test, z-
test, and analysis of variance. The major ways of collecting data include
administering a standardized instrument, administering a self—developed
instrument and recording of naturally available data.
 CHAPTER FIVE
DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

PART ONE
DATA COLLECTION
Introduction

Data collection refers to the gathering of information to serve or prove some facts.
Data collection is vital in every day living. For example, without up-to-date and
comprehensive data about the characteristics of the population, no government can
plan and build the facilities and resources that effectively serve the citizens.
Commercial organizations collect data to improve their economic prospects. By
collecting views on people’s attitudes about their products, they are able to offer
goods or services that potential customers seem to want. In research, data is
collected to further a researcher’s understanding of a puzzling issue. Data collection
helps to clarify the facts. This chapter identifies what data collection is, purposes of
collecting data, effective data collection techniques, sources of data, steps in data
collection, characteristics of different data collection methodologies, challenges
faced by researchers in data collection and ethical issues related to data collection.

Meaning of Data Collection

In research, the term “data collection” refers to gathering specific information aimed
at proving or refuting some facts. In data collection the researcher must have a clear
understanding of what they hope to obtain and how they hope to obtain it. In data
collection, the researcher must have a clear vision of the instruments to be used, the
respondents and the selected area. Data collection is important in research as it
allows for dissemination of accurate information and development of meaningful
programmes.

Purpose of Collecting Data

In research, data is collected for various purposes. This includes the following:
 a) To stimulate new ideas. This is because data collection helps in identifying
areas related to the research topic that need improvement or further
evaluation.
b) To highlight a situation and therefore create awareness and improvement.
c) To influence legislative policies and regulations.
d) To provide justification for an existing programme or illustrate a need for a
new programme.
e) It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of
the study.
f) It promotes decision-making and resource allocation that are based on solid
evidence rather than on isolated occurrences, assumption, emotion, politics,
and so on.

Sources of Data
There are two major sources of data used by researchers. These are the primary and
secondary sources.

Primary sources: Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents.

This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, observation
and experimental studies. It involves creating “new” data. Data is collected from
existing sources. In an experimental study, the variable of interest is identified.
Secondary sources: Secondary information sources are data neither collected
directly by the user nor specifically for the user. It involves gathering data that
already has been collected by someone else. This involves the collection and
analysis of published material, and information from internal sources. Secondary
data collection may be conducted by collecting information from a diverse source of
documents or electronically stored. information. This is often referred to as desk
research.

Advantages
The main advantages of using secondary data are as follows:
a. It is usually available more cheaply. The collection of secondary data is generally
significantly quicker and easier (and hence less costly) than collecting the same
data “from scratch.”
b. Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient form; using
secondary data can give the researcher access to otherwise- unavailable
organizations, individuals or locations.
c. Secondary data allows the researcher to extend the “time base” of their study by
providing data about the earlier state of the system being studied.
d. The fact that secondary data are likely to be pre-processed eliminates the time-
consuming (and hence costly) analysis stage.

Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of using secondary data are as follows:
a. The method by which secondary data was collected is often unknown to the user
of the data (apart from major sources like the Census). This means that the
researcher is forced to rely on the skills and propriety of the collectors —
usually, but not always, a safe proposition.
b. With secondary data the researcher may have little or no direct knowledge of
the processing methods employed, and the researcher may rarely have access to
the original raw data to check the validity of the findings.
c. The researcher is forced to rely on the skills and integrity of the people who
collected and analyzed the data.

Steps in Data Collection

The following are essential steps that a researcher should use in data collection:

a) Define the sample Before gathering data, the researcher should define the target
population. This involves identifying the respondents and their accessibility.
b) Reflect on the research design: The researcher should be clear of the research
design to be used. This is whether it is a survey, a case study or an experiment.
This is critical as it enables the researcher to be sure of the format in which data
 will be collected. The researcher needs to design and select the sample in such a
way that he/she obtains results that have acceptable precision and accuracy.
c) Ensure research instruments are ready: The key data collection instruments to
be used in the study for example questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus
group discussions and experimental treatments should be in order. This includes
finding out if they are ready and available. All research instruments should be in
order. For example, if the researcher is using questionnaires, the correct number
of questionnaires should be available. If using tape recorders, they should be in
working condition. If any computer software is to be used, the researcher should
consider his/her and assistant researcher’s expertise, the skills that exist and the
cost of operating the system.
d) Define the data to be collected The researcher should make sure that he/she and
the assistant researchers are clear on the information that is being sought.
Researchers should be clear of the sample, for in- stance, the male/female ratio.
e) Request permission to collect data from the relevant authorities: Before
collecting any information, the researcher should ensure he/she has been
granted permission to carry out the study. The researcher should also send an
advance letter to the sample respondents, explaining the purpose of the study.
Information must be given to the respondents regarding the voluntary qr
mandatory nature of the study and how the answers are to be used. After
reflecting on all these components, the researcher should carry out a pre-test.
f) Pre-testing: Before collecting data, the researcher should pre-test the research
instruments. A pre-test is a pilot study. The researcher should pilot the
questionnaire with a sma1representative sample. A pre-test of the questionnaire
and field procedures is the only way the researcher can find out if everything
“works” particularly the research instruments. This is because it is rarely
possible for the researcher to foresee all the potential misunderstandings or
biasing effects of different questions and procedures. A pilot study helps test the
feasibility of the study techniques and to perfect the questionnaire concepts and
wording. The importance of pre-testing before data collection includes the
following:
 It enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions are measuring what
they are supposed to measure.
 It enables the researcher to find out if the wording is clear and all questions will
be interpreted in the same way by respondents.
 It helps the researcher to detect what response is provoked and find out if there
is any research bias.
It enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the data will be collected
and the topic areas addressed. The researcher should not use the pre-test sample in
the actual study.

Collection of Data
The procedure used to collect data will be influenced- the research instruments
used. For example if questionnaires or interviews are used, the researcher should
carry out the following:

Use of Questionnaires
In questionnaires respondents fill in answers in written form and the researcher
collects the forms with the completed information. There are various methods used
to collect the questionnaires, such as the following:
 The instruments are distributed to the respondents by the researcher and
research assistants. Respondents are given time to complete answering
questionnaires. All the questionnaires are gathered after the given response time
is over.
 Questionnaires maybe distributed to respondents by the researcher and
research assistants. They are later collected on an agreed upon date.
 Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents. After they have answered them,
they are mailed back. If questionnaires are administered, respondents should be
given sufficient time to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires should
then be collected by the researcher or research assistants or mailed to the
researcher. Today, the manner in which data is collected from questionnaires
 has begun to move from the traditional distribution and mail-out/ mail-back
approach. The use of fax machines and the Internet is on the rise.

Use of Interviews
Collecting data using the interview method requires the researcher to identify
respondents and request them to answer certain questions. The researcher and
research assistants note down the answers given. In some interviews the response
is recorded. Some interviews are carried out through the telephone and the
information received is recorded by the researcher. The main requirement for good
interviewers during data collection is the ability to approach identified respondents
in person or by telephone and persuade them to participate in the study. Once a
respondent’s cooperation is acquired, the interviewers must maintain it, while
collecting the needed data. This data must be obtained in exact accordance with
instructions.

Focus Group Discussions

In focus group discussions, the researcher should have specific topics to be
discussed. A recording list should be made of the discussion. A tape recorder should
also be used to keep the records. Observation:

In observations, the researcher should have a checklist to provide information about

actual behaviour to be observed. The researcher should note down the observation.
In experiments, the observer should also note down what has been observed. In
experimental studies, where the researcher wants to obtain information under
controlled conditions, subjects may be randomly assigned to various tests and
experiences then assessed via observation or standardized scales.

Each data collection method has its strengths and weaknesses. When designing a
research study it is important for the researcher to decide what outcome (data) the
study will produce then select the best methodology to produce that desired
information.
Factors to Consider during Data Collection
During data collections, researchers should adhere to the following:
a. Collect only the data needed for the purpose of the study: researchers should
avoid digressing and getting involved in issues that are not relevant to the study.
b. Inform each potential respondent about the general nature of the study and the
intended uses of the data.
c. Protect the confidentiality of information collected from respondents and ensure
that the means used in data collection are adequate to protect confidentiality to
the extent pledged or intended.
d. Ensure that processing and use of data conforms with the pledges made and that
appropriate care is taken with directly identifying information (using such steps
as destroying a certain type of information or removing it from the file when it is
no longer needed for the inquiry).
e. Apply appropriate techniques to control statistical disclosure. The researcher
should ensure that, whenever data are transferred to other persons or
organizations, this transfer conforms to the established confidentiality pledges,
and require written assurance from the recipients of the data that the measures
employed to protect confidentiality will be at least equal to those originally
pledged. While in the field the researcher should ensure the following:
 Punctuality in appointments.
 Friendliness.
 Use of clear and simple language.
 Be careful about question construction: The manner in which a question is
formulated can also result in inaccurate responses.
 Have various ways of probing: It is important for the researcher and research
assistants to be aware that some individuals tend to provide false answers to
partj1cular questions. If this is noted, the researcher should devise other ways of
probing.
 It is important for the researcher to acknowledge that certain psyhological
factors, such as fear or low self-esteem can induce in correct responses. Great
care must be taken to design a study that. minimizes this effect.
Importance of Data Analysis
Importance of data analysis includes the following:
 Findings/results are clearly shown.
 Areas / gaps for further research are pointed out.
 Researchers can be able to know the results without wasting time on primary
and secondary data.
 One can be able to know the statistical methods used for analyzing data.

Pitfalls in Data Analysis and Interpretation

There are three pitfalls in data analysis and interpretation, which are shown below:
1. The first involves sources of bias. These are conditions or circumstances
which affect the external validity of statistical results.
2. The second is errors in methodology, which can lead to the third point.
3. The third class of problems concerns interpretation of results, or how
statistical results are applied (or misapplied) to real world issues.

