See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/351105853

ESL students’ perceptions of mobile applications for discipline-specific

vocabulary acquisition for academic purposes

Article in Knowledge Management & E-Learning An International Journal · April 2021

DOI: 10.34105/j.kmel.2021.13.006

CITATIONS READS

18 229

2 authors:

Lucas Kohnke Adrian Ting

The Education University of Hong Kong The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
113 PUBLICATIONS 1,402 CITATIONS 4 PUBLICATIONS 45 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Lucas Kohnke on 27 April 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Knowledge Management & E-Learning, Vol.13, No.1. Mar 2021

ESL students’ perceptions of mobile applications for

discipline-specific vocabulary acquisition for academic
purposes

Lucas Kohnke
Adrian Ting
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An International Journal (KM&EL)

ISSN 2073-7904

Recommended citation:
Kohnke, L., & Ting, A. (2021). ESL students’ perceptions of mobile
applications for discipline-specific vocabulary acquisition for academic
purposes. Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117.
https://doi.org/10.34105/j.kmel.2021.13.006
 Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117

ESL students’ perceptions of mobile applications for

discipline-specific vocabulary acquisition for academic
purposes

Lucas Kohnke*
English Language Centre
Faculty of Humanities
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
E-mail: [email protected]

Adrian Ting
English Language Centre
Faculty of Humanities
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
E-mail: [email protected]

*Corresponding author

Abstract: Undergraduates are often advised to expand their discipline-specific

vocabulary in order to cope with the rigor of reading and writing academic
texts. For the students studying in English-medium settings, it is in their
interest to acquire vocabulary in their disciplines as this is vital to academic
success. While students recognize the importance of discipline-specific
vocabulary acquisition, they are typically unable to do so due to their heavy
work on learning and assessment tasks. With the advent of mobile technology,
one way to address this problem is to create vocabulary apps. To meet this
need, this paper presents a gamified, discipline-specific vocabulary learning
app Books vs Brains@PolyU. It was developed to help busy undergraduates to
build a repertoire of the vocabulary across seven disciplines. We explored
students’ perceptions and evaluation of this tool via interviews with sixteen
student participants of the project. The results show that students found the tool
useful and motivating, indicating the effectiveness of the app in helping busy
undergraduates to build and expand their knowledge of discipline-specific
vocabulary.

Keywords: Mobile-assisted language learning; Academic vocabulary;

Vocabulary; Applications; Discipline-specific; EAP; ESL; Books vs
Brains@PolyU

Biographical notes: Dr Kohnke is a Teaching Fellow in the English Language

Centre at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Dr Kohnke has published
articles in TESOL Journal, Journal of Education for Teaching, RELC Journal
as well as other leading journals. His research interests include technology-
supported teaching and learning, professional development using information
communication technologies, and EAP/ESP course design.

Adrian Ting is an Instructor in the English Language Centre at The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. Mr. Ting has taught EAP and ESP courses to university
students since 2003. His research interests include educational technology,
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 103

EAP, ESP, and disciplinary writing. He has publications in the area of

technology integration in ESL.

1. Introduction
Learning vocabulary constitute an essential aspect of studying a second or foreign
language, including English for Academic Purposes (EAP). English as a second language
(ESL) students at universities often find the process of understanding and acquiring the
academic vocabulary for their chosen disciplines to be particularly challenging (Li &
Pemberton, 1994; Malmström, Pecorari, & Shaw, 2018). Though academic vocabulary
by definition appears frequently in academic texts, these terms are “not likely to be
glossed by the content teachers” (Flowerdew, 1993, p. 236; Coxhead, 2000). Insufficient
knowledge of vocabulary has often been identified as the greatest impediment to
language students’ academic success (Gardner & Davis, 2014; Masrai & Milton, 2018;
Lesaux et al., 2014; Nation, 2001). Students’ need to bolster their academic vocabularies
has led to the creation of academic word lists, such as West’s (1953) General Service List
of 2,000-word families and Coxhead’s (2000) Academic Word List of 570-word families,
some of which are discipline-specific, such as Lei and Lin’s (2016) medical word list and
Liu and Han’s (2015) environmental word list.
Generally, students who enter an English-medium university in Hong Kong
realize that their English proficiency—particularly their knowledge, understanding, and
range of vocabulary—is insufficient to support success in their academic studies (Evans
& Morrison, 2018; Morrison & Evans, 2018). To compensate for this shortcoming,
universities have made available learning and teaching resources to help ESL students
transition from secondary education to university studies. Information technology has
transformed English-language teaching and learning (Godwin-Jones, 2017). Thus,
today’s learners are highly mobile (Read & Barcena, 2016) and are accustomed—and,
indeed, prefer—to access language-learning materials digitally (Healey, 2018).
Consequently, language educators have been designing, developing, and seeking out
authentic digital materials to assist students in expanding their vocabularies (Godwin-
Jones, 2017; Kohnke, Zou, & Zhang, 2019; Kohnke, Zou, & Zhang, 2020).
In recent years, mobile applications (apps) have shown the potential to enhance
and transform language learning (Chen, Liu, & Huang, 2019; Fu, 2018). In particular,
apps that make it possible for learners to acquire vocabulary anywhere and anytime have
attracted interest, as evidenced by discussions in the scholarship on mobile-assisted
language learning (MALL; e.g., Burston, 2015; Stockwell, 2007). The acquisition of
vocabulary by EAP learners, nevertheless, continues to be problematic (Shadiev, Hwang,
& Huang, 2017). Owing to the importance of developing discipline-specific vocabularies
for these students—and to Chinese students’ preference for utilizing apps in their
language learning—this qualitative study explored the experiences and perspectives of
students who were taking part in an academic mentoring program using a discipline-
specific vocabulary app, Books vs Brains@PolyU, that was developed in-house for this
purpose. The study was designed to answer two main questions:
RQ1: What types of apps do students prefer to use to facilitate discipline-specific
language learning?
RQ2: What are the factors that may influence students’ use and perceptions of the
Books vs Brains@PolyU vocabulary app?
104 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

2. Literature review
In Hong Kong and elsewhere, the use of synchronous and asynchronous technology has
become a fundamental aspect of teaching and learning in higher education institutions
(Kukulska-Hulme, Lee, & Norris, 2017). In tandem with this development has been an
increase in research into the use of MALL in second-language acquisition to inform
language studies more broadly (Loewen et al., 2019; Shadiev et al., 2017). For example,
MALL provides new constructive opportunities for ESL learners to access content and
enables teachers to supplement in-class instruction with an additional resource for
authentic language learning that, again, can be accessed anytime and anywhere (Reinders
& Benson, 2017; Zou, Xie, & Wang, 2018). In such ways, MALL supports students’
autonomous development of English-language proficiency.
As mentioned, at universities, students must acquire a good grasp of a large
number of discipline-specific words to succeed academically, though these words are
seldom explained in textbooks. Indeed, the lack of familiarity with academic vocabulary
has been identified as the greatest obstacle for many ESL learners (Moini & Islamizadeh,
2016). Thus, teachers frequently consider it among their primary tasks to support
students’ development of discipline-specific vocabularies (Hyland & Tse, 2007). In EAP
classes, teachers tend to focus on words that appear in the target text, thereby limiting the
scope of the vocabulary to which students are exposed (Pojanapunya, 2019).
Also as mentioned, established academic word lists can expand students’ lexical
range. Two of the more frequently used such lists are Coxhead’s (2000) aforementioned
Academic Word List (AWL) and the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL) by Gardner and
Davies (2014). These two lists especially have had a considerable positive impact on
EAP teaching and learning. However, Hyland and Tse (2007) argued that such general
academic word lists are of limited usefulness owing to the wide variation in vocabulary
across disciplines. Therefore, discipline-specific vocabulary lists that target ESL learners’
specific academic goals have also been developed. Examples included the
aforementioned medical word list by Lei and Lin (2016), Liu and Han’s (2015)
environmental word list, as well as Hsu’s (2011) business word list and Yang’s (2015)
nursing word list. The potential benefits of using such lists include the establishment of
vocabulary-learning goals and the assessment of vocabulary knowledge and growth.
Again, however, each discipline—and even sub-discipline—often has a distinctive
vocabulary (Durrant, 2014; Hyland & Tse 2007).
EAP learners, then, should not be regarded as a homogeneous group but rather as
individual students who tend to have a range of vocabulary needs (Coxhead, 2019; Dang,
Coxhead, & Webb, 2017). In their university-level studies, EAP students have only a
limited time to develop their discipline-specific vocabulary and should “focus on specific,
purposeful uses of language” (Hyland, 2016, p. 17). To maximize the use of this limited
time for acquiring vocabulary in today’s learning environment, it is important to
understand individual students’ preferences regarding the use of technology generally and
in particular their perceptions of the effectiveness of MALL resources in facilitating
language acquisition.
In Hong Kong and mainland China, apps have become tools of choice for, and
indeed indispensable to, ESL students because they enable learners to access learning
materials and to develop their proficiency independently (Ma, 2017). Consequently,
several studies have investigated the use of apps to provide innovative forms of support
for ESL learners, especially in terms of building vocabulary (e.g., Burston, 2015; Lin &
Lin, 2019). Some of these studies to date have focused on commercial apps, such as
Babbel, Duolingo, and Rosetta Stone, and have contextualized learners’ English language
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 105

proficiency based on their educational levels and ages using quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed-method approaches (Chen et al., 2019).
EAP students at universities in Hong Kong, then, frequently utilize dictionary
apps to facilitate vocabulary acquisition (Ma, 2019) and to manage, learn about, and
practice unfamiliar words (Dang & Webb, 2014). Levy and Steel (2015) found that
students had a preference for dictionary apps over traditional tools because of their
portability and accessibility the time-savings. Also, several of the dictionary apps include
multiple supporting functions, such as explanations, pictures, videos, and links to forums
where users can discuss language-related issues.
Mason and Zhang (2017) reported that 95% of the Chinese EAP learners in their
study used mobile apps autonomously and corroborated their positive impact on the
learners’ progress and development. This important finding demonstrates that students
can use language apps independently and that apps have the potential to motivate and
engage ESL learners specifically (Godwin-Jones, 2017). Liu, Zheng, and Chen (2019)
identified three main motivations for Chinese students’ use of dictionary apps in their
academic studies: interest in learning new English words, functionality, and the
perception that usage improved their performance on English-language assessments.
Further, research conducted at a university in Hong Kong found that students were,
indeed, keen to expand the range of their vocabulary both incidentally and deliberately
outside the classroom (Ma, 2017; Kohnke, 2020; Zou, Wang, Xie, & Kohnke, 2018).
However, the use of apps for this purpose remains under-researched, especially when it
comes to MALL and the development of discipline-specific vocabulary by EAP students
in higher education.
The widespread growth in the use of ESL apps has led to the development of
several frameworks for evaluating them. These frameworks take into account such factors
as personalization, relevance, feedback, visible progress indicators, and usability in
assessing an app’s efficacy (Sweeney & Moore, 2012). Previous research has identified
among the advantages of language learning apps fitness for purpose, clear instructions,
opportunities for individual feedback, and opportunities to practice multiple skills and
established that learners prefer basic functions over advanced ones (Winestock & Jeong,
2014). This result warrants further exploration so as to identify more precisely the
functions that enhance students’ language-learning experience and progress.
While the results of the research conducted thus far appear to have been positive,
some studies have highlighted shortcomings of vocabulary apps as language-learning
tools. Rosell-Aguilar (2016, 2018), for example, reported criticism of language learning
apps including dissatisfaction with their focus on receptive skills, a lack of intuitiveness,
and insufficient feedback and examples. The development of apps should be
pedagogically-driven (Colpaert, 2006) and should not seek to replicate existing forms of
technology if they are to motivate and engage learners. Consequently, it is important to
understand the features of discipline-specific apps that language students’ value when
learning new vocabulary.

3. Method
The aim of this explorative, interpretive, qualitative study was to assess the perceptions
of EAP students at an EMI university in Hong Kong regarding the use of an in-house
app, Books vs Brains@PolyU, for discipline-specific vocabulary learning. The study
employed an interpretive approach to reveal the full complexity of the issues involved
106 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

and provide insights in the form of information-rich responses that reflect the lived
experiences of the participants as accurately as possible (Geertz, 1973).

3.1. Learning tool/app

The lead author developed a gamified, discipline-specific vocabulary learning app, Books
vs Brains@PolyU, to engage and motivate students and expand their receptive
vocabularies. The design of the app targeted university students in need of exposure to a
wide range of words to improve and expand their knowledge of English vocabulary
related to their university studies. Therefore, the forms and meanings of words were key
components of the app’s design (Nation, 2001). Previous vocabulary-acquisition app
designs have highlighted spelling, the meanings of words, and pronunciation as the three
essential components of learning a language (Ehri & Rosenthal, 2007). Further, the
interface was designed to be intuitive with respect to the effort necessary to start using
the app, thereby maximizing the time that students would be able to devote to vocabulary
acquisition (Godwin-Jones, 2017).
Learners can use Books vs Brains@PolyU to practice their knowledge and
understanding of discipline-specific vocabulary. To do so, they draw on seven areas of
learning, which are listed in the app as “disciplines/fields”: Textiles and Clothing, School
of Design, Faculty of Business, School of Nursing, Faculty of Engineering, Tourism
Management, and Hotel Management (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Seven disciplines

Each discipline consists of four sub-levels—beginner, elementary, intermediate,
and advanced—and focuses on 15 key questions or words at each level. An accumulation
of 8 correct answers is required for progression to the next stage. If the player is stuck on
a particular question, she has the option to either skip to the next one by pressing “Skip”,
or to receive a clue where two to three letters of the word appear upon clicking “Hint”. A
maximum of two hints are allowed for each word (see Fig. 2).
At the end of each level, the app displays the student’s correct and incorrect
responses to prompt words accompanied by the definitions and pronunciation details for
each of these words (see Fig. 3). This vocabulary list can be downloaded on users’
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 107

mobile devices to create academic and discipline-specific vocabulary banks. This feature
is important because it helps students to learn from their mistakes and makes it easy for
them to access vocabulary anytime and anywhere and thereby to consolidate their
learning.

Fig. 2. Game mode

Fig. 3. Word definition and pronunciation

Further, each word is tailored to the particular difficulty level at which a student is
studying and presented in a range of linguistic contexts that illustrate various aspects of
speech in several sample sentences. Another game-based component that motivates users
to continue playing is the option to post and share their scores on the digital leaderboard
hosted on Facebook (see Fig. 4). These features augment students’ efforts to increase and
broaden their English vocabulary and their overall understanding of the language.
In seeking to meet the needs of university students in Hong Kong more
effectively, we have found that existing word lists such as the aforementioned AWL and
AVL are simply too wide-ranging to be suitable for students’ particular learning needs.
Consequently, the lead author established seven discipline-specific lists in conjunction
with the seven disciplines/fields listed above consisting of words regarded as
108 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

indispensable to each discipline. For this purpose, the lead author met with
representatives from each of the departments corresponding to the seven disciplines and
worked with them to identify which specific words ought to be included in the word lists.
We then divided these words into the four categories of users from beginner to advanced.
In this way, EAP learners’ individual needs and abilities determined the content of each
level of the app in a manner pitched appropriately to their studies.

Fig. 4. Leaderboard and Facebook

3.2. Participants
The selection of participants for the focus groups followed the convenience sampling
method which “involves choosing the nearest individuals to serve as respondents”
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2018, p. 218). An email invitation was sent to all 94
participants in a student-teacher mentoring program, and 16 first-year students
volunteered to participate. The participants were originally from mainland China and
Hong Kong, for whom English was either a foreign or second language, as is the case
with the overall university population in Hong Kong. They included 9 female and 7 male
either 18 or 19 years of age and together represented the seven disciplines represented in
the app. They thus formed a representative sample capable of providing a holistic
overview of students’ perspectives. Since they had already volunteered to participate in
the mentoring scheme, their motivations for studying and improving the quality of their
English presumably differed somewhat from those of other university students. All of the
participants gave their written consent and received an information sheet outlining the
purpose and procedure for the research.
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 109

3.3. Data collection and analysis

The 16 participants used the app for 10 weeks outside the classroom. Their usage data
were then collected during four focus groups conducted in English that lasted from 34 to
47 minutes. The interview guide developed for the focus groups concerned the
participants’ experiences using the app for language-learning, aspects of it that they had
found particularly useful, and their views of its efficacy in supporting language
acquisition and university studies in their specific discipline. Focus group data are
particularly useful for studies that strive to understand attitudes, opinions, and
experiences of research subjects in a particular context (Ravitch & Carl, 2016).
The focus-group sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Two
rounds of member-checking served to establish the trustworthiness of the data (Merriam,
2017). First, each participant received a copy of the transcript of his or her focus group
for approval, and none suggested any revisions. The six-step framework of Braun and
Clarke (2006) provided the framework for the analysis of the data and helped to yield a
rich, detailed, and complex account of the results. According to these researchers,
thematic forms of analysis are flexible and are guided by researchers’ key ideas and
viewpoints. The participants completed the second member check when they confirmed
that the final results and discussion of the research presented to them accurately
represented their experiences.

4. Findings

4.1. RQ1: What types of apps do students prefer to use to facilitate discipline-
specific language learning?

4.1.1. Dictionary apps: Quick and easy access

The first research question served to establish a general benchmark for the participants’
preferred type of discipline-specific app for improving their vocabulary. All of them
expressed a preference for direct translation between their L1 (Chinese) and L2 (English)
and vice versa as well as the capability to enter Chinese simplified or traditional
characters and pinyin. The participants reported that they found dictionary apps
invaluable in terms of saving time during such in-class activities as lectures and tutorials
as well as for completing such out-of-class tasks as reading course material, textbooks,
and journal articles. This finding is consistent with previous studies of Chinese students’
strategies for learning languages (Liu et al., 2019). One participant in the present study
(S3) commented that “during lectures, there are words I don’t understand on the
PowerPoint, and I need to look them up quickly. With the English-Chinese dictionary, I
can do so in seconds.” The participants found the ability to input Chinese characters
helpful for broadening discipline-specific vocabulary. As two of them reported,
“I can use my finger to quickly write the Chinese character, and then I can see the
English meaning with several examples. This helps me to understand the meaning,
and I can click on words to obtain more explanations.” (S6)
“This function saves lots of time . . . as I think in Chinese it is easier to get the
meaning of words, and then I know how to use the words in my writing.” (S9)
Another participant said that dictionary apps were important in that they,
110 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

“Give me a definition of words in my major conveniently and help me to write my

assignments.” (S11)
These three comments reflect the overall impression that dictionary apps can
accelerate the pace of learning. The lexical comprehensiveness (inclusion of synonyms,
antonyms, example sentences, slang, etc.) in particular increased these learners’
engagement. The participants’ assertions corroborated previous findings that a significant
challenge for students in EAP programs is the limited time available to develop
discipline-specific vocabulary (Hyland, 2016). Thus, ready access to English-Chinese
translation tools helps such students to understand unfamiliar vocabulary that they
encounter in professional journals more efficiently. Unsurprising, the participants in the
present study described effective dictionary apps as being user-friendly. When probed
further about their thoughts on the efficacy of using these apps to expand their discipline-
specific vocabularies, though, several of the interviewees expressed reservations such as
the following:
“Examples included are often of general English, so sometimes I’m still not sure
[of] the meaning of the word in my context . . . it can be very technical but it [is]
still quite helpful as a starting point.” (S1)
“Not always suitable for my major, or, if they include the word plus example,
[then it] is still too difficult, and I still can’t understand. It can be really
frustrating.” (S12)
Again, dictionaries and word lists cannot meet all of these students’ various needs
(Durrant, 2014), and many commercial dictionary apps lack discipline-specific technical
terms or have only a limited lexical repertoire. Learners need access to the particular
definitions of words that are used frequently in their disciplines. Another shortcoming of
dictionary apps is that students tend to trust them less than traditional hard copies in
terms of accuracy and comprehensiveness (Levy & Steel, 2015). Previous studies have
identified both shortcomings of dictionary apps as well as such benefits as multimodal
input and output (Ma, 2019). There thus appears to be a need to develop a vocabulary app
that incorporates multimodality with a specific focus on EAP learners’ vocabulary needs
across multiple disciplines and contexts.

4.1.2. Language-learning apps and motivation

In the focus-group interviews, four of the participants mentioned other types of language
apps in addition to dictionary apps that they had tried, including Duolingo and Busuu.
While many of them seemed to consider these apps useful for improving their English,
they said that they were rarely able to sustain the necessary motivation to persist in using
them. Thus, two of the participants explained that,
“Initially, they are fun but, after a while, I feel it gets boring.” (S1)
“It is hard to find good ones; I mean, there is [so] much available, and many are
very complicated and others too simple.” (S8)
Another participant related,
“I have tried various language channels on WeChat and YouKu, but I feel it takes
too long to watch the videos, and I have to write down keywords [and] sentences
so I can remember them later. It is just not very efficient, and there is so much. It is
really hard to find the good stuff.” (S6)
This assessment of other apps was echoed by another student:
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 111

“When I play, I feel “ok, I’m learning,” but then afterward I never use the words,
so what’s the point?” (S7)
Nevertheless, the participants’ statements confirmed overall that apps can serve as
initial motivators in the learning process (Godwin-Jones, 2017), the problem again being
that they were unable to sustain their language-learning independently. Previous research
has found that ESL learners preferred simplicity and, for this reason, tended to utilize
dictionary apps rather than social media channels, online language games, or other kinds
of apps (Ma, 2019; Levy & Steel, 2015). As language learners generally in developed
countries have abundant access to MALL tools and the support to learn a language
anywhere and anytime (Healey, 2018; Reinders & Benson, 2017), they seem to be
increasingly selective and well-informed in their choice of the particular lexical tools that
work well for them in their specific environments. As would be expected, learners tend to
seek quality, user-friