By OSCAR APPELMAN, Founder & Engineer,

Aptab, www.aptab.nl

An Investigation into
Wireless Signal Propagation
Explore the intricacies of wireless signal propagation in indoor environments through
detailed measurements and insightful observations.

I
n a world where wireless devices have become an integral 1. Shown is the MegiQ
part of daily life, the guarantee of reliable wireless networks VNA-0460e, used to
is more crucial than ever. Accurately predicting the propa- excite the transmitting
gation characteristics of wireless signals is highly desirable. antennas during the
However, due to the complex nature of wireless signal measurements in this
propagation in volatile environments, simulating such article (Ref. 2).
scenarios is notoriously difficult and lacks accuracy.1
As a result, characterizing wireless signal propagation is
often neglected and wireless networks are set up based on
intuition and simple measurements.
This article employs measurements to describe the impact
of environmental factors on wireless signal propagation and
strives to offer insights into the requirements for an optimal
implementation of wireless networks.

Measurements and Equipment

The measurements in this article
were conducted to examine the effect
of distance and objects on the signal
reception of a wireless device. At one
specific location in a building, the
received signal-strength indicator
(RSSI) was determined for six different
transmitter locations.
A MegiQ VNA-0460e (Fig. 1) was
employed for signal transmission and
a MegiQ RMS-0460 Antenna Radiation
Measurement System (Fig. 2) for signal
reception.2 A comparison between
RSSI values provides insights into the
behavior of wireless signals in a typical
indoor scenario.

Antenna Characterization
The antennas used in the measure-
ment setup are linearly polarized wide- 2. The MegiQ RMS-0460 received the transmitted signals during the measurements in this
band paddle antennas from Summit article (Ref. 2).

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 3. The wideband paddle
antenna used for the
measurements in this
article is from Summit
Electronics and was
provided by Top Elec-
tronics.

4. The MegiQ VNA-0460e with wideband paddle antennas is connected to port

1 and port 2. This setup characterized the RF impedance of the antennas and
transmitted horizontal and vertical linearly polarized waves from port 1 and port
2, respectively.

Electronics, provided by Top Electronics (Fig. 3).3 A full radiated power (TRP) for frequencies between 370 MHz
characterization of the RF impedance of these antennas was and 6 GHz. To obtain 3D electromagnetic radiation patterns
conducted using the MegiQ VNA for frequencies between of the antennas, a full scan over three antenna rotations was
400 MHz and 6 GHz (Fig. 4). performed in a matter of minutes for the entire frequency
The wireless signal propagation of these antennas was range of the MegiQ RMS. The resulting radiation patterns
characterized using the MegiQ RMS. RMS measurements for a horizontally polarized transmitting antenna at a
include, but are not limited to, the field strength, antenna frequency of 2.4 GHz are illustrated in Figure 5.
gain, effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP), and total Figure 6 represents the return loss (RL) and total isotropic

5. Here are the radiation patterns of the horizontally polarized wideband paddle antenna as shown in Figure 3, visualized for a frequency of
2.4 GHz. Next to the 3D radiation pattern, the figure represents the YZ, ZX, and XY rotation separately. “H,” “V,” and “HV” denote the received
horizontally, vertically, and combined polarized fields, respectively.

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gain (TIG) of the antennas, measured by
the MegiQ VNA and MegiQ RMS, re-
spectively. A comparison between the RL
and TIG illustrates their inversely pro-
portional behavior. A change in RL in-
dicates a change in power reflection and
thus in impedance matching. It would
therefore be expected that the TIG re-
sponds inversely to the RL, i.e., when one
increases, the other tends to decrease.
To determine the correlation between
these two properties, the MegiQ VNA 6. This shows the return loss (RL) and total isotropic gain (TIG) of the wideband paddle anten-
software can translate the RL to the na as illustrated in Figure 3. The comparison between the RL and TIG indicates their inversely
forward loss (FL), representing the proportional behavior.
amount of power that’s accepted by the
antenna. Figure 7 represents both the FL
and TIG.
In an ideal situation, the FL and
TIG should be equal if all accepted
power is transmitted by the antenna.
The deviation between them therefore
reveals the importance of wireless
signal propagation measurements. The
TIG includes all antenna losses and
environmental effects, which aren’t
detected with the VNA impedance
measurements.

RSSI Measurement Setup 7. This is a visual representation of the forward loss (FL) and total isotropic gain (TIG) of the
During all RSSI measurements, the wideband paddle antenna as shown in Figure 3. FL is defined as the amount of power that’s
paddle antennas were connected to accepted by the antenna. The comparison between the FL and TIG illustrates their directly
the MegiQ VNA to excite them at an proportional behavior.
accurately controlled power level. The
MegiQ RMS then measured the RSSI
using the same paddle antennas, as this
represents a realistic scenario in which
two similar devices are communicating.
The antennas were oriented such that
both a horizontal and a vertical linearly
polarized electromagnetic field were
transmitted and received. Figure 8
shows the measurement setup.
To measure the RSSI for different
transmitter locations, the turntable of the
MegiQ RMS had to be positioned at these
locations as well. Due to the versatility of
the MegiQ RMS, this was achieved by
controlling the turntable wirelessly using
a Silex DS-600 Network USB Server.
After connecting the turntable to the
Silex DS-600, the RMS software was able 8. Here’s the adjusted MegiQ RMS measurement setup for the RSSI measurements conducted
to control it without the need for a wired in this article. Shown are the RMS receiver (left) and the VNA (right).

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connection between the RMS and the
turntable.
The affordability, high accuracy,
and versatility of the MegiQ VNA
and MegiQ RMS rendered them the
ideal equipment for the measurements
conducted in this article

RSSI Variability due to Frequency and

Transmitter Location
Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the
measured RSSI for different transmitter
locations on a floorplan, with values
averaged over the transmitted
horizontal and vertical linearly
polarized electromagnetic fields. This
consideration is significant as many
wireless devices are often used in 9. Shown is the floorplan of the ground floor illustrating the averaged RSSI for different trans-
varying orientations, randomizing the mitter locations, taken over the transmitted horizontal and vertical linear electromagnetic
direction of polarization. polarization. The transmitter locations are indicated with black dots. The receiver is indicated
The receiver antenna is positioned with a cross.
on the ground floor and indicated with
a cross. The locations of transmitter
antennas are indicated with black dots. The bar charts • 450 MHz due to its various applications, like Amateur
visualize the measured RSSI for the different transmitter Television (ATV) and smart meters.
locations, where the grey part represents the noise, the light- • 868 MHz is used for LoRa, Zigbee, Thread, and RFID.
colored part represents the minimum RSSI, and the dark • 1.9 GHz is a commonly used frequency for 3G and 4G
colored part the average RSSI. wireless communication.
Figures 9 and 10 represent a selection of six frequencies: • 2.4 GHz is popular for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Thread.
• 3.4 GHz is commonly used for 5G
communication.
•5.8 GHz is a popular Wi-Fi
frequency as well, but it’s also
used for dedicated short-range
communications (DSRC).

As expected, the bar charts indicate

that the RSSI decreases as the distance
between the transmitter and receiver
increases. Furthermore, they show that
this rate of decrease is larger for higher
frequencies, which can be explained by
the Friis transmission equation for free
space, defined by [4]:

10. This floorplan of the first floor illustrates the averaged RSSI for different transmitter loca- where:
tions, taken over the transmitted horizontal and vertical linear electromagnetic polarization. • Pr = Received power
The transmitter locations are indicated with black dots. The receiver is located on the ground • Pt = Transmitted power
floor (Fig. 9). • Gt = Transmitter antenna gain

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11. This image depicts the polar radiation patterns at 915 MHz for a transmitted horizontally and vertically polarized signal, measured for three
different transmitter locations. The RSSI is measured using a vertically polarized wideband paddle antenna and is represented in dBm. The
locations correspond to the locations in Figures 9 and 10.

• Gr = Receiver antenna gain Whenever a signal interacts with objects, it can be
• c = Speed of light absorbed, reflected, transmitted, scattered, and diffracted.5
• R = Distance between transmitter and receiver All of these different interactions can cause changes in the
• f = Frequency signal, like its intensity, frequency, phase, polarization,
and direction. Furthermore, it leads to different paths in
For higher frequencies (f), an increase in distance between which the signal travels to the receiver, called multipath
the transmitter and receiver (R) results in a lower received propagation. The detected RSSI at the receiver is highly
power (Pr) than for lower frequencies. affected by all of these interactions due to the different
In addition, this effect is amplified by the objects in the properties of the multipath components and the receiver’s
environment. Due to the smaller wavelength of signals sensitivity to certain properties of the signal.
with a higher frequency, these signals tend to observe more Interactions between the individual multipath components
details in objects. As a result, they’re more likely to interact impact the RSSI, too. This is caused by constructive and
with, for example, the metal grid in reinforced concrete, destructive interference, where the combination of signals
metal components in furniture, and even the coatings in leads to an amplification or attenuation of the signal.
insulated windows. Depending on the composition and electrical properties
Despite their advantages, higher-frequency signals clearly of objects, interactions with objects potentially alter
also have their disadvantages. To mitigate these and ensure the polarization of a signal.5 This, in turn, impacts the
reliable wireless networks, it’s crucial to consider wireless interaction between multipath components on the receiver
signal propagation not only during the design of wireless side and the shape of the detected radiation patterns.
products, but during the construction of buildings and Figure 11 indicates the effect of multipath propagation and
setup of wireless networks as well. polarization alteration on the measured radiation patterns.
Due to the multipath propagation, a change in orientation of
Wireless Signal Disturbances the radiation patterns is visible.
Moving the antennas to different locations tends to change Furthermore, Figure 11 shows a variation in the relative
the measured radiation pattern. As Figure 11 indicates distribution of horizontally and vertically polarized
with RSSI measurements at a frequency of 915 MHz, the signals between the different locations, indicating that the
orientation, shape, and distribution of electromagnetic polarization of these signals have changed. The polarization
polarization differ across the radiation patterns obtained alteration is especially visible at approximately 150° at
from various transmitter locations. These changes can location 4, where the vertically polarized signal decreases
be attributed to various phenomena, like multipath in power and the horizontally polarized signal increases
propagation, fading, and polarization alteration.5 Some of correspondingly.
the most significant phenomena are mentioned below. These figures are a prime example of why antenna diversity,

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i.e., integrating multiple antennas with different polarization
in a device, can significantly enhance the received wireless
signal strength of the device.

Conclusion
The reception of wireless signals propagating in an indoor
environment depends strongly on the characteristics of
the signal, distance between antennas, and layout of the
environment. This was proven with a comparison between
radiation patterns for different transmitter locations,
which revealed how the RSSI and polarization can change
by physically moving a wireless device within the same
network.
In addition, the measurements showed that higher
frequency signals suffer from more signal degradation as the
distance increases between transmitter and receiver. These
signals face a stronger interaction with the environment,
making their wireless propagation more unpredictable and
prone to distortion.
To draw clear and concise conclusions about the precise
effects of objects on wireless signal propagation, a more
comprehensive analysis and measurement approach is
needed. Nevertheless, the research conducted in this article
demonstrates that the discussed phenomena significantly
affect the reception of transmitted wireless signals. It
emphasizes the necessity of accounting for wireless signal
propagation to ensure reliable wireless networks, not
only during the design of new wireless products but also
throughout the construction of environments housing
wireless devices, as well as during the setup of wireless
networks.
Oscar Appelman, founder of Aptab, specializes in telecom-
munications and artificial intelligence, providing consulting
and support for organizations tackling challenging projects
across various fields of electrical engineering.

References
1. O. Appelman, “Ray Tracing Simulation Accuracy for Pre-
dicting Indoor Wireless Signal Reception,” pp. 1-12, 2023;
https://www.aptab.nl/articles/wireless_propagation_rt_si-
mulation.pdf.
2. MegiQ BV, https://www.megiq.com/.
3. Top Electronics, https://www.top-electronics.com/.
4. D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 4th ed., 2012.
5. A. F. Molisch, Wireless Communications (2nd edition),
2011.

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