Ethical Issues in Data Collection

Researchers whose subjects are people or animals must consider the conduct of
their research, and give attention to the ethical issues associated with carrying out
their research. Sometimes a research, project may involve changing the subjects’
behaviours or in some cases, causing the subjects pain or distress for example in
experiments where the researcher analyzes blood samples. Most research
organizations have complex rules on human and animal experimentation. Some of
the rules applicable to data collecting are as follows:’

a. The researcher must justify the research via an analysis of the balance of costs.
The researcher’s interest alone is not sufficient justification to carry out research
and collect data. In order to carry out a survey or experiment, there has to be
benefits from the study that outweigh the costs. Researchers are expected to
justify beyond any reasonable doubt, the need for data collection.
b. The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times. Only certain people
conducting the survey/experiment should know the identity of the participants.
Any subject should generally not know the identity of other subjects.
c. Researchers are responsible for their own work and for their contribution to the
whole study. Researchers must accept individual responsibility for the conduct
of the research and, as far as foreseeable, the consequences of that research.
d. The researcher must obtain informed consent from any subjects used in the
study and must ensure that all subjects participate voluntarily.
e. The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with other researchers and
research subjects. The researcher must not exploit subjects by changing
agreements made with them. For example, a researcher might discover that
his/her survey/experiment show something that he/she would like to further
investigate. If the researcher carries out the investigation secretly but pretends
to be still carrying out the previous study that had been agreed to in the first
place, this is a form of exploitation, and would breach the principles of informed
consent and voluntary participation.
f. The researcher must take all reasonable measures to protect subjects physically
and psychologically. Even voluntary participants can “get carried away” to the
point where they have to be protected from themselves and each other. The
researcher must be prepared to intervene; even at the cost of the
study/experiment itself, to protect the subjects.
g. The researcher ‘must fully explain the research in advance, and debrief subjects
afterward. Whilst full ,explanations before the survey/experiment are essential
to gaining informed consent, it is, unfortunately, a common practice for
researchers to complete their research without telling the participants anything
about the results.
Challenges Faced by Researchers in Data Collection
Collecting data entails scores of activities, each of which must be carefully planned
and controlled. Lack of proper strategies can invalidate the results and badly
mislead the users of the information gathered. Some of the challenges faced by
researchers in data collection are:

a. The researcher failing to carry out a pilot study: Failure to pilot the study may
contribute to haphazard work in the field. This is mainly because a pre-test helps
to identify some of the shortcomings likely to be experienced during the actual
study. A pre-test of the questionnaire and field procedures is the only way of
finding out if everything will “work” during the actual study.
b. Lack of sufficient follow up on non respondents: A researcher’s failure to follow
up non respondents can ruin an otherwise well-designed study. It is not
uncommon for the initial response rate in many survey studies to be under 50
percent. A low response rate does more damage in rendering a survey’s results
questionable than a small sample. This is because there may be no valid way of
scientifically inferring the characteristics of the population represented by the
non-respondents. To deal with this possibility, the researcher, may have to
return to sample households where no one was home (perhaps at a different
time or on a weekend) or attempt to persuade persons who are inclined to
refuse to participate. In the case of questionnaire response, it is usually
necessary to conduct several follow-ups spared, possibly, about three weeks
apart.
c. Inadequate quality controls: In some field work the researcher allocates all work
to research assistants with minimum supervision. This can result in guessing the
results. Controlling the quality of the fieldwork is done in several ways. The
researcher can control the quality of field work through observation. The
researcher can also carry out a small sample of interviews. There should be at
least some questionnaire- by- questionnaire by checking by the researcher,
while the survey is being carried out. This is essential if omissions or other
obvious mistakes in the data are to be uncovered before it is too late to rectify
 them. The researcher should during field work, re-examine the sample selection,
carry out some ……………………………………………..coding of the responses. Without
proper checking, errors may go undetected. The researcher should insist on high
standards in recruiting and training of interviewers. This is crucial to conducting
a quality field study.
d. Poor targeting: Errors in defining and selecting the sample during data collection
will bias the results by making the sample less representative of the target
population. This can be due to non-inclusion errors where people are not
included in the sample who should be.
e. Poor implementation: In data collection some errors are caused by the way data
collection is implemented. Some of the errors include the following:
 Question errors - the question is wrongly worded or misleading.
 Interviewer error - the interviewer makes an error whilst asking the question.
 Recording error - the interviewer records incorrectly the answer given by the
respondent.
 Coding error - the responses are wrongly coded.

In data collection, the researcher must play an active role. He/she must ensure that
data collection is accurate. It is essential that at the end of every session of data
collection, a brief meeting is held with research assistants to analyze the work
covered and any challenges faced. This should also be time to map Out the next
session. The researcher should collect and keep all the collected data after every
session. In data collection, the researcher should ensure that the objectives of the
field study are clearly spelt out and understood by all participants. If respondents
are to be interviewed, the researcher should ensure that they are aware of the time
the researcher is arriving. The researcher should avoid inconveniencing
respondents. He / she should always thank respondents after data collection.

Conclusion
The collection of information is a vital component in research, This is because it is
through the collected information that major research findings are made,
recommendations offered and the way forward formulated. A researcher should
therefore ensure that relevant steps are adhered to in data collection. Efforts should
also be made to …………………………………….
 PART TWO:
DATA ORGANIZATION,
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
The term “data organization” in research refers to orderliness in research data. This
is putting the data into some systematic form. The raw” data collected, particularly
in surveys, needs to be processed before it can be subjected to any useful analysis.
This organization includes identifying (and correcting) errors in the data, coding the
data, and storing it in appropriate form. On the other hand, analysis refers to
examining the coded data critically and making inferences.

The presentation of data refers to ways of arranging data to make t clearly

understood. This chapter discusses the organization, analysis and presentation of
data.

Data Organization
Collected data is known to be “raw” information and not knowledge by itself. It
therefore has to be well organized in various stages. The organization from raw data
to knowledge is as follows:

 From raw data to information: Data becomes information when it becomes

relevant to the problem identified by the researcher.
 From information to facts: Information becomes facts, when the data can
support it. Facts are what the data reveals.
 From facts to knowledge: Facts therefore lead to new information, new
experiences and views.
 Knowledge is expressed together with some statistical degree of confidence.
Before analyzing the collected data, the researcher has to ensure the data is well
organized. The procedure in data organization involves the following:

a) Pre-processing
After collecting data the researcher has to ensure it processed in some manner
before carrying out the analysis. The primary purpose of pre-possessing is to correct
problems that are identified in the raw data. This might include differences
between the results obtained by multiple interviewers. In experiments, calibrations
are carried out where significant and consistent differences between the measured
result and the “correct” result are found. The pre-processing stagesare as follows:
 The elimination of unusable data: The researcher may find two or more
questions that really provide the same data. The researcher must therefore
decide which one of the questions is worth coding and storing, and which one
should be discarded.
 Interpretation of ambiguous answers: The more subtle problems in data analysis
are associated with the researcher trying to interpret ambiguous answers. It
could be argued that any complex study is likely to produce at least some
answers of this type. The researcher needs to develop a strategy for dealing with
them.
 Contradictory data from related questions: The researcher may also receive
contradictory data from related questions. For example, respondents in one
religious denomination may give different answers as to who is the church elder.
Contradictions may be due to church wrangles. The researcher may have to
verify and reject wrong responses.
Many of these problems, if not detected and corrected at the organization stage,
will reflect adversely on the study findings.

b) The Development of a Coding Scheme

After correcting any errors that may influence data analysis, the researcher should
formulate a coding scheme. The core function of the coding process is to create
codes and scales from the responses, which can then be summarized and analyzed
in various ways. A coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all
possible answers are to be treated, and what (if any) numerical codes are to be
assigned to particular responses. In the coding scheme the researcher assigns codes
to each likely answer, and specifies how other responses are to be handled. For
exam9le, the researcher might allocate 1 to yes, 2 to no and 0 to do not know.
Although these numerical codes are arbitrary, in some cases, their organization will
have implications on how the resulting data can be processed statistically. The
reliability of a coding scheme is whether the person who created the scheme
(researcher) can give it to another person, and the coding of the raw data matches
exactly what the person creating the code (researcher) would have produced if they
had applied the scheme to the same answers.

There are various challenges faced by researchers in the development of a coding

scheme. The major challenge associated with coding is the treatment of missing
data. It is difficult for the researcher to decide on what action should be taken when
the coding cannot be applied, such as when a question is unanswered. Do they
ignore the question, or change and interpret it? Decisions are usually needed on
how to handle missing items, or cases in which the respondent did not know the
answer or refused to provide one. While providing codes it may also occur to a
researcher that an essential question was not asked. There are several possible
approaches that a researcher can apply to address these challenges. These include:
 Cross-reference the missing answer with the answers to related questions (this
option, ironically, is less available if the researcher has carefully minimized
duplication between questions).
 Interpolate from other answers to create a “pattern” for the respondent, and
look to see how other respondents of the same “type” answered this question.
 Look at the distribution of answers and interpolate from that; some computer
programs will supply distributions of answers to the question and suggest what
the missing value ought to be in order to maintain the distribution.
 Give missing data its own code, such as “Did not answer”; this is the most
common (and safest) approach.
 Exclude the respondent from the analysis (if the respondent failed to answer a
number of questions, or the responses appear unreliable).
 Exclude the question from the analysis (if a significant number of respondents
failed to answer it).

However in research, the preferred practice for missing items is to provide special
codes indicating why the data was not included. When resources are available, the
“filling in” or imputation of these missing data items should be undertaken by the
researcher to reduce any biases arising from their absence. This involves going back
to the field and filling in the missing information.

c) Deciding on Data Storage

After coding the data, the researcher will have to make a decision about the short
and long-term storage of the information generated. The short time storage is
necessary before data analysis. The system in which the researcher stores the data
will determine (at least in the early stages) what forms of analysis the researcher
will carry out and how easy it will be to transfer the data into systems which will do
more complicated forms of analysis. There are two major storage forms, the
electronic form and non electronic (paper) form.

Paper storage: This is where the coded data is written on paper before the analysis.
Paper storage has the following advantages:

 It has a low cost.

 It allows for speedy retrieval.
 It is easy to distribute.
 It is comprehensible.
However, its disadvantages include the following:
 It is not extensible.
 It is fragile.
 It is bulky.
Electronic storage: The advantages of electronic storage include the following:
 It is extensible.
 It is easy to distribute.
 It is easy to interchange options.
 It has low volume.

The disadvantages of electronic storage are:

 Equipment costs are high.
 It has limited access.
 It is fragile.

Today, selecting electronic storage is an increasingly significant decision for a

researcher. In electronic storage, the researcher can transfer the data (or
information derived from it) into another system.

d) Choosing a Statistical Software Package

After deciding on how data will be stored, the researcher has to reflect on the
statistical software package that will be relevant in data analysis. When choosing a
statistical software package, there are several things a researcher has to consider.
These include the following:
 Characteristics of the data to be used; for example, is it descriptive or does it
analyze relationships?
 Analyses that will be performed.
 Technical and financial constraints.

There are various types of statistical software packages that a researcher can select
from. The software the researcher selects depends on the overall plan that the
researcher has for analyzing and presenting the data. The following are some of the
computer software:

WORD PROCESSOR
The researcher may decide to enter the data in text form straight into a word
processor, include Microsoft Word and Excel.
Advantages
 The obvious advantage of using a word processor is that the researcher does not
waste time on unnecessary processing. This is because data in text form is
entered directly in the processor
 If the researcher is creating a report from this data to explain and present it then
he/she can directly use the data.
 The researcher might choose to take the data (from survey or experiment

Disadvantage
The major problem of using a word processor is lack of analytical tools. Only the
most advanced word processors have spreadsheet- like functions. This means that
in most cases, if the researcher puts data into a table he/she cannot carry out simple
calculation (sums and standard deviations) on the column of the table.

SPREADSHEET
This is one of the most versatile analysis and storage combination tools. Many of the
formulae that spreadsheets have built-in are applicable to the data summarization
process.

Advantages
 Spreadsheets allow a large range of conventional summary statistics.
 Some also incorporate elements of Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA).
 It is possible with some spreadsheets to form cross-tabulations.
 Most spreadsheets offer graphical presentation of the results of an analysis.
 Spreadsheets are also able to interchange data with other systems. By using
spreadsheets, a researcher can take information straight from a spreadsheet and
place it into a word processor. Relevant information from the spreadsheet can be
copied directly across to a report.
Disadvantages
 The statistical functions supported by spreadsheets are mostly restricted to
descriptive statistics and basic inferential statistics. A researcher is unlikely to
find a wide range of advanced statistical operations, such as multivariate
statistics.
 Whilst the graphics in most spreadsheets are visually impressive, they are
usually restricted to a certain number of fairly fundamental graphic structures
(bar ch.rts, pie charts, and so on). If a researcher wants to use some of the more
esoteric systems he/she has to transfer the data either via a statistical package
or directly to a graphics package.

DATABASES
In research analysis, databases are vital in record keeping. A researcher may use a
database programme where he/she wants to take. advantage of the record
manipulation options of database management systems. For example, if researcher
wants to find all survey responses where the respondent said yes to one question
and no to another, the researcher keys in formulated codes and gets the answers. As
well as basic record manipulation (sorting and searching), the database also
provides other basic data processing functions, such as cross tabulations.

Advantages
 Databases have high levels of interchangeability with other systems, such as
word processors, spreadsheets, graphic packages and statistical packages.
 The database is often a good starting point for storing raw data because if a
researcher needs to manipulate the data (beyond the capability of the database),
he/she can do so by transferring the information into an alternative system.

STATISTICAL SYSTEMS
These are application systems that carry out a wide range of statistical techniques.
The simplest statistical packages support data summarization and basic inferential
statistics. The more complex statistical packages support advanced inferential
techniques, including multivariate methods. What they offer is advanced data
manipulation. This includes sophisticated data description, and a range of various
statistical tests. Statistical systems interchange particularly strongly with graphic
systems.

GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS
These are not software packages. Generally, the researcher is not going to actually
store data in a graphical system for future analysis. The assumption is that after the
researcher has carried out the analysis, he/she generates graphical displays of the
results. Graphical systems emphasize:
 Advanced display options, including a large range of chart tyres.
 Interchange with word processors and other graphic systems such as
presentation graphics and visualization systems.

Before purchasing any statistical software package, it is crucial for the researcher to
reflect on the data that will be analyzed, particularly on the effectiveness of the
statistical software package identified in analyzing the collected data. Many
statistical packages are unable to handle a large amount of data, or various types of
data structures. The researcher should brainstorm on the following:
 How will the data collected be stored?
 How will the data be accessed by the software package?
 Will the statistical package be able to create new variables as well as query the
data?
 What amount of data will be used for the analysis? Will the statistical package be
able to handle the database size?
 Does the current staff have the knowledge to operate the statistical package?
What is financial implication of the statistical package?
While all statistical packages are able to generate descriptive statistics and basic
tests, the breadth and depth of complex analyses that a statistical package is able to
perform varies greatly among packages. Several statistical packages require the
purchasing of additional modules or programmes in order to perform more
advanced analyses. These packages may be expensive. The researcher should
purchase only needed programmes and expand the package when additional
analyses are needed. In selecting a statistical package, the researcher should also
consider its display of the results and graphs.

Data Analysis
Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment
and making deductions and inferences. It involves uncovering underlying
structures; extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any
underlying assumptions. It involves scrutinizing the acquired information and
making inferences.

Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analyzing data into two categories:
exploratory methods and confirmatory methods Exploratory methods are used to
discover what the data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-
draw pictures to summarize data. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to answer
specific questions. These methods are mainly applicable in quantitative research.
The methods used in data analysis are influenced by whether the research is
qualitative or quantitative.

a) Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (of several variables), over an
extended period of time in a natural setting (variables are studied when and where
they naturally occur). Qualitative data, such as finding out the views of respondents
on a certain issue (for example, abortion) is not always computable by arithmetic
relations: The responses can be categorized into various classes which are called
categorical variables. The analysis of qualitative .data varies from simple descriptive
analysis to more elaborate reduction and multivariate associate techniques. The
analysis will vary with the purposes of the research, the complexity of the research
design and the extent to which conclusions can be reached easily (Orodho and
Kombo, 2002:116). In qualitative research designs, the researcher should decide
before going to the field, how he/she will analyze the data. The analytical technique
will determine the recording style that will be used during the data collection
exercise. The analytic techniques used in qualitative research are as follows:

A QUICK IMPRESSIONIST SUMMARY

In qualitative research, data can be analyzed bi a quick impressionist summary. This
involves the following:
 Summarizing key findings. For example in focus group discussions the
researcher notes down the frequent responses of the participants on various
issues.
 Explanation.
 Interpretation and conclusion.

This rapid data analysis technique is mainly used in situations that require urgent
information to make decisions for a programme for example in places where there
is an outbreak such as cholera and vital information is needed for intervention. This
technique can also be used when the results already generated are obvious, making
further analysis of data unwarranted. For example if a researcher finds out that 80%
of respondents give similar answers to what caused a fire outbreak doing further
analysis may be unwarranted. This form of analysis does not require data
transcription. The researcher records key issues of the discussion with respondents.
A narrative report is written enriched with quotations from key informants and
other respondents.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS
In qualitative research, data can also be analyzed thematically. Themes refer to
topics or major subjects that come up in discussions. This form of analysis
categorizes related topics. In using this form of analysis major concepts or themes
are identified. In this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following:
 Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is relevant to the
research questions and objectives.
 Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data.
 Classifies major issues or topics covered.
 Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations.
 Indicates the major themes in the margins.
 Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics identified. All
materials relevant to a certain topic are placed together.
 Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the associations
between them.
 Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings.
 Reports the intensity, which refers to the number f times certain words or
phrases or descriptions are used in the discussion. The frequency with which an
idea or word or description appears is used to interpret the importance,
attention or emphasis.

Weaknesses: The thematic method tends to rely heavily on the judgment of a single
analyst. This may lead to high levels of subjectivity and bias. It may he necessary to
have two or more analysts to code the transcript independently and compare notes.

CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis examines the intensity with which certain words have been used.
Content analysis systematically describes the form or content of written and/or
spoken material. In content analysis a classification system is developed to record
the information. In interpreting results, the frequency with which a symbol or idea
appears may be interpreted as a measure of importance, attention or emphasis. The
relative balance of favourable attributes regarding a symbol or an idea may be
interpreted as a measure of direction or bias. In content analysis, a researcher can
be assisted by trained researchers or a computer programme can be used to sort the
data to increase the reliability of the process. Content analysis is a tedious process
due to the requirement that each data source be analyzed along a number of
dimensions. It may also be inductive (identifies themes and patterns) or deductive
(quantifies frequencies of data). The results are descriptive, but will also indicate
trends or issues of interest. In content analysis, the first step is to select the data
source to be studied, then develop a classification system to record the information.

There are various forms of content analysis. These are as follows:

 Pragmatic Content Analysis: Classifies signs according to their probable causes
and effects. The emphasis is on why something is said. This could be used to
understand people’s perceptions and beliefs.
 Systematic Content Analysis classifies signs according to meaning.
 Designation analysis determines the frequency with which certain objects or
persons, institutions or concepts are mentioned. This is a simple counting
exercise.
 Attribution analysis examines the frequency with which certain characterization
or descriptors are used. The emphasis is on the adjectives, verbs, and descriptive
phrases and qualifiers. This is a simple counting exercise.
 Assertion analysis provides the frequency with which certain objectives
(persons, institutions) are characterized in a particular way. Such an analysis
often takes the form of a matrix with objects as columns and descriptors as rows
(Orodho and Kombo, 2002: 119)

In historical research there are various forms of data analysis. These include:
 Analysis of concepts: Concepts are clarified by describing the essential and core
concepts beginning from the early developmental stages.
 Interpretive analysis relates one event to another. The event is studied and
described within a broader context to add meaning and credibility to the data.
 Comparative analysis examines similarities and differences in events during
different time periods.
 Theoretical and philosophical analysis utilizes historical parallels, past trends,
and sequences of events to suggest the past, present, and future of the topic
being researched. Findings would be used to develop a theory or philosophy of
 leisure. For example, an analysis of public recreation agency goals and objectives
of previous eras can be used to describe the future in the context of social,
political, economic, technological, and cultural changes in society.

b) Data Analysis in Quantitative Research

Quantitative data analysis Consists of measuring numerical values from which
descriptions such as mean and standard deviations are made. These data can be put
into an order and further divided into two groups: discrete data or continuous data.
Discrete data are countable data, for example, the number of defective items
produced during a day’s production. Continuous data, are parameters (variables)
that are measurable and are expressed on a continuous scale, for example, the
height of a person. The analysis of quantitative data varies from simple to more
elaborate analysis techniques. The analysis varies with the objective of the
experiment, its complexity and the extent to which conclusion can be easily reached.
Data analysis in quantitative research depends on the type of study. This is as
follows:

CORRELATION STUDIES
In corelational research studies, data is mainly analyzed using the correlation
coefficient. By using this tool the researcher indicates the degree of relationship
between two variables. The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from 1 (a
perfect positive correlation) through 0 (no relationship between the variables) to-i
(a perfect negative correlation). In analyzing the correlation coefficient, a researcher
attempts to indicate the proportion of sameness between two variables. One of the
correlation tools is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This tool is used to
analyze the relationship between isolated independent and dependent variables.
Another type of correlation analysis is reliability studies (analyses conducted to
provide information about the validity and reliability of tests). In reliability studies
the same group of subjects is given a test and then at a somewhat later date is given
the test again. The researcher analyzes the two scores for each subject (the test
score and the retest score) and the correlation coefficient between the two sets of
scores can be calculated. This kind of correlation coefficient is referred to as a
reliability coefficient. Many tests used in education, for example, standardized
achievement tests, have more than one form. To determine the reliability
coefficients, a group of subjects are given both forms of a test thus two scores are
obtained for each subject and the correlation coefficient is calculated for the two
sets of scores. To conduct a validity correlational analysis, a researcher obtains
scores for students on a test and also, records their scores on the criterion measure.
Thus he/she has two scores for each subject and can calculate the correlation
coefficient of the sets of scores. This correlation coefficient is referred to as a
validity coefficient.

The important thing to remember is that in correlational research, while carrying

out analysis, the researcher is only looking at the degree of relationship between the
variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable.

PREDICTION STUDIES
In predictive correlational studies, while carrying out the analysis, the researcher
uses the degree of relationship that exists between two variables to predict one
variable from the other. For example if reading and spelling are correlated, then the
researcher can use the information to predict a student’s score on the spelling test if
the student has only taken the reading test. Conversely, the researcher can predict
the student’s score on the reading test given the student’s score on the spelling test.
Prediction studies are widely used to predict student academic success in college,
based on such measures as secondary school grades in mathematics, and aptitude
test scores.

CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
Causal-comparative educational research attempts to identify a causative
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. However,
this relationship is more suggestive than proven as the researcher does not have
complete control over the independent variable. If the researcher had control over
the independent variable, then the research would be classified as true
experimental research. In carrying out analysis based on this design, the researcher
compares two selected groups on the dependent variable. For example, if in form
two, some of the students in mathematics classes use calculators while others do
not, a researcher may be interested in finding out the effect of calculator use on
mathematics grades at the end of the year. The researcher therefore selects a group
of students from the class that use calculators and then selects another group of the
same size form the class that do not use calculators and compares the two groups at
the end of the year on their final mathematics grades. Another variant of this study
would be to take the students from a class that uses calculators and compare them
with another class that does not use calculators. Both these studies would be causal-
comparative research studies but they would differ in how you can generalize the
results of the study. One of the problems faced in analyzing data in causal-
comparative research is that since the respondents are not randomly placed in the
groups, the groups can differ on other variables that may have an effect on the
dependent variable.

An inferential statistic used to analyze data in both causal comparative and

experimental research designs is the t-test. Where the subjects in the two groups are
independent of one another, that is no matching of subjects or other control
procedures were used. The independent t-test is used to test the significance of a
difference between the means of the experimental and control groups in the study.
In research designs where the influence of an extraneous variable has been
controlled, or in designs utilizing a pre-test-post-test procedure, the appropriate t-
test to use to compare the two groups would be the dependent t-test. When a
researcher has three or more groups to compare, the appropriate inferential
statistic to use in data analysis would be one-way analysis of variance. This statistic
shows the significance of differences in the means of three or more groups of
subjects.
In cases where the researcher uses frequency counts for the dependent variable, the
appropriate inferential statistic to use in data analysis would be the chi-square test.
This statistic tests the significance of differences between two or more groups
(independent variable) in frequencies for the dependent variable.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The major difference in data analysis between causal-comparative and experimental
research is that the researcher has control over the independent variable in
experimental research and can manipulate this variable at will. In the case of causal-
comparative research, the independent variable is established by the identity of the
groups chosen and is not under experimental control. In experimental designs, the
observer should decide before carrying out the experiment the analytical process.
The analytical process in experimental studies mainly involves the calculation of
effect size. Effect size is the mean of the experimental group minus the mean of the
control group, divided by the standard deviation of the control group. The idea is to
calculate the effect size across a number of studies to determine the relevance of the
test, treatment, or method.

Data Presentation
There are three ways researchers can present data after analysis.
This includes the following:
 Using statistical techniques.
 Using graphical techniques.
 Using a combination of both.

Statistical Techniques
Statistics are a set of mathematical methods used to extract and clarify information
from observed data. Statistics generate simple numbers to describe distributions,
either grouped or ungrouped. Statistics have two major functions in data
presentation. They can add to our understanding of the data that make up the
distribution, and they can substitute for (be used instead of) the distribution. With
descriptive statistics it is important to define whether the researcher is calculating
values for a population or for a sample: the results will be different. A sample
statistic is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a sample. The following
are some of the statistical techniques used to present analyzed data.

a) FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
The values in a set of ungrouped data constitute a distribution. The values that we
have in a set of ordinal data, and the values we generate by converting ungrouped
data into grouped form, constitute a frequency distribution. For example, imagine a
survey in which we measure the weight of a sample of pieces of wood loaded onto a
lorry. The values for all the pieces of wood measured make up a distribution. A
researcher can calculate sample statistics from that distribution, such as a sample
mean (for example, 14.56 kg). A frequency distribution of grouped data can also be
created as shown in the table below.

Weight (kg) Number

7-9 2
10-12 8
13-15 12
16-18 19
19-21 7

Table 1. Frequency distribution of a wood load

Class Limits: The frequency distribution is made up of the values (Counts) for a set
of classes; each class has a frequency (f) associated with it. The class limits are the
upper and lower values for each class. They should be defined in such a way that no
value is excluded, but no value can fall into two classes. The researcher can achieve
this by using class boundaries with a precision (meaning in this case number of
significant figures) one order below that of arty of the actual data values. In the
wood example, if the researcher weighs the pieces to the nearest tenth of a
kiIogrmme, he/she would set the class boundaries to 7.05, 9.05, and so on. The class
interval is the 4ifference between the upper class boundary and the lower class
boundary; in most frequency distributions it will be constant across the classes. The
point halfway between the upper and lower class limits is the class midpoint. These
values are used to calculate the mean of a set of grouped data.

Statistics can be divided into two groups: measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion.

b) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of central tendency are numbers that define the location of a distribution’s
centre. For example, if we regard all measurements as being attempts to give us the
“true” value of a particular phenomenon, we can regard the centre of the
distribution of a set of measurements an estimate of that “true” value. The various
sources of error in the measurement process will produce variability in the
measurements, so they will not all have the same value. Measures of dispersion
attempt to quantify the extent of this variability. When dealing with ungrouped data,
the researcher can use several measures of central tendency. These include the
mean, the median and mode. When dealing with grouped data, the researcher
cannot use the arithmetic mean, instead he/she can use the group mean. Using
grouped data the researcher cannot use the median, but can define the modal class.

MEAN — This is the average. It is found by the sum total divided by the number.

MEDIAN — The median can be defined in a set of ungrouped data. If the data are
arranged in ascending or descending order; in general, the median is the value that
has half of the data values less than it, and half greater than it. If the sample size (n)
is an odd number, the median is the middle value of the entire distribution. If n is an
even number, the median is the mean of the two “middle” values. For example, in the
fallowing ungrouped data 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24; the median is 18 whereas for 12,
14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27 the median is 18.5. So the median is the value that
minimizes the absolute distance to the data points.

MODE — The mode of a set of data is the value that occurs most often, with certain
provisos: It is possible to have no mode (that is , no value occurs more than once). It
is possible to have more than one mode (a distribution may be bimodal, trimodal or
multi-modal). For grouped data the class with the highest frequency value is the
modal class. There may be two modal classes (bimodal), or more. For example, for
the following frequencies: 12, 18, 13, 13, 22, 12, 14, 13 the mode is 13.

c) MEASURES OF DISPERSION
This type of statistic describes how much the distribution varies around the central
point. The various ways we can describe this spread are called measures of
dispersion. These measures quantify the variability of the distribution. As they are
attempting to quantify the general shape of a distribution rather than a single value
for its centre most measures of dispersion are numerically more complex. These
measures consist of the following:

RANGE — The simplest measure of dispersion is the range of the data: the
difference between the highest and the lowest values in the data (maximum —
minimum).

VARIANCE._ This is a measure that indicates the distribution of data. It is based

upon the idea that each observation differs from the mean by some amount. This is
referred to as the difference from the mean. The difference between each value and
the population mean is called its deviation. To get the variance, all the values are
taken and summed. Dividing the result by the population size (N) gives the mean
deviation. Unfortunately, this measure does not give sufficient “weight” to the values
on the margins of the distribution. To do so, the sum of the squares of the deviations
from the mean has to be taken. Dividing this value (the sum of squared deviations)
by the population size gives the variance of the distribution.
Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. For
example in the example on the wood weight, if the mean weight was 13.78
kilogrammes, and the variance was 3.56 kilogrammes, the standard deviation will
be 1.89 kilogrammes. Consequently, we cannot compare the variances of two
distributions unless they happen to have the same units. We cannot use the variance
(or the standard deviation) to indicate which of two or more distributions exhibits
greater variability. For this latter purpose we need a “dimensionless” measure of
dispersion, for which we usually employ the coefficient of variability.

Coefficient of Variability (or Variation). The coefficient of variability is calculated by

expressing the standard deviation as a percentage of the mean.

The basic shape of a frequency curve can be described quantitatively by several

measures.

These are measures that explicitly quantify the “balance” of the distribution (See
figure 2.). These balance bas two components:

 Are the values arranged symmetrically on either side of the centre?

 Is the distribution highly “peaked” (most values lie close to the centre, and
the tails are short) or is the distribution “flat” (long tails and a low central
concentration)?
The measures used to describe the overall symmetry of a distribution that is,
whether the two tails of the distribution are equal - is called the skewness. The
distribution can be described as left (positively) or right (negatively) skewed. The
coefficient of skewness can be used to quantify the extent of the asymmetry. We also
define whether the distribution is “peaked” or not; the measure for this is called the
kurtosis. Distributions that are strongly peaked (that is, most of the values lie close
to the centre of the distribution, with relatively short tails) are termed leptokurtic1
whereas those where the values are broadly spread (the tails are long) are termed
platykurtic.
Figure 2: The major components of distribution shape

PERCENTILES: Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100
equal parts (F1, F2, P3 P99) such that 1% of all the data points fall below P1, 2% fall
below P2 and so on.

DECILES: Deciles are values that divide a set of observations into ten equal parts
(D1, D2, D3 D9) such that 10% of all the data points fall below D1, 2O% fall below
D2, and so on.

QUARTILES: Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations into four equal
parts (Q1, Q2, Q3) such that 25% of all the data points fall below Q1, 50% fall below
Q2, and 75% fall below Q3.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Whilst the most obvious way of representing grouped data is as a table, the
information can also be represented diagrammatically. ,Data can be graphically
presented by a histogram or polygon.
a) Histogram — A basic representation of the shape of a frequency distribution
(See figure 3.). This can be shown as a series of vertical (or horizontal) bars, their
length indicating the frequency of thëpá rr
ticular class.
b) Polygon — Data can also be presented as polygons. The polygon is closed by
connecting the midpoints of the end classes to the midpoints of “imaginary” classes
on each side, which have a notional frequency of zero.

Figure 3: Sample Histogram

c) Bars The cumulative frequency distribution can also be plotted as a series of bars
(see Figure 4), or as a series of lines joining the midpoints of the classes; this is
termed an ogive (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
Pie chart — A pie chart can also be used for the purpose of presenting results.
(Figure 6).
At a glance, one can be able to see that the upper class group dominates the
purchasing. of goods and services.

Challenges Faced in Data Analysis

In data analysis, the researcher should ensure the following:
 Understands the assumptions of their statistical procedures and be sure they are
satisfied. In particular, the researcher should be aware of hierarchically
organized (non independent) data use techniques designed to deal with the
challenges faced in data analysis.
 Be sure to use the best measurement tools available. If measures have errors,
then that fact should be considered.
 Beware of multiple comparisons. If one has to do many tests, then he/she should
try to replace or use cross-validation to verify the results.
 Keep in mind what one is trying to discover. One should look at the magnitude
rather than values.
 Use numerical notation in a rational way. One should not confuse precision with
accuracy.
 Be sure to understand the conditions for causal inference. If one needs to make
inference, then he/she should try to use random assignment. If that is rcot
possible, then one should devote a lot of effort to unearth causal relationships
with a variety of approaches to the question.
 Be sure that the graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation clearly.
‘Ethical Issues
In data analysis and presentation1 a researcher should maintain integrity. This is
particularly in the application of statistical skills to problems where private
interests may inappropriately affect the development or ap1ication of statistical
knowledge. For these reasons, researchers should:
 Present their findings and interpretations honestly and objectively.
 Avoid untrue, deceptive, or doctored results.
 Disclose any financial or other interests that may affect, or appear to affect their
analysis.
 Delineate the boundaries of the inquiry as well as the boundaries of the
statistical inferences which can be derived from it.
 Make the data available for analysis by other responsible parties with
appropriate safeguards for privacy concerns.
 Recognize that the selection of a statistical procedure may to some extent be a
matter of judgment and that other statisticians may select alternative
procedures.
 Direct any criticism of a statistical inquiry to the inquiry itself and not to the
individuals conducting it.
 Apply statistical procedures without concern for a favourable outcome.

Conclusion
 In data analysis and presentation, a researcher has, according to Cohen (1993) to
be sure of the following:
 Be sure the analysis sample is representative of the population in which the
researcher is interested in.
 Be sure you understand the assumptions of your statistical procedures, and be
sure they are clearly defined. Beware of hierarchically organized (non-
independent) data and use techniques designed to deal with them.
 Be sure to use the best measurement tools available. If your measures have
errors, take that fact into account.
 Be clear of what you are trying to discover.
 Be sure the graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation clearly.
 CHAPTER Six
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter summarizes the whole research process. It first provides a brief
summary of the whole study with particular reference to the research problem,
research methodology, results, the main contributions of the research and
recommendations for future work. It provides a summary of the main findings of the
study, conclusions and recommendations. This chapter should be reasonably short.
The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the study were achieved,
and whether the work has contributed to knowledge. Therefore, when compiling
this chapter, a researcher should focus on answering these questions.

Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A researcher
should make relevant references to chapters that support the listed findings and
may also refer to the work of others for comparison. However, one should not
discuss the stu1y’s results here.

Summary of the Main Findings

In summarizing, a researcher should identify the findings of the study and discuss
them briefly. In addition, the methodological problems encountered should be
outlined so that future/other researchers may take the relevant precautions. The
researcher should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not. An
effective summary has the following qualities:

 It bases on results from the study.

 It is brief, all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the contributions that the
researcher has made.

Recommendations
 All statements are factual.
One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea.
Alternatively, the researcher can use a point-by-point format.

Conclusion
The Conclusion section should be very brief, about half a page. It should indicate
what the study results reaffirm. It should also briefly discuss some of the strategies
highlighted by the respondents. In this section, the researcher should clearly state
how the study has contributed to knowledge.

Recommendations
The recommendations section is important in research. This section often exposes
further problems and introduces more questions. As a researcher, there is a time
limit to the research project, so it is unlikely that the study would have solved all the
problems associated with the area of study. The researcher is therefore expected to
make suggestions about how his/her work can be improved, and also based on the
study findings, point out whether there are areas that deserve further investigation.
This section will indicate whether a researcher has a firm appreciation of his/her
work, and whether he/ she has given sufficient thought to its implications, not only
within the narrow confines of the research topic but to related fields. This section
reflects the researcher’s foresightedness and creativity.

This chapter should be written using a punchy style and should not be too long.
Conclusions and contributions should be presented concisely and factually.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
REFERENCES
Finalization of the research work is very challenging. This is mainly because by the
time a researcher finalizes the study, there may be exhaustion and an urgency to
complete the study. However this section is vital and should be completed with
seriousness and uttermost care. This chapter discusses referencing, preparing the
appendix and formatting the final work.

References
In research, the term “reference” applies to materials that have been referred to or
quoted in the study. The reference list is a compilation of the books and articles
referred to. This list is related closely to the literature review chapter. This is
because all reference materials used in the literature review should be reflected in
this section. The reference list should contain the most relevant and important
publications.

The References in the Body of the Text

The appropriate point at which to indicate the source of an idea is as soon as is
convenient. When it is at the beginning or middle of a sentence, the researcher
should indicate the surname of the author and year of publication. The year of
publication should be enclosed inside brackets, for instance, “Orodho (2003)
pointed out that...,”“Kombo (2005) indicated that....” At the end of a sentence or
paragraph, one needs to enclose the surname of the author and year of publication
in brackets. The name and year should be separated by a comma, for example
(Orodho, 2003); (Kombo, 2005).

Direct Quotations
Direct quotations should be accurate. If there is need to omit some words within a
quotation, the writer should use three ellipses (...)to indicate the omissions. If the
quotation is short, that is, a maximum of three sentences then use quotation marks
within the text. Longer quotations are usually indented and typed in single spacing,
without quotation marks. In both cases, the pages from which the quotation comes
must be indicated at the end of the quotation (Kombo, 2004:69).

Paraphrase
The use of another author’s idea, but expressed in the writer’s words is referred to
as paraphrasing. In this case the writer indicates the source author and year, for
example (Kombo, 2004).

Citation Styles
One of the challenges experienced by researchers is how to cite references. The two
most common methods for citing published work are:
 the number system
 the name-year system

THE NUMBER SYSTEM

With this system, references to published work are by use of numbers, for example:
There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control [1-4]. The most popular
seems to be the book by Kombo [2]. However, the only one to deal with process
design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho[4J.

or
There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control 1-4. The most popular
seems to be the book by Kombo 2; However, the only one to deal with process
design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho 4.

In both examples above, three citations were made. The first referred to publication
numbers 1, 2, 3. and 4; the second citation referred to publication number 2, while
the last citation referred to publication number 4. The fact that the numbers relate
to items in the reference list is indicated by the square parentheses I...] or by the
superscripts. The convention a researcher follows will depend on the guidelines and
regulations of one’s institution.
When using the number-system citation style, the order of the corresponding
reference list is important. By convention, the first cited publication will be the first
on the list and assigned the number “1.” The second cited publication will be the
second on the list and assigned the number “2” and so on. That is, the publications in
the reference list are presented in the order that they were cited. However, the
reference list must not contain duplicates. This means that the researcher will have
to keep track of the publications that have been cited and their associated order in
the reference list, so that he/she can use the appropriate number when he/she
citing a publication more than once, as in the above examples.

THE NAME-YEAR SYSTEM

Using the name-year citation style, the above example becomes:
There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control (Kombo, 1991; Orodho,
1990; Paul, 1995; Wamahiu, 1988). The most popular seems to be the book by
Kombo (1991). However, the only one to deal with process design and process
control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho (1995).

The first citation named 4 authors using their surname. Associated with each
surname is the year of the publication. Notice that they are presented in alphabetical
order, within round parentheses, (...). The author is separated from the year by a
comma. Author-year pairs are separated by semi-colons. The next two citations
named the authors using their surnames with the publication year of the cited
publications enclosed in parentheses. Therefore, there are two ways to use the
name-year citation style. When using this citation style, the reference list is
presented in alphabetical order.

How a publication is cited also depends on the number of authors. If there are two
authors, then cite as follows: “Orodho and Kombo (2002) modified the Minimum
Variance objective function to include...”
or
“The Generalized Minimum Variance self-tuning algorithm was proposed in the late
1970s (Orodho and Kombo, 2002).” When a publication has more than two authors,
cite as follows:

“Montague et al. (1987) considered...”

At the point at which a source is cited in the text, indicate the author’s surname,
followed by the year of publication.

In a sentence simply indicate the surname and put the year of publication of the
document in brackets, that is, Kombo (2004). However, if the source is indicated at
the end of a sentence or paragraph, then include both the author and year of
publication in brackets (Kombo, 2004).

A comma separates the author’s name and year of publication. If an author has
published several works in the same year and one is using more than one of these,
then lower case letters are used after the year for identification, that is, Orodho
(2003a, 2003b, 2003c and so On).

If several sources are being referred to at the same time, then the authors should be
organized alphabetically and the sources separated using semi colons (Kombo,
2004; Orodho, 2003).

If quotations are used, indicate the author, year of publication and page(s) of the
quotation. Page(s) can be indicated by using p. (pp. if many) or using colon i.e.
(Orodho, 2003, p.69) or (Orodho, 2003: 69). If many pages (Orodho, 2003: pp. 69-
71) or (Orodho, 2003: 69-71).
Listing of References
There are a number of types of publications used in research. These materials
include articles, magazines, journals, conference proceedings, books, dissertations,
theses and research reports. Each category of materials requires a different
presentation format. However the general order of organizing the references is as
follows:
1. Surname of the author
2. Initials of the author
3. Date of publication
4. Title of the material
5. Place of publication
6. Publishers
Author’s surname, initials, (year of publication). Title of material. Place of
Publication: Publishers.

Format
There are various presentation formats for different materials. This
is as follows:
a) Journal Articles - These are the most common sources of cited mate rial and
include specialist technical journals as well as trade journals,
They are presented in the following format:
1. Surname of the author
2. Initials of the author
3. Year (date) of publication
4. Title of article: The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower
case.
5. Name of journal (underlined or italicized). You may use an abbreviated form for
the journal name, but make sure that it is the recognized one. Most journals will
have the “official” abbreviated title printed at the top of its pages.
6. Volume, followed by number of issue. Instead of issue numbers, some journals
have a month of issue. In such cases, substitute the month for the issue number.
7. Pages in the journal where the article appears.
Author’s surname, initials. (Year of publication). Title of article, Name of Journal,
Volume (number, pages).

For example:
Johnson, U.W., Johnson, H., Stanne, M, and Garibaldi, A. (1990). Impact of group
processing on achievement in cooperative groups. Journal of Social Psychology, 130,
507-516.

Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Towards
a theory of settings. Review of Educational Research, 60, 517-529.

b) Conference Proceedings.— Papers presented at conferences are also common

sources of research information The format is as follows; Author(s), (year). Article
title, Name of conference, Location of conference, page range. For example:

Dore, S.D., Perkins, J.D. and Kershenba’um L.S. (1994). Application of geometric
nonlinear con trot in the process industries: a case study, Proc. IFAC Symposium
Presentation slum, ADCHEM ‘94, Kyoto, Japan, pp 501-506

The author(s) surname appears first followed by initials. The year is enclosed in
parentheses and terminated with a full-stop. The first letter of the title is capitalized
while the rest are in lower case. You may use abbreviations to indicate the t.rpe of
publication and the name of the conference. For example “Proc.” is usually used in
place of “Proceedings”; “Pre.” for “Preprints”; “Cof” for “Conference”; “Symp.” for
“Symposium” and so on.

C) Books — To list books, use the following format:

Surname of the author, initials of the author. (year of publication.) title of book.
edition number, place f publication, publishers. For example:
Awuondo, C.O. (1993). Introduction to Socioology .Nairobi: Basic Books Limited.
Kombo, D. and Waiyaki, M. (2002). Sociology of Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta
University Press.

Orodho, A.J. (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Science Research Methods.
Nairobi: Masola Publishers.

Gay, L.R. (1992). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications.
4th Edition, New York: Macmillan Publishers.

In referencing books, the first letter of keywords in the main title are in capitals, and
the title is in ita1ic There is no need to indicate the edition of the book if it is the
first edition.

Some books are compilations of articles from different authors. For such cases, the
format used is a cross between that for journal articles and books. This is as follows:
‘
Author (s), (year). Title of article Book, In: Name of book, Edition number, Chapter
number, Name(s) of editors, Name of publisher, place of publication.
For example:

Runielhart D.E., Hinton G.E. and Williams, R.J. (1987). Learning internal
representations by error propagation, In: Parallel Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, Ch.
8, D.E. Rumeihart and J.L. McClelland [editors], MIT Press: Cambridge MA.

Note the use of the word “In:” and the difference in which the names of the authors
and the names of the editors are presented: editors’ names are listed with their
initials first. However, when you list the book without reference to authors of
particular chapters, editors are considered the authors, in which case the item will
be listed as:
Rurneihart, D.E. and McClelland, J.L. [editors]. (1987). Parallel Distributed
Processing: Vol. 1, MIT Press: Cambridge MA.

d) Dissertations, Theses and Research Reports

Dissertations, theses and academic research reports are listed using the format
below:

Author(s), (year). Title in italics. Type of publication, Research Group, Name of

institution, Country. For example:

Peel, C. (1995). Aspects of Neural Networks for Modeling and Control. PhD Thesis,
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.

Bloggs, J. and Other, A.N. (1998). The Effects of Vodbull on Class Attendance.
Research Report No. 123, Social Impact Research Group, Smirnoff Institute of
Technology, Vladivostok, Russia.

Kombo, D.K. (1988). Factors influencing student’s poor performance in the K.C.E
Examination among Harambee Secondary schools in Kathiani Division, Machakos
District, Kenyatta University, Kenya.

When listing a research report, include the report number where applicable.

e) Company Reports and Manuals

Sometimes, a researcher may need to cite material contained in publications by
companies and from manuals. In such cases there are no named individuals for
authors. Use the format below:

Name of company or organization, (year). Title in italics. Place of publication. For

example:
Mathsoft Inc., (1999). Mathcad 2000 Reference Manual. Cambridge, MA.
f) Information from the World Wide Web (www)
Nowadays, much information can be obtained from the Internet, typically websites
but sources include newsgroups and on-line forums. The format to use for such
publications is:

Name of Author(s) or company or organization, (year), Title of article, URL, date

found.

The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the full Internet address of the article. Due
to the transient nature of on-line information, it is important to include the date
when one found the information. Fr example:

Tham, M.T. (1997). Distillation: an introduction, http:/ /lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/

distil/distil0.htm, 30 May 2001.

g) Personal Communications
Sometimes, a researcher may have used information passed on to him/her by a
colleague or another person, via a phone conversation, letter, email or other forms
of communication The researcher can include this information in the reference list.
The format to use is:

Name, (year). Personal communication, Affiliation of named person.

For example:

Blogg, J. (1996). Personal communication, University College London, UK.

The reference list should be compiled as a researcher writes the chapters. The
references should be organized alphabetically using surnames. If the author are
several publications listed, they should be organized using the date .year) order. If
there is more than one author, the names and initials of all the other authors should
appear. All authors should be given credit. All the materials cited should be
referenced.

The reader should note that the material presented here is not exhaustive; there are
many variations. However, in the absence of other instructions, and as long as you
are consistent, the guidelines presented above should be sufficient.

Numbering
In a research proposal or thesis, there is a specific format for numbering. There is
specific numbering for the following:
 chapters and sections in chapters
 figures and diagrams
 tables and lists
 equations

Each chapter of the proposal/thesis should be assigned a number.

For example:
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter sections and subsections should also be assigned a numerical index. For
example, the second section of Chapter 1 could be:

1.2 Statement of the Problem, while a subsection of Section 4 in Chapter

4 could be: 4.4.1 Simulation results.

Notice the use of different cases in the 3 heading categories. The title of chapter is in
upper case (capitalized); the heading of a section has the first letter of keywords in
upper case; while only the first letter of the first word in a subsection is capitalized.
These styles are used as visual cues to indicate the different levels of headings.
Avoid having more than 3 levels, for instance, 2.1.3.2, as they can make the text
messy especially when referring to them. If you need to categorize further, the
contents of a subsection, use a different font style. Bold and underlined text is a
popular format.

To refer to a particular chapter, use the formats given by the following examples:
“Chapter 2 provides a review of work in this area. The reason for this modification,
stated in Chapter 3....” Notice that the word “Chapter” is written in full with a capital
“C.” The following examples show how references are made to sections or
subsections:

“The procedure outlined in Secction 5.3 was employed to...”

“Section 3.2.2 discussed the implication of...”

Here, the word “Section” with a capital “5” is used to refer to both sections and
subsections; the latter being obvious from the numerical index.

Figures and Diagrams

In proposals and theses, all figures and diagrams must be captioned and given a
numerical index. Captions should appear below the figure or diagram, and should be
sufficiently descriptive without being too long. Simply state what the illustration is
showing and do any explaining in the main text. Captions for figures and diagrams
have the format: Chapter number. Figure number.

Description
Figure 2.4. The Physiotherapy Strategy.
The word “Figure” is used generically to cover all illustrations, such as drawings,
flow charts, sketches, and so on. Spell out the word in full. Note too, the positions of
the full-stops. The numerical index is composed of the chapter number, a full stop,
followed by the figure number, terminated with another full stop. Thus, the third
illustration appearing in Chapter 4 would have the caption:
Figure 4.3. Schematic of control system for the methanol-water column.

You may use the abbreviated form, “Fig.”, when referring to illustrations if the
reference appears in the middle of a sentence. For example:

“The control scheme, shown in Fig. 4.3, is quite common.”

Otherwise, write the word “Figure” in full, for instance, “Figure 4.3 shows a common
control scheme for a distillation column.”

Tables and Lists

All tables and lists, must be captioned and given a numerical index, and the
numbering style is identical to that used for figures and diagrams. The captions
should be placed below each table and list. So, for example, the second table in
Chapter 3 would have the caption:

“Table 3.2. Performance measures obtained using the proposed procedure.”

Abbreviations should not be used when referring to tables and lists - write out the
word “Table” in full; with a capital “T.”

Equations
These are mathematical as well as chemical expressions. Each major equation
should be assigned a numerical index, with the following format: (Chapter number.
Equation number). The following shows equation number 6 in Chapter 4.

A=2B÷C____________ (4.6)

Use the following rules when referring to equations.

 When a sentence starts with the word “Equation,” write it out in full followed by
the numerical index.
 Otherwise use either the abbreviation “Eq.” or “Eqn.” making sure that you
maintain consistency throughout the proposal/thesis. When referring to a
collection of equations, use the corresponding plural forms, i.e. “Eqs.” or “Eqns.”

For example:
“Equation (5.1) shows the effect of...”
“Substituting Eq. (3.3) into Eq. (3.7) yields ...““The process model, given by Esq. (4.4)
to (4.10),...”

When referring to equations in text contained within parentheses, you need not
enclose the equation’s numerical index within parentheses. As such, “The process
model, (Eqs. 4.4 to 4.10)” is much neater than “The process model, (Eqs.(4.4) to
(4.10))
 CHAPTER EIGHT
APPENDICES
This section is meant for information which may be of interest to the reader but not
critical to the study. Information usually includes research instruments, copies of
letters of respondents, tables, figures, the budget and the work plan. Some things
which are typically included in appendices are: data files that are too large to be
represented simply in the results chapters, pictures or diagrams of results which are
not important enough to keep in the main text and time frame, research
instruments. Appendices should be devoted to those aspects of the project that are
of secondary interest to the reader. Begin by assuming that the reader will only have
a short time to read the proposal and it will only be its main body (not the
appendices). After reading, the readers attention has already been engaged, and
now he/she would like some additional information. This is the purpose of the
Appendices. Several sections could be included in the appendices.

Budget
An important aspect of your proposal/thesis will be the budget. Most institutions
are interested in seeing how finances will be allocated for the study. This refers to
the amount of money needed or used during the study.

ACTIVITY BUDGET
CORE ACTIVITIES ITEMS/PARTICIPANT COST (USD COST (KSH)
@ KSH 78)
Consolidation of literature Library search 300 23,400
Travelling expenses USD
10 per day x 30 days
Designing and developing Typing and photocopying of 100 7,800
research instruments research instruments

Research induction and Transport for researcher and two 210 16,380
training (7days) research assistants
 USD 10x 7days x3

Pilot survey Transport for researcher and 1,500 117,000

research assistants USD 100 x
days x 3
Finalizing of research 150 questionnaires in each 1,200 93,600
instruments (typing and province x8 provinces @ USD 1
photocopying) per questionnaire

Main field data collection Travel, accommodation and 6,000 468,000

(4 months) subsistence researcher 1 x 120
days x USD 50

Research assistants 2x 120 4,800 374,400

xUSD20

Data processing, analysis 1 researcher and two 3,600 280,800

and report writing research assistants 3x 60
days USD 20

Purchases Computer 1 and accessories 1,000 78,800

Video recorder and accessories 1,000 78,800
Camera 500 39,000
10% contingency and 157,638
institutional costs
Total
Work Plan
A work plan is a clear indication of the time frame for the project and the times
when each aspect of the project will be implemented. A time line can be created as a
graphic representation (not too many words). If done well, it will help demonstrate
the feasibility of the project in a very visible way. It is a schedule, chart or graph that
summarizes the different components of a research project and how they will be
implemented in a coherent way within specific time-span. It may include
 The tasks to be performed.
 When and where the tasks will be performed
 Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will spend on them
(research team, research assistants and support staff drivers, typists assigned
to the tasks).

A time frame is the length of time a project will take from the start to the end. It is
given in terms of specific dates. It gives an indication of time. It is usually in form of
a table. It gives the duration of each activity.

A time plan is the demarcation of what will be done from the start to the end, when,
and where. It includes the dates each task should begin and be completed. These
three terms are used interchangeably.

Factors to Consider before Coming up with a Work Plan

A work plan is the blueprint of any project. It encompasses all that is required in
order for a project to succeed or fail. A lot of care, objectivity and preparation have
to be put in the work plan. A lot of consideration should be taken as to who gets
assigned to the preparation of the final work plan.

Work planning does not start simply with the scheduling of tasks to be performed
and the order in which they should be performed. It involves an awareness of the
objective of the research project, the research methodology and the tentative
budget.
Role of the Planner
The planner has to be very conversant with various aspects of the proposal as these
have a direct link to designing the work plan. The planner has to be conversant with
the problem that is being addressed and why it is being addressed, the available
information and the additional information needed, the target group, and the
techniques that will be used in data collection. He/she also needs to have a rough
estimate of the length of time such a project will take. The planner also needs to be
aware of some of the challenges likely to be faced. The role of the planner includes
the following:

a) Reflection — this involves assessing the project from the social and ecological
perspectives. This includes assessing the set goals for the project and the best
way of achieving them.
b) Defining key issues (problems) to be addressed in the project and its practical
boundaries.
c) Identifying key uncertainties, that is, the likely gaps in
understanding/knowledge about the project or the social or ecological systems.
For example, if one of the study areas is North Eastern province, it is necessary
for the planner to be aware of how long it will take to reach these areas, security
concerns, accommodation, and so on.

Steps to Be Followed in Developing an Effective Work Plan

The following are the steps that a planner has to adhere to in developing an effective
work plan.
a. Review and revise, if necessary, the list of tasks prepared for data collection.
Add to the list other tasks you must complete not related to data collection
such as clearance of the proposal, data analysis and report writing, and
feedback to the authorities and the target group. Number all tasks:
b. Review the staffing for the different tasks, taking into account the experience
during the pre-test. Consider:
 Who will carry out which tasks.
 The amount of time needed per research unit (interview/observation/record)
including travel time.
 The number of staff needed to complete each task in the planned period of time.
 Look at a calendar and note any public holidays or other important activities
scheduled for the period (about 6 months) in which you plan to conduct the
fieldwork.
 Include your facilitator in stages of the fieldwork where you feel you would
require assistance (for instance, during training of research assistants or during
the initial period of data collection in the field). If needed, schedule the use of a
local consultant.
 Do not forget to include support staff required (typists, drivers, for example).

Consider whether the number of days each member of the research team plans to
invest in the fieldwork is adequate and acceptable for the task. (It should most likely
not exceed 30 working days.)

Make revisions, if required. Complete the staffing for the tasks you have just added.
Consider whether the use of short-term consultants is necessary for certain tasks.
Always consider using local consultants. If consultants are used, involve them in the
planning stage of the project so you can incorporate any useful suggestions they
may have concerning the design of the methodology.

There are a number of computer software packages on the market that one can use
to prepare and monitor the implementation of a work plan. Microsoft Project
Manager, Excel, and Lotus are among the commonly used software solutions.

The work plan is the starting point for developing the budget. Specify, for each
activity in the work plan, what resources are required. Determine for each resource
needed the unit cost and the total cost.

Factors to Consider in Staffing Plan

Any person planning a research project has to have specific and careful planning on
the recruitment of resource persons. This is mainly because they play a major role
in the success of the project. Factors to consider before incorporating them in the
work plan include the following:
 Are the types of personnel and levels of expertise you require likely to be
available for the project? For example, is there a sufficient range of disciplines
available including, where appropriate, personnel from outside the field? Varied
views may help boost the project.
 If special staff have to be recruited or reassigned from other ministries /
agencies/departments, and so on, what regulations or procedures will have to be
followed?
 Is the staffing plan realistic, taking into account the project budget that is likely
to be available?
 To what extent can community members, students or other nonprofessionals be
involved in the study?
 What training would the research assistants/data collectors require? How long
would the training last? Who would do the training? How do you intend to
supervise the assistants/data collectors?
After this has been put into perspective the planner can then fix the dates (in
weeks) indicating the period in which each task will have to be carried out and
calculate the number of working days per person required to complete each
task.
 The first draft of the work plan should be prepared when the project proposal is
being developed, so the schedule can be discussed easily with the relevant
authorities. A more detailed work plan should be prepared after the pre-test in
the study area. There should be no hesitation in revising work plans as
necessary, based on a reassessment of what can be realistically accomplished in
the coming months.
 Seasonal changes and their effect on travel, work habits, and on the topic you are
studying (such as incidence of disease or nutritional status) should be kept in
mind as the schedule is planned.
Importance of Work Plan in Research
 A work plan can serve as:
 A tool for planning the details of the project activities and drafting a budget.
 A visual outline or illustration of the sequence of project operations. It can
facilitate presentations and negotiations concerning the project with
government authorities and other funding agencies.
 A management tool for the team leader and members of the research team,
showing what tasks and activities are planned, their timing, and when various
staff members will be involved in various tasks.
 A tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of the project is
compared to what had been foreseen in the work plan.

Challenges Faced in Preparation of Work Plans

There are various challenges experienced by researchers while preparing the work
plan. This includes the following:
 Planning without an awareness of the research methodology, area of study and
the respondents.
 Inexperience of the planners (researcher) particularly with certain data
collection technique and therefore allocating less time for the field work.
 Planning without budget estimates.
 Pressure from authorities to hand in work plan in as short a time as possible.
This results in haphazard planning to beat deadlines.

Errors in the preparation of the work plan may contribute to invalid data as it may
contribute to rushing in coverage of study area and respondents. It can also
contribute to the application of indicators and measuring techniques or instruments
which do not adequately measure what the project set out to measure. All the above
mentioned shortcomings may threaten the validity of the research findings and
conclusions.
 CONCLUSION
GETTING AN OVERALL PICTURE

Format of Research Proposal and Thesis

In the finalization of a research proposal and thesis a researcher has to consider the
format.
a) Proposal
In a proposal the structure is as follows:
1. Cover Page — This page consists of the following:
 Title — The title should not be more than twenty words. It should be clear and
focused.
 Author(s) identification — This includes stating the author(s) full names and
the name of the department
 Caption — A research proposal submitted for the degree of (specify e.g. Master
of Education) in the School or Faculty of, then specify the institution e.g.
Kenyatta University.
 Date e.g. (August, 2005).
 The cover page therefore has full title, and the sub-title if any, of the research
work; the name of the author; a statement about the degree programme under
which the dissertation is submitted; the date of submission.
2. Declaration
This is the immediate page after the cover page. The declaration is made by the
student and the supervisor. This is as follows:
 Student’s Declaration — “This proposal is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other university.”
Then the student signs above his/her name, indicates the registration number
and date.
 Signature……………………………………………….. Date………………………………………….
 Name: Magdalene Cheptoo Limo
 Registration number: E22/7623/2001 -
 Supervisor(s) Declaration — “This proposal has been submitted for review with
my/our approval as University supervisor(s).”
Then the supervisors, beginning with the main supervisor, sign and indicate
their respective departments. This is as follows:
Signature……………………………………………….. Date………………………………………….
Dr Delno L. A. Tromp
Department of Business Administration

3. Abstract
This is immediately after the declaration page. It summarizes the entire proposal,
pointing out the research problem, the objectives of the study and methods of data
analysis. The abstract should not exceed 500 words.

4. Abbreviations and Acronyms

This section comes immediately after the abstract. This section should be included
in the proposal only if it is applicable.

5. Table of Contents
This section indicates the chapter and sections. It lists the chapter and section
headings with their corresponding page numbers. In proposals three main chapters
are indicated. These are as follows:
6. Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Purpose and Objective of the Study
1.4 Research Questions and Hypothesis
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Limitations of the Study
1.7 Assumptions of the Study
1.8 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
1.9 Definition of Terms

7. Chapter 2: Literature Review

This section consists of highlights of current studies that address the issues in the
proposal. Clear gaps in quoted studies should be indicated.

8. Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter highlights the methodology appropriate to the study. This includes the
following:
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Location of the Study
3.3 Target Population
3.4 Sample Selection
3.5. Research Instruments
3.6 Data Collection Techniques
3.7 Data Analysis
9. References
10. Appendices

b) Thesis
The thesis is written after the collection and analysis of data. tt consists of the
following
1. Cover Page
This page is similar to the proposal in the title and author’s identification. However
the caption changes to: A research thesis submitted for the degree of (specify e.g.
Master of Education) in the School or Faculty of .. . .then specify the institution e.g.
University of Nairobi. Then the date e.g. (August, 2005).

2. Declaration
This is similar to the proposal except that the word proposal is replaced with thesis.
This is as follows:

 Student’s Declaration — “This thesis is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other university.”
Then the student signs above his/her name, indicates the registration number
and date.
 Signature……………………………………………. Date…………………………………………..
Name: Magadalene Cheptoo Limo
 Registration number: E22/7623/2001
 Supervisor(s) Declaration — “I/we confirm that the work reported in this thesis
was carried out by the candidate under my/our supervision as University
supervisor(s) This proposal has been submitted for review with my/our
approval as University supervisor(s).”

Then the supervisors, beginning with the main supervisor, sign and indicate their
respective departments. This is as follows:
Signature…………………………………………………… Date…………………………………………..
Dr Demo L. A. Tromp
Department of Business Administration

3. Dedication
This statement should not exceed 25 words. It should be on a separate page.
4. Acknowledgement
This section should not exceed 150 words and should be on its own page.

5. Abstract
This should not exceed 500 words. It should consist of the precise summary of the
thesis including the objectives, methodology used, findings and recommendations

6. Abbreviations and Acronyms

This section comes immediately after the abstract. Explain all abbreviations and
acronyms as used in the entire thesis.

7. Table of Contents
This section begins on a new page. As in the proposal, it indicates all the chapter and
section headings with their corresponding page numbers.

8. Chapters 1-3
Chapters 1-3 have content and form similar to that in the proposal.. However the
future tense used in the proposal changes to past tense. Chapter two and three of
the thesis are similar to the proposal apart from the tense used.

9. Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Discussion

This chapter interprets and explains the findings with regard to the study objectives.

10. Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

In this chapter, a summary of the study and implication of the main findings are
given. Conclusion and recommendations are given. Areas that need further research
are also suggested.

11. References
This section lists the references that have been cited in the thesis. It gives credit to
any authors the researcher referred to. Good referencing allows readers to check,
the foundations of the researcher’s additions to the structure of knowledge in the
discipline. This enhances work reliability. Good referencing also tells the reader
which parts of the thesis are descriptions of previous knowledge and which parts
are the researcher’s additions to that knowledge.

12. Appendices
This presents research instruments, charts, graphs, illustrations, etc.

Proposal and Thesis Presentation Format

The presentation format for the thesis is similar to that of the proposal.
1. The thesis must be prepared using a word processor using the Times Roman or
Anal 12-point typeface. It should be double spaced and printed on one side of the
paper.
2. The text should be justified.
3. A 50mm margin should be left on the left side of the paper and a 25 mm on the
right side margin of the paper. Typing should begin 40mm from the top of the
paper and should not go beyond 25mm from the bottom of the page.
4. All references must be complete and consistently applied in the format indicated
in chapter 7.
5. All figures must be produced using a computer graphics package and have figure
number and title.
6. Gender-specific words should be avoided. Words like author, researcher, and
engineer, for example, should be used instead of ‘he’ or ‘she’.
7. Pagination: The preliminaries (title page, declarations and abbreviations) should
be numbered in Roman numerals lower cases (e.g. i, ii. iii.. ..)
8. The text, chapter 1 to appendixes should be numbered using Arabic numerals.
The number should appear in the center of the upper margin of the page.
9. Language Used: In writing the thesis, past tense should be used. This is mainly
because the author is reporting what has already been carried out and
completed.
Guidelines in Thesis Presentation
Various chapters of the thesis must be linked together in a coherent manner. One of
the techniques to achieve smooth flow of contents in a thesis is to maintain a thread
between adjoining chapters. The author should ensure that each section within a
chapter leads on to the subsequent section, and paragraphs of sections are
connected to each other. A common practice is to use “joining” words or sentences,
particularly at the end and beginning of each chapter. A joining sentence at the end
of a chapter tells the reader what to expect, while one at the beginning of a chapter
reminds the reader of the contents of the previous chapter.

When making calculations in a thesis, the author should define all variables (include
units where applicable) and justify all simplifying assumptions. The author should
be fastidious in describing experimental, simulation and test conditions. In
compiling thesis material, the author should not presume that the reader knows
what he/she is trying to do or are familiar with the techniques that one is
employing.

Material that does not contribute directly to the discussion, argument, or

development of a theme or idea in a thesis interrupts flow. Such material should be
excluded. If, for the sake of completeness, the author wishes to include these
materials, then they should be placed in an Appendix and referred to in the main
text.

In writing a thesis, the author should avoid one sentence paragraphs. Too many of
these paragraphs will result in a page having numerous gaps. This will impact a
feeling of discontinuity with the content. The author should also avoid long
sentences. Long sentences are difficult to read, and can obscure an otherwise simple
explanation. The author should try to keep sentence length to less than two lines.
Appropriate use should be made of punctuation. Punctuation breaks a sentence into
readable chunks, reduces ambiguity, and can increase effect and emphasis.
However, punctuation should be carefully applied since it can change the meaning of
a sentence.

The repeated use of words can make a thesis difficult, if not boring, to read. The
author should use a thesaurus to get synonyms to introduce variety. The author
should make sure that they are used in the proper context. In compiling a thesis,
bombastic words should be avoided. Explanations using commonly encountered
words are more effective than pompous sounding but rarely used vocabulary.
Presentation also plays an important part in giving the impression of smooth
flowing content.

Rough Draft
It is important to create a rough draft before the final copy. The rough draft should
include any critical components including thesis, supporting statements, facts and
conclusions. It is often helpful to have someone other than the supervisor read some
sections of the draft, particularly the introduction and conclusion chapters.

Revise and Amend

One should revise the proposal/thesis. The author should proofread to check for
spelling errors and be sure the cited information was well documented.

Proposal/Thesis Defense
In most institutions one has to defend one’s proposal/thesis. This at times lasts for
an hour. The thesis defense is like an examination in some ways. However, the main
difference is that the candidate usually knows more about the topic than do the
examiners. Some questions will be sincere questions: because he/she does not know
and expects that the candidate will be able to rectify this. Students often expect
questions to be difficult and attacking, and answer them accordingly. Often the
questions will be much simpler than expected.. The use of the phrase “That’s a good
question” is exceedingly useful. It flatters the person asking and may get him/her
onside, or less offside; it gives the author time to think; it implies that one has
understood the question and assessed it already and that one has probably thought
about it before. If necessary, it can be followed by a bit more stalling “Now the
answer to that is not obvious/straightforward...” which has the same advantages.
If during defense, some questioner found a question that put something in the
research in doubt the first thing would be to concede that the question imposes a
serious limitation on the applicability of the work, “Well you have identified a
serious limitation in this technique, and the results have to be interpreted in the
light of that observation.” The questioner is then more likely to back off and even
help answer it, whereas a straight denial may encourage him/her to pursue more
ardently. The researcher should go through the argument in details- showing
listeners how serious it is while giving oneself time to find f1aws in it or to limit the
damage that will ensue.

It is relatively common that a. panel will ask one (or more) questions that, whatever
the actual wording may be, are essentially an invitation to the author to tell them
(briefly) what is important, new and good in one’s proposal/thesis. One should not
stumble at this stage. The author should be able to defend his/her work and be
prepared to extend if invited for further questions. The defender should always
keep calm.
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Theses
Ambia, C. N. (2003). Access and retention of girls in primary education, Wajir
district, North Eastern province, Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Ed.
Thesis, Unpublished.
Buluku, E. A. (2003). An assessment of the adequacy of school meals in meeting
nutritional requirements of girls in boarding secondary schools in Nairobi.
Nairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Ed Thesis, unpublished.
Gakif, C. (2003). Pre-school teacher factors that influence the teacher-child
relationships in Miriga Mieru division, Meru district, Kenya. Nairobi:
Kenyatta University, M. Ed. Thesis, Unpublished.
Kamonji, V. W. (2003). An investigation of resources zvomen farmers use to enhance
household food security: A case study of Embu district, Kenya. Nairobi:
Kenyatta University, M. A. Thesis, Unpublished.
Kathari, L. N. (2002). Students perceptions of the marriage institution: A survey of
selected colleges in Embu, Kenya. I’Jairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Ed. Thesis,
Unpublished.
Kombo, D. K. (2004). Girl parents in secondary schools in Kenya: An examination of
pre and post pregnancy performance. Nakuru: Egerton University,
Unpublished.
__________(2004). Girl-parents in secondary schools in Kenya: An evaluation of pre
and post pregnancy performance: A preliminary proposal submitted to the
Spencer Foundation, Chicago.
Kwamboka, E. M. (2003). Factors affecting food selection, intake and nutritional
status of the elderly in Mathare slums in Nairobi, Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta
University, M. Sc. Thesis, Unpublished.
Lekalgitele, S. M. (2003) Socio-economic, cultural and school based factors affecting
the aspiration for higher education of Santhuru girls in secondary schools,
Samburu district. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Ed. Thesis, Unpublished.
Maingi, S. G. (2003). An examination of the prevalence of typhoid in provincial and
 selected district hospitals in Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Sc.
Thesis, Unpublished.
Mbuthia, S. W. (2003). Farming related transport needs and provisions in Mwea
Tebere irrigation Scheme, Kirinyaga District, Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta
University, M. Sc. Thesis, Unpublished.
Muigai, T. M. (2003). Corporate Sector Marketing through sports in Kenya. Nakuru
Egerton University, MBA Thesis, Unpublished.
Ndwigah, R. K. (2003). A study of accident victims’ and drivers’ knowledge and
practices on road traffic accidents in Thika and Machakos Hospitals: Nairobi:
Kenyatta University, M. A. Thesis, Unpublished.
Njoroge, B (2003). Relationship between mathematical language and students’
performance in mathematics in public secondary schools in Nairobi province,
Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, M. Ed. Thesis, Unpublished.
Olembo, S. M. (2005) Factors influencing effective communication in event
Management services in Kenya: A case study of Safariquip Limited. Nairobi:
University of Nairobi, Unpublished.
Smyth, R. (2002). Knowledge, interest and the management of educational change.
Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of New England, Arn-iidale.
Were, K. (1999). Socio-economic constraints faced by bar attendants in their
struggle to eke a living. Nakuru: Egerton University. Research Paper,
unpublished.