Class 12 Sociology notes

PART-A
1. Introducing Indian Society
2. The Demographic Structure of the Indian Society
3. Social Institutions: Continuity and Change
4. The Market as a Social Institution
5. Patterns of Social Inequality and Exclusion
6. The Challenges of Cultural Diversity

PART-B
1. Structural Change
2. Cultural Change
3. The Story of Indian Democracy
4. Change and Development in Rural Society
5. Change and Development in Industrial Society
6. Globalisation and Social Change
7. Mass Media and Communications
8. Social Movements

Introducing Indian Society – CBSE Notes

for Class 12 Sociology
CBSE NotesCBSE Notes SociologyNCERT Solutions Sociology
• Prior knowledge or familiarity with society is both an advantage and a disadvantage
for sociology, the discipline that studies society. The advantage is that students are
generally not afraid of Sociology—they feel that it can’t be a very hard subject to learn.
• The disadvantage is that this prior knowledge can be a problem. In order to learn
Sociology, we need to “unlearn” what we already know about society.
• Sociology offers to teach us how to see the world from many vantage points – not just
our own, but also that of others tinlike ourselves.
• Understanding Indian society and its structure provides a sort of social map on which
you could locale yourself, like with a geographical map, locating oneself on a social
map.

• Sociology can do more than simply help to locate you or others in this simple sense of
describing the places of different social groups.
• Sociology can help to map the links and connections between “personal troubles” and “social
issues”. By personal troubles Mills means the kinds of individual worries, problems or concerns
that everyone has.
• The “generation gap” or friction between older and younger generations is a social
phenomenon, common to many societies and many time periods. Unemployment or the effects
of a changing occupational structure is also a societal issue, that concerns millions of different
kinds of people.

• A sociological perspective teaches you how to draw social maps.

• The economic, political and administrative unification of India under colonial rule was achieved
at great expense. Colonial exploitation and domination scared Indian society in many ways. But
paradoxically, colonialism also gave birth to its own enemy— nationalism.
• Historically, an Indian nationalism took shape under British colonialism. The shared experience
of colonial domination helped unify and energise different sections of the community.
• Colonialism created new classes and communities which came to play significant roles in
subsequent history.
• Indian society is a pluralistic society. Full of diversities of language, region, religion, caste and
customs, Indian society is moving towards the modernization.
• The main values of Indian modernization model are—Socialism, Imperialism, Nationalism,
Secularism, Industrialism, Democracy, Individual Freedom and Fundamental Rights.

• The establishment of democracy in India that rests on the principles of equality, freedom and
universal franchise, changed the traditional structure of Indian society.
• A new awareness had emerged during the colonial period itself. During this period while all
Indians came together for a common cause, various social, economic, political and
administrative changes took place as a result of modernization and capitalistic forces.
• Various processes of change got activated during the British period. Some of these processes
were completely external while some were internal. The external processes include
Westernization, Modernization, Secularization, Industrialization and others; while Sanskritization
and Urbanization were internal processes. The inception of modernization and westernization is
the consequence of our contact with Britain.

• Mechanical techniques in production, market system in trade, development of means of

transport and communication, concept of civil service based on bureaucracy, formal and written
law, modem military organization and trained separate legal system and modem formal
education system were important steps that prepared the background for modernization.
• British colonialists were taking steps to protect their own interests.
• Tradition and modernity in the Indian society caused various problems for Indian society.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshav Chandra Sen, Dayanand
Saraswati, Ranade, Tilak and Gandhi are some of the prominent names associated with the
reform movement to eradicate social evils like Sati System, Restrictions of Widow Remarriage,
and Untouchability.
• Since sociology in India had not developed systematically at that time, they portrayed the
Indian villages from the British point of view of British policies.
• Villages are the pillars of Indian society and Indian culture. For the same reason even the East
India Company had considered the study of Indian villages.

• The first study of Indian society was presented by B H Baden Powell in 1892 in his book. The
Indian Village Community. After World War I, the poverty in Indian villages and the Indian
national movement for freedom also attracted the attention of many scholars towards the
villages.
• Sir Charles Metcalfe, Sir George Woodword, Baden Powell and Francis Buchanan prepared a
detailed report after conducting a study and survey of various villages and cities of Madras,
Mysore, Bihar etc. on behalf of the East India Company. Subsequently, Herbert Risley, D
Abbatson, C B Lucas, W George Briggs and William Crook tried to understand the Indian ratal
problems.
• The middle class emerged after receiving western education and the same middle class
challenged the colonial rale.
• Various social and cultural communities were organized at the regional and national levels that
tried to save the Indian culture and traditions. Because of colonialism new classes and
communities emerged that played an important role in history later on. The urban middle class
sounded the bugle of nationalism and initiated the movement of India’s freedom.
• Sociology teaches self reflexivity viz. an ability to reflect upon yourself to turn-back or do
introspection. It should be quick to criticize and slow to praise oneself.
• A comparable social map understood through introspection tells one’s location in the society.
• Sociology tells kinds of groups or groping existed in the society in its wider import i.e. nation,
relationships to each-other and its meaning in terms of one’s own life.
• Sociology helps in mapping the links and connections between personal troubles and social
issues. Personal troubles consist of individual worries, problems or concerns while social issues
consist generation gap, unemployment. Communalism, casteism, gender inequalities etc.
Words That Matter:
1. Accommodation: Process of social interaction among individuals in a society by
which they try to adjust themselves within society or the group of people.
2. Ascriptive identities: Community identity based on birth and belonging rather than on
some form of acquired qualifications or accomplishment. It is an identity with one’s
present and has nothing to bear with the future.
3. Class: One of the groups of people in a society that is thought of as being at the
same social or economic level. E.g. the working class, upper class, middle class. It’s the
way that people are divided into different social and economic groups.
4. Colonialism: It is the practice by which powerful country controls another country or
other countries.
5. Community: A group of people who share the same religion—race, job etc. e.g. local
community, international community, ethnic community.
6. Culture: The symbolic and learned aspects of society that includes language,
customs, traditions which are passed from one generation to another.
7. Globalisation: A process by which a decision and the activities in one part of the
world
have significant consequences for individuals and communities in quite distant part of
the globe. ‘
8. Integration: The social process by which different units of a society are united viz-
brought together to form a whole.
9. Nation: A community of people sharing a common culture, history, language and
lineage living within an identified geographical area. .
10. Nationalism: The desire by a group of people who share the same race, culture,
language etc. to form an independent country.
11. Social Map: The standing of an individual by virtue of birth in the society. It consists
of age, region, economy (status), religion and caste boundary. It’s worth understanding
and introspection.
12. Reflexivity: An ability to understand one’s social map thoroughly and break all
demarcations with an axe of cosmos-consciousness. It requires a critical
self-inspection.
13. Society: Society is a group of people who share a common culture, occupy a
particular territorial area and feel themselves a unified and distinct entity.
14. Social structure: Refers to the way, the different parts of society are organized and
follow stable patterns of collective rules, roles and activities.
15. Self-reflexivity: An ability to reflect upon oneself or do introspection in depth.
16. Unity: To bring different elements within a society (or a nation) to form a single unit
or whole. It is the state of being in agreement and working together.
The Demographic Structure of the Indian
Society – CBSE Notes for Class 12
Sociology
• Demography—the systematic study of the population of a country, area, community,
etc. The term is of Greek origin and is composed of the two words, demos (people) and
graphein (describe).
• There are two types of demography—
1. Formal Demography: statistical analysis of population i.e., total population, number
of males, number of females, number of youth, working population, rural urban
(quantitative data)
2. Social Demography: birth rate, death rate and migration that happens in a particular
society.
• Consists of four processes .
(i) Demographic Structure: number of people in an area,
(ii) Demographic Processes: birth rate, death rate, migration,
(iii) Social structure: composition of an area,
(iv) Social processes: Processes by which individuals learn to live together in peace and
harmony in society e.g. Cooperation, accommodation, mediation etc.
• Formal demography is to do with statistics, numbers, aggregates. The memorial
quantification of data.
• Social demography is concurred with changes or the consequences of the population
of a society and how it affects us.
The Malthusian Theories of Population Growth
• Malthusian Theory was propounded by Thomas Robert Malthus.
• According to him there are two important things that matter.
(i) Population – People
(ii) Means of substance – land (agriculture)
• According to him population can grow uncontrollably. It grows in ‘geometric
progression’ (2, 4, 8,16, 32, 64 …). It is fast.
• Land gives limited return. It grows in arithmetic progression (2,4,6,8,10 ). It is slow.
As a result there is an imbalance in society.
• Population is growing uncontrollably, land is not able to sustain the large population
which leads to poverty, hunger, saturation etc.
• Malthus came up with 2 solutions.
— Positive check: Natural disasters cause many people die and the population is
naturally controlled. If one doesn’t take care of themselves nature will take care of them
e.g. earthquakes, tsunami.
— Preventive check: Man made e.g. late marriage, celibacy, contraceptives etc.
Criticism of Malthusian Theory
• According to sociologists, poverty, hunger etc is not due to less agricultural growth but
due to unequal economic resources.
• Agricultural production is not limited due to the advancement of science and
technology.
• Along with population growth, there is an increase in the standard of living. This is
because of science and technology.
Theory of Demographic Transition
• Population is moving from underdeveloped to developed countries.
There are three stages—
1. Primitive Stage-underdeveloped countries (Africa).
2. Second Stage-developing countries (India, Pakistan) stage of transition —> countries
are moving from underdeveloped to developed.
3. Third Stage-Developed countries (USA, UK).
Underdeveloped Countries (stage 1)
• Birth rate is high since people are unaware of the advantages of having small families,
they are not educated.
• Death rate is also high since health and medical facilities are not available. Therefore
population is low.
Developing Countries (stage 2)
• Birth rate is high as we live in a patriarchal society where men decide how many
children – must be bom and male child is preferred.
• Illiteracy and people are ignorant.
• Death rate is also low since health and medical facilities are available. Therefore
population is high and results in population explosion.
• Demographic Divident when the working population increases more than the non
working population.
Developed Countries (stage 3)
• Birth rate is low, people are educated and aware and use contraceptives, birth control
is popularised.
• Death rate is also low because of availability of health and medical facilities. Therefore
population is low.
Population Explosion: When the birth rate of a country is high and the death rate is low
because of availability of health and medical facilities.
Therefore population is exploding, increasing.
Common Concepts of Population
1. Birth Rate: Number of live births per thousand population.
2. Death Rate: Number of deaths per thousand population. Also called mortality rate.
3. Rate of natural increase: Difference between birth rate and death rate in an area.
• Replacement Level: Present generation replaces the previous/older generation.
• Zero level: Replacement is same. Same number of people replace same number of
older generation called stabilised level (parents replaced by 2 children).
• Negative level: Number of people replacing older generation are less (parents .
replaced by child).
• Population explosion: Number of people replacing the older generation is more.
Working population is more than the dependant population.
4. Fertility Rate: Number of live births between the age of 15-49 yrs per thousand
women.
5. Total Fertility Rate: Number of women who give birth to children in a particular area
at a particular age (15-49 yrs) .
6. Infant Mortality Rate: Number of infants who have died below the age of 1 per
thousand live births.
7. Maternal Mortality Rate: Number of women who die during child birth per thousand
population.
8. Life expectancy Rate: Number of years that one is expected to live as determined by
statistics may be individually qualified by the person’s condition, race, sex, age or other
demographic factors.
9. Sex Ratio: Number of females per thousands males.
10. Age structure: The structure of the population in terms of age (in India 0-15 —»
youth, 15-65 -> Working population, above 64 years-dependant population)
11. Dependency Ratio: The number of people who are not working and are dependent
on the working population.
12. Ratio of the dependent population to the working population is higher.
13. Demographic Dividend: When the working population in a country is more than the
dependent/non working population.
14. Positive: Economic growth for the country although it is a temporary phase.
Size and Growth of India’s Population
• Today the population of India is very high but it has not always been high. Growth has
been up and down.
Causes:
(a) Epidemics
(b) Natural Disasters/Famine
• Epidemics: Disease which is widespread and affects lakhs of people in a large area.
For example, during the World War there spread the Spanish influenza. It affects the
throat and cavity and you choke and die. It is believed to have killed more people than
any war.
• It spreads very fast and is contagious because:
(i) Sanitation conditions were very bad.
(ii) Medical facilities were low.
(iii) Soldiers moved from place to place and spread it,
(iv) Chemical explosion/fumes in the air.
• They are less common now because
(a) Better medical facilities.
(b) There are vaccinations.
(c) Sanitary conditions have been improved.
(d) Awareness of people have increased.
• In India we still have some epidemics like swine flu, chickenguniya, plague, malaria etc.
• Famine: There is scarcity of food, shortage of food supply and production.
It is of two types
1. Natural: excessive rainfall, no rainfall, drought.
2. Manmade: excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, lack of transport and
communication facilities, distribution of grain by government is not sufficient and proper
preventive method should be taken.
• Dr. Amartya Sen, “It is not necessary that famine is due to lack of food grain but it
could be due to lack of efficient distribution, failure of entitlements and inability of
people to buy or otherwise obtain food.”
It can be controlled by
Efficient distribution of foodgrains by improving transportation and community, (it)
Green Revolution has increased the supply of foodgrains despite varying amounts of
rainfall.
(iii) Medical facilities—If an area is experiencing famine, the government takes caution/
measures to see that the people are given help.
• NREGA-National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: Takes care to see that everyone is
employed so that if there is a famine they can move somewhere else and buy food.
Total Fertility Rate
– When the birth rate is high and death rate is low it results in population explosion.
– In a country birth rate is still high because of:
(i) Mindset of people
(ii) Desire for male child
(iii) Patrilineal society
Replacement Level
• Kerala and Tamil Nadu: Zero/stabilised level due to literacy.
• Uttar Pradesh: Very high replacement level (4:1); it can be good increase in youth
population.
Low Fertility Rate
• Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh (Mostly northern states due to desire for male child).
Age Structure of Indian Population
• 0-15 years – Youth Population
• 15-64 years – Working Population
• Above 64 years – Old/Retired Population
• Demographic Dividend: Working population is higher than the non-working population.
• Kerala: Good age structure —> increase in working population, the literacy rate is very
high, so they are educated about economic growth.
• Uttar Pradesh: Increase in working population because of large working youth
population, decreasing aged population.
• Demographic Dividend can be maintained by better education, awareness etc.
Advantage-current working population is large and it has a relatively small aged
population to support.
The Declining Sex Ratio in India
• Number of females per thousand males of a population.
• Child sex ratio-Number of girls per thousand boys.
• Sex ratio has always been a concern in India.
Reasons for declining sex ratio:
(i) Mindset of the people
(ii) Neglect of girl child
(iii) Female foeticide/infanticide
(iv) Maternal mortality rates-women die during child birth.
• The child sex ratio is still very scary as there is a drastic fall.
• Prosperous states such as Punjab and Haryana have maximum female infanticide and
down with burning because
— Dowry is very high and parents want to save money.
— People want only 2 or 3 boys, therefore when they get a girl, they kill it and have a boy.
• Sonography: to know the sex of the child.
• The Pre Natal Diagnostic Technique Act/Regulation and Prevention of Misuse Act
which came up in 1996 and was later enforced in 2003.
• This does not allow the sex of the child to be known.
Literacy
• Literacy is the ability to read or write.
• Education is a combination of formal and informal education.
• Kerala has the maximum literacy rate whereas Rajasthan and Northern states have low
literacy rate.
• There are three categories:
(i) Gender: more males are literate to females but it is becoming higher.
(ii) Social Group: higher income families have more literacy level than those with lower
income families. Govt is trying to bridge the gap through reservation for SC’s and ST’s.
(iii) Regions: Kerala has high literacy level as compared to Rajasthan, Bihar which have
low literacy level.
Rural-Urban Differences
• There is migration from rural areas to urban areas as there are better job opportunities
etc.
• 68.8% of our population still lives in rural areas.
• Though agriculture is the main activity in rural areas, there are many non agricultural
activities, such as post office, teaching, small businesses, transport and
communication.
• Reasons for migration from rural to urban areas:
— Mass media is responsible for making the rural area aware of the urban area and one
of the causes of migration from rural to urban.
— Many resources of the rural areas is being taken away. Such as rivers drying up, land
due to construction is making them move to urban areas.
— In urban areas there is anonymity and no one cares about caste etc.
— People who are not educated can pick up any job they like in urban areas.
• Metropolis: City with infrastructure and the suburbs are different.
• Megapolis: City with infrastructure and the suburbs are included, for example, NCR.
Population Policy of India
• In 1952 the National Family Planning Programme (NFPP) was introduced.
• It tried to influence the rate and pattern of population in socially desirable direction.
• Its objectives were:
— Population should be controlled and awareness should be spread in a way which is
socially desirable.
— Control the birth/reduce birth rate through birth control methods.
• During emergency by Indira Gandhi (1975-76)
— All fundamental rights are taken away.
— Press was censored.
— Anybody could be put in jail without a trial.
— Mass sterilization programme was introduced by Sanjay Gandhi, the younger son of
the then prime minister of India Mrs. Indira Gandhi to control population.
— In this tubectomy was performed for women and vasectomy for men was conducted
in a very haphazard manner.
— All government teachers, doctors were under a lot of stress due to the mass
sterilization camp.
— It was renewed as National Family Welfare Programme (NFWP).
— In this people could only be sterilized if the people agree to do it and their signature
was needed.

Words That Matter:

1. Age Structure: The proportion of persons of population in different age groups

related to the total population. It includes all age groups like children, youth and old
people.
2. Agricultural density: Ratio between people and arable land.
3. Arithmetic density: Ratio between people and land.
4. Birth Rate: Number of live births per 1000 population for a given time period and for a
particular place.
5. Census: Official examination of population alongwith certain economic and social
statistics in given territory and carried out or a specific way. It bears decodal frequency.
6. Death Rate: Number of deaths per 1000 population for a given time period and for a
particular place.
7. Density of population: Number of people occupying a certain area and their ratio in
any country, region or state viz. Number of people living on one square kilometre of
land.
8. Dependency Ratio: Number of dependent population over working population.
9. Economic Density: Ratio between people and the availability of economic resources
of any region, state or country.
10. Fertility Rate: Refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child
bearing age groups usually taken to be 15-49 years.
11. Infant Mortality Rate: Number of deaths of babies before the age of one year per
thousand live births.
12. Life expectancy: Refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is
expected to survive.
13. Literate: From the point of view of census the person who can read and write any
language is a literate.
14. Maternal Mortality Rate: Number of women who die in child birth per 1000 live
births.
15. Negative Growth Rate: This happens when fertility levels are below replacement
level such as Japan, Russia, Italy.
16. Rate of Natural Increase or Growth Rate of population: This refers to the difference
between the birth rate and death rate.
17. Replacement Level: When the difference is zero then we say that the population has
stabilised or has reached the ‘replacement level’, which is the rate of growth required for
new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out.
18. Sex Ratio: Number of women per 1000 of men population.
19. Total Fertility Rate: Number of children born upto child bearing years of a women.

Social Institutions: Continuity and Change

– CBSE Notes for Class 12 Sociology
CBSE NotesCBSE Notes SociologyNCERT Solutions Sociology

I. Caste
The term is derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’which means pure breed. In other
words it also means a group/community of people. Caste is also called ‘jati’

Features
1. Ascribed status: determined by birth, you are bom into your status, no choice,
permanent.
2. Hierarchical System

3. Endogamous Marriage: Marriage within your caste but outside your gotra, there are
honour killings associated with intercaste marriage.
4. Concept of communalist: Each caste has its own rules and regulations in terms of
food, rituals, belief, norms etc. and the members have to follow them strictly.

5. Concept of pollution purity: Brahmins are considered as superior and pure and
shudras were considered as inferior and impure, hence if a lower caste person touched
an upper caste person they considered themselves as impure and go through rituals to
clean themselves.

6. Segmental Division: The whole society is divided into castes and sub-castes.

7. Occupation: Brahmins were meant to be priests, teacher, kshatriyas were meant to be

warriors, vaishyas were meant to be businessmen or traders, shudras were meant to
serve the rest and do all the dirty work.

8. No social mobility: There was no mobility in terms of occupation.

Principles of Caste
1. Differentiation and Separation: Separation in each caste is distinct by itself and has
its own rules and regulations:

• Ascribed status

• Occupation

• Endogamous marriage

• Concept of communality

• Concept of pollution and purity

2. Wholism and Hierarchy: Each caste is dependent on the other caste system rather
than

egalitarian system. Each caste has its place in the hierarchal system.

• Each caste also has its own occupation, but there was no social mobility.

• Hierarchal system

• Concept of pollution and purity

• Segmental division

Caste and Colonialism

• When the British came to India, they were shocked by two things:

(i) Untouchability

(ii) The number of sub-castes

• They decided to take some initiatives:

(i) Census: To make sure of number and sizes of the castes and sub-castes.

(ii) They wanted to know the values, beliefs, customs, etc of different sections of
society,

(iii) Land settlements

• There were three types:

(i) Zamindari: The zamindars/landlords were appointed to collect tax on behalf of the
British. However they exploited the farmers and collected more tax than required.

(ii) Ryatwari: They saw that there was a lot of exploitation in the zamindari system. The
head of the family collected revenue from the members, this ensures much less
exploitation from the zamindari system.

(iii) Mahalwari: Each village was appointed a head who collected taxes from the
villagers and this also ensured much less exploitation than the zamindari system.

• Government of India Act of 1935: They used the term Scheduled caste’ and Scheduled
Tribes’ and they felt that these people should be looked after.

Caste System and Freedom Struggle

• Everyone came together, including the lower caste people (untouchables)

• Names used for the lower caste: Shudras —» untouchables —» harijans -» schedule
castes dalits.

• Many people fought for the upliftment of the Harijan and made it part of the national
movement.
e.g. Mahatma Gandhi (Brahmin), BR Ambedkar (Dalit), and Jyotiba Phule (Dalit)

Gandhi’s views

• Harijans should not be ill-treated which includes removal of untouchability and other
social evils.

• Upliftment of Harijans was required.

• Even when Harijans are uplifted, the rights and superiority of the Brahmins will remain.

• They should be included in the national movement.

Caste in Contemporary India

• Abolition of untouchability: The implementation of Article 17 was difficult initially

because of upper caste people protest.

• Constitution: People should be given jobs without considering castes etc, it should be
based on achievements. Now there are reservation for SCs and STs therefore
successful SCs and STs become a part of the mainstream leading to the upliftment of
the SCs and STs.

• In urban areas, industries were encouraged and job opportunities were given to people
irrespective of their caste and based on their skill and qualification.

• However, till today in small areas etc, people still offer jobs based on ones caste e.g. in
BSP of Ms Mayawati there are 80% dalits.

• Two aspects where caste is still important

— Marriage– rural areas – honour killings for inter-caste marriage, urban areas – inter
caste marriages now accepted.
— Politics– reservation in educational systems, parties etc. It is also called politicisation
of caste.

Sanskritisation

When the lower caste tries to copy/imitate, model of the upper caste, without changing
their

caste.

Advantage

• Better standard of living.

• Improve social status of everyone.

• The gap between upper caste and lower caste is reduced.

Disadvantage

• Their culture gets eroded.

• They automatically become inferior because they copy them.

• Copy practices such as dowry which declines the position of women.

• It is a positional change, not a structural change.

• People look down to people of their own caste of copying others.

How do they copy?

• Tribals give up eating non-veg and give up drinking alcohol. They thought by giving up
their practices, people would consider them of a higher caste/status/ position.
Dominant Caste

After independence there was the zamindari system where the zamindar’s land was
sold off to marginal, small and/or landless farmers due to the Land Ceiling Act.

The zamindars thus sold off their land to work in the industries.

Thus the middle/medium landowners acquired the land.

So they had social, political and economic power.

These people comprised of the dominant caste.

Even some shudras got land.

Upper Caste

• Caste is invisible.

• Achieved status is given more importance than the ascribed status.

• Life chances are better.

• Education also plays a very important role.

• Had resources available (technological and educational).

• Qualifications will be considered.

Lower Caste

• Caste is visible.

• For education there is reservations and it leads to upliftment of the castes.

• In rural areas especially in occupation more importance is given to ascribed status.

• The lower castes take advantages of reservations using caste to push themselves
forward.

• They did not have life clauses before but now they use their caste to power
themselves.

Tribal Community

• The total population of tribes in India is 8.2%.

• They are also called Janjatis, Adivasis (first inhabitants of our planet), vanjatis and
Harijans.

• Have hierarchy but have an egalitarian society.

• Share same name, language, area, occupation, culture e.g. Gonds, Santhals, Gujjars.

• Isolated community are trying to get them into mainstream.

Classification of Tribal Societies

1. Features:

Permanent Traits
(a) Geographical/Territorial System North and North East Zone

(i) Maximum Tribes

(ii) Highest concentration of tribes

For example, Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir,

Tribes—Nagas, Khasis, Bodos and Kemis

(b) Central Zone

For example, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha.

Tribes—Santhals, Gonds, Bhils

(c) Southern Zone

For example, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Tribes—Todas, Kotas and Chenclues.

(d) Western Zone

For example Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Tribes—Santhals, Gonds, Bhils, Gujjars and Riva

(e) West Bengal and Odisha,

Not very populated

2. Size
(a) 1 million

– Bodos, Khasis, Mundas

(b) 4 million

– Gonds, Santhals, Bhils

3. Language

(a) Aryans—North Indians-Punjabi, Hindi, Sanskrit

(b) Dravidians-Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, South Indian, Chenclurs and Kotas

(c) Austric-Influenced from Austria, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North belt.

(d) Tibeto-Burman, Nagas and Bodos and North East.

-> The language is no longer in the purest form due to intermingling of tribes.

4. Race

Differentiation based on physical characteristics:

(i) Aryans-(North) Fair (it) Dravidian-(South) Dark

(in’) Negroid-(Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka) very dark

(iv) Mongolian-(North East) oriental eyes

5. Acquired Traits

(i) Occupation (ii) Coastal

(iii) Fishing, coconut, palm trees, salt

6. Forests

—» Hunting, food gathering, honey collection, depends on geography and livelihood

availability of resources.

—> Closer to urban areas-workers in factories, industries.

7. Cultivators

—» Agriculture and shifting cultivation.

—> Settle down in a place and do farming in fertile areas.

-» Plantations

► Tea and coffee plantations in Assam Nilgiri and Ooty

8. Integration towards the mainstream

• Tribal point of view

-» They want to be part of non-tribals due to reservations, better opportunities so that

their status gets uplifted.

-» They didn’t want to be part of non tribals because they didn’t want to lose their
identity and wanted to be isolated, didn’t want to lose their culture.

• Non Tribal point of view

-» Tribal elite-upliftment of status, educated gained a position and are treated very well.

—» Others who are not as high casual laboures are treated badly.
-» Give respect to skilled and don’t respect the unskilled.

Criticism:

The definition of tribals is criticized, since they should not be isolated.

• They are part of our country and should be mixed with the large population.

• Castes are doing tribal occupation and tribals are doing caste occupation.

• We have Hindus who are fishermen.

Tribals-Not Always in Isolation

They were not always isolated, but when the British came, they exploited tribals.

• The tribals came up with a name ‘tribalism’.

• They have been part of many kingdoms like the Gonds and they had a very important
role in Madhya Pradesh.

• In Rajasthan, many tribals were a part of the Rajput and they were a part of military set
up.
• They were traders in salt.

• During British rule, they lost their status and became casual labours in plantations and
people exploited them.

• Tribalism is when the tribal are by themselves live in isolation to say that they are
different from the non-tribal.

Mainstream Attitudes Towards Tribes Socio-Economic and Political

• Forests were cleared to build roads, life of tribals changed drastically (went through
the forests).

• Moneylenders gave money to tribal and charged huge rates of interest.

• During this period mining was introduced.

• British started reserving forests for themselves when tribals protested. Exclusive

‘ reserved areas or partially reserved areas of tribal land for tribals to use.

• Sociologists had two views:

1. Isolationists: Let the tribals have their privacy, but they should not be exploited by
moneylenders.

2. Integrationalists: They are a part of society, integrate them and treat them as lower
classes castes and give them the facilities.

Constituent Assembly

• Group of people who came together to formulate the constitution.

• It took 2 years and 11 months.

• People came from all areas and sections of society.

• A lot of case was taken about the lower caste and tribals.

• There were special plans, Tribal Plans’ that spoke about giving them reservations.

• They were included in the 5 years plans.

• Integrate them through reservations and uplift their status.

National Development Vs Tribal Development

1. Building up of hydroelectric projects by cutting the forests.

• It prevents floods, generates electricity and irrigation facilities.

• Taking away land and occupation from natural habitat.

• No rehabilitation for occupation.

For example:

(i) Sardar Sarovar Dam on river Narmada (ii) Pollavaram Dam on river Godavari

2. Forests are rich in mineral resources and mining projects take place. This displaces
tribals.

3. Non tribals who come in for setting up resorts, hotels for recreation disrupt life of
tribals.

4. So many people come in the tribal culture get coded and diluted. e.g. North Eastern
states, Jharkhand are most affected.

Tribal Identity Today

The life of the tribals has changed tremendously because of their incorporation into
mainstream.
It has had an impact on all four areas social, cultural, political and economic. A lot of
tribal

revolts and movements have taken place in rebellion.

1. This has resulted in a few changes

2. In some states in North East in Manipur and Nagaland are declared as disturbed
areas.

• The main power is present with the non-tribals, thus they have violent revolts.

• The civil rights have been curtailed and tribals do not enjoy same freedom as rest of
the country do not have same rights.

• The political situation of the newly formed states is still not in the control of the tribals.

• This is because the non tribals are more politically powerful, knowledgeable and still in
control.

• The tribals do not have any political experience.

• Actual decisions are taken by the non-tribals, central government.

3. A new educated middle class of tribals has emerged today.

• Because of reservation, they have been educated.

• The job opportunities have increased, improved standard of living, status improved.

• This tribal elite influenced the lower class tribals to educate themselves.
• They are creating awareness among the tribal community, occupying jobs.

• Assertion of tribal identity is on the rise. Because the tribals are being educated they
want to be part of the development taking place in their areas.

• They want control over all aspects of life (social, economic, political and cultural). At
the same time, they want to maintain their tribal identity, their culture.

• They want to develop a ‘tribal consciousness’.

Family and Kinship

Family

• A group of people who are related to each other either legally (by marriage) or
biologically (by blood).

• A unit of people living together as sanctioned by society.

— Bond of togetherness, security and a sense of sacrifice, belongingness.

— It is a universal and permanent relationship.

Kinship

— A person related to the other biologically or legally.

— Biologically (blood)-consanguineous e.g. parents.

— Legally (marriage)-allinal e.g. spouse in laws

Classification of Family

• Size
1. Nuclear – small family (Parents and children)

2. Joint – 2 or 3 generations live together

3. Extended – 2 or more siblings live together with their families.

• Residence

1. Patrilocal – after marriage girl goes to boys house.

2. Matrilocal – after marriage boy goes to girls house.

3. Neolocal – couple sets up their own house.

• Descent

1. Patrilineal

— Males surname is adopted.

— Lineage is traced through the father.

— Property is inherited by the males.

2. Matrilineal

— Mother’s surname is used.

— Lineage is traced through the mother.

— Property is inherited by the females.

3. Bilinear

— Property is shared.
— Movable property goes to girl (the jewellery and money).

— Immovable property goes to the boy (land, house).

The Diverse Forms of the Family

1. Patriarchal

Power and authority is with the male who makes all the important decisions.

2. Matriarchal

Power and authority is given to the female of the house.

Matrilineal and Matriarchal Society is found in Meghalaya- Khasi, Jaintia, Garo tribes
Kerala – Nayyar family

• Property goes from mother to daughter inheritance (mother to daughter) control (uncle
to nephew)

Role conflict

• Women (wife/sister) whether my brother is paying more attention to my family or his

family.

• Man (husband/brother)-should/pay more attention to my family or my sister family.

• Role conflict is more for the women (women possess only ‘token’ authority, men are
the ‘defacto’ power holders.

• Despite matriling, men are the power holders.

Words That Matter:

1. Community: A distinctive group whose members are connected to each other by

consciously recognised commonalities and bond of kinship, language and culture.
2. Colonialism: An ideology by which a country seeks to conquer and colonise or
forcibly rule over another.
3. Caste: Refers to the segmental division of stratification in society acquired by birth.
4. Dominate caste: A middle or upper middle caste with a large population and newly
acquired land ownership rights. These are not from the Brahmins, Kshatriya or Vaishya
Varna but from intermediate castes.
5. Endogamy: To marry within a culturally defined group of which concerned individual
is already a member.
6. Family: Is a social institution which involves a group of persons directly linked by his
connection, the adult members of which assume responsibility of caring for children.
7. Jati: The word for caste, a region specific hierarchical ordering of castes that marry
within their boundries, pursue hereditary occupations and are fixed by birth.
8. Monogamy: Marriage allowed at any given time with one wife and in case of woman
with only one husband.
9. Marriage: A socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult
individuals to become kin to one another.
10. Sanskritisation: Concept given by a process of purification or absorption of a lower
caste individual upto upper caste. It is upward social mobility by imitating the ritual and
social behaviour of upper caste.
11. Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of different segments of society into
strata or subgroups whose members share the same general position in the hierarchy.
12. Tribe: A social group consisting of collection of families and lineages (or clans)
based on shared ties of kinship, ethnicity common history or territorial political
organisation.
13. Untouchable: Members of the lowest castes, considered to be ritually impure to
such an extent that they cause pollution by mere touch.
14. Varna: Literally, ‘colour’, a nationwide version of the caste system dividing society
into four hierarchically ordered varnas or caste group named Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra.