CHAPTER-1

SOLUTIONS

Types of Solutions, Expression of Concentration of

Topic- 1 Solutions and Solubility
Concepts Covered  Types of solution,  Molarity,  Normality,  ppm,  Mass by
volume% ,  Mole Fraction,  Volume by volume%,  Henry’s Law

Revision Notes
Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances is known as solution.
If the constituents of the solution are two, it is called binary, if three then ternary, if four then quaternary and
so on.
Two constituents of the solution are:
(i) Solute: A substance that is dissolved in another substance in lesser amount, forming a solution. For example:
Sugar, salt, etc.
(ii) Solvent: A substance in which another substance is dissolved in larger amount, forming a solution. For
example: Water, milk, etc.
Note: Solvent determines the physical state of the solution.
Types of Solutions: Any state of matter (solid, liquid or gas) can act both as a solvent and as a solute during
the formation of a solution. Therefore, depending upon the physical states of solute and solvent, we can have
following nine different types of solutions:

S. No. Types of Solution Solute Solvent Examples

1. Solid – Solid Solid Solid Alloys like brass, bronze, etc.
2. Solid – Liquid Solid Liquid Solution of sugar, salt, urea, etc., in water.
3. Solid – Gas Solid Gas Sublimation of substances like iodine, camphor,
etc., into air, dust or smoke particles in air.
4. Liquid – Solid Liquid Solid Hydrated salts, mercury in amalgamated zinc, etc.
5. Liquid – Liquid Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, benzene in toluene.
6. Liquid – Gas Liquid Gas Aerosol, water vapour in air.
7. Gas – Solid Gas Solid Hydrogen adsorbed in palladium.
8. Gas – Liquid Gas Liquid Aerated drinks.
9. Gas – Gas Gas Gas Mixture of gases, etc.

Key Word
Aerosol: It is suspension of fine solid or liquid particles in air , e.g.,: Fog.

Aqueous solution: A solution containing water as solvent is known as aqueous solution. For example, sugar
solution.
Non- aqueous solution: A solution containing solvent other than water is known as non- aqueous solution. For
example, iodine dissolved in alcohol.
Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature is known as
saturated solution.
Unsaturated solution: A solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved at the same temperature is
known as unsaturated solution.
Method of expressing concentration of solution: The concentration of solution is the amount of solute present
in the given quantity of solute or solvent. It can be expressed in any of the following types:
2 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-XII

(i) Mass percentage w : It is the amount of solute in grams dissolved per 100 g of solution.
W
Mass of solute in the solution
Mass% of a solute = × 100
Total mass of the solution

(ii) Volume percentage v : It is defined as volume of a solute dissolved per 100 mL of solution.
V
Volume of solute
Volume% of a solute = × 100
Total volume of the solution
w
(iii) Mass by volume percentage : It is defined as mass of solute dissolved per 100 mL of solution. It is
V
commonly used in medicine and pharmacy.
Mass of solute
Mass by volume % of solute = × 100
Volume of solution
(iv) Parts per million (ppm): It can be defined as the parts of a component per million (106) parts of the solution.
It is used to express the concentration of a solute present in trace quantities.
Number of the parts
of the component (A)
ppm (A) = × 10 6
Total number of parrts of all the
components of the solution

Parts per million can be expressed in three ways:
(a) Mass to mass
Mass of a component
ppm (mass to mass)= × 10 6
Total mass of solution
(b) Volume to volume
Volume of a component
ppm (volume to volume) = × 10 6
Total volume of solution
(c) Mass to volume
Mass of a component
ppm (mass to volume) = × 10 6
Volume of solution
(v) Mole Fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number of moles of all the
components. e.g., mole fraction of component A.
nA
χA = ,
n A + nB

where nA is the number of moles of component ‘A’ and nB is the number of moles of component ‘B’.
nB
Similarly, χB =
nA + nB

Sum of mole fractions of all the components is always one.

χA + χB = 1
(vi) Molarity (M): It is defined as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
Number of moles of solute
  Molarity =
Volume of solution (in Litres)

WB × 1000
M=
MB × V

where, WB = Weight of solute, V = Volume of solution in mL, MB = Molar mass of solute.
Unit is mol L–1 or M (molar).
Weight of solute ( WB )
And = Moles of solute
Molar mass of solute ( M B )
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-XII 3
(vii) Molality (m): It is defined as the number of moles of solute per 1000 g or 1 kg of solvent.
Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of solvent in kg

WB × 1000
m=
MB × W

where, WB = Weight of the solute, MB = Molar mass of solute, W = Mass of solvent in g

Unit is mol kg–1 or molal (m). Molality and mole fraction do not change with change in temperature.

Key Formulae
Number of moles of the component
Mole fraction of a component =
Total number of moles of alll the components
n1 n2
x1 = , x2 = ( x1 + x 2 = 1)
n1 + n2 n1 + n2

Number of moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in Litre
Number of moles of solute
Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent in kg
Number of gram equivalent of solute
Normality (N) =
Volume of solution in Liitre
w
Mass percentage   = Mass of solute in the solution × 1000
W Total mass of the solution
v Volume of solute
Volume percentage   = × 100
V Total volume of the solution
w Mass of solute
Mass by volume percentage   = × 100
V
  Volume of solution

Mass of component A
ppm of component A = × 10 6
Total mass of solution

(viii) Normality (N): It is defined as number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Number of gram equivalents of solute
Normality =
Volume of solution in Litre
WB × 1000
N=
EB × V
where, WB = Mass of solute, EB = Equivalent weight of solute, V = Volume of solution in mL
Relationship between Molarity (M) and Molality (m):
1 d M
   = − B
m M 1000
where, m = Molality of solution, M = Molarity of solution,
MB = Molar mass of solute, d = Density of solution in g ml–1
Relationship between Mole fraction of solute (χB) and Molality (m):
χ B × 1000
m=
(1 − χ B ) × M A

where χB is mole fraction of solute, m is molality and MA is molar mass of solvent.
Solubility: Solubility can be defined as the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent
to form a saturated solution at a given temperature.
4 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-XII

l Factors affecting Solubility:

(i) Nature of Solute and Solvent: “Like dissolves like” i.e., polar solvents like water and ammonia can
dissolve polar solute or ionic solute while non- polar solvents can dissolve non- polar organic solutes.
(ii) Temperature: Solubility increases with increase in temperature. It increases for endothermic reaction
while it decreases for exothermic reaction.
(iii) Pressure: The solubility of solid in liquid is not affected significantly by pressure because solids and liquids
cannot be compressed.
Henry’s Law:
The relationship between pressure and solubility is guided by Henry’s Law. According to this law, ‘‘The mass of
a gas dissolved in given volume of the liquid at a constant temperature depends upon the pressure applied.’’
It can also be stated as the partial pressure of the gas (p) in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas (χ) in the solution.
p= KHχ,
where KH = Henry’s constant.
l Applications of Henry’s law:
(i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soda water and soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.

Key Formulae
χ B × 1000
m=
l (1 − χ B ) × M A
l Henry’s Law: p = KH x

Key Diagram
Partial pressure (p)

 (mole fraction)
The slope of the line in Henry’s constant, (KH)

(ii) To avoid the toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen in blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled
with air diluted with helium (11.7%), nitrogen (56.2%) and oxygen (32.1%).
(iii) At high altitudes, low blood oxygen causes climber to become weak and make them unable to think clearly,
which are symptoms of a condition known as anoxia.
l Limitations of Henry’s law: This law is applicable only when:
(i) The pressure of gas is not too high and temperature is not too low.
(ii) The gas should not undergo any chemical change.
(iii) The gas should not undergo association or dissociation in the solution.

Raoult’s Law, Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions

Topic-2 Concepts Covered  Raoult’s law, Ideal solutions, Non - Ideal Solutions, Azeotropes-
Maximum boiling and Minimum Boiling

Revision Notes
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by vapours over a liquid at equilibrium state at constant temperature.
Vapour pressure depends on the following factors:
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-XII 5
(i) Nature of the liquid: Liquids having intermolecular forces are volatile and possess higher vapour pressure.
(ii) Temperature: Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in temperature.
Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids: It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour
pressure of each component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution.
Suppose a solution is prepared by mixing two volatile liquids A and B. Let χA and χB respectively be their mole
fractions, and let pA and pB be their partial vapour pressures respectively in the solution at a particular temperature.
o o
If pA and pB are their vapour pressures in the pure state respectively, then according to Raoult’s law:
o
pA = pA χA
o
pB = pB χB
Considering Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
ptotal = pA + pB
Substituting values of pA and pB,
o o
ptotal = χA pA + χB pB
o o
= (1 – χB) pA + χB pB
o o o
= pA + ( pB – pA )χB
The composition of the vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution can be determined from the partial pressure
of the two components. If χA and χB are the mole fractions of components A and B respectively in the vapour
phase, then
pA = χAptotal
and pB = χBptotal
In general pi = χi ptotal
Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law: According to Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure of volatile component
(A) in a given solution is given as:
o
pA = pA χA
According to Henry’s law, in the solution of a gas in a liquid, the gaseous component is normally so volatile that
it exists as a gas and solubility depends upon Henry’s law to which:
pA = KHχA
o
On comparing both expressions pA is equal to KH.
Raoult’s law for non-volatile solute: For a solution containing non-volatile solute present in a volatile solvent,
Raoult’s law may be stated as the relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is equal to the mole fraction
of solute.
0
χB = pA − pA ,
pA0

where,  χB = Mole fraction of solute,

pAo – pA = Lowering of vapour pressure.

Key formula
Raoult’s law for volatile liquids: Raoult’s law for volatile liquids:
Psolute = Xsolute. P0solute
Psolvent = Xsolute. P0solvent
where, P0 is the vapour pressure of pure component
Raoults law for non volatile solute:
XB = (P0A – PA)/P0A
where, P0A – PA = lowering of vapour pressure
XB = mole fraction of solute

Ideal solution: A solution which obeys Raoult’s law over a wide range of concentration at specific temperature is
called ideal solution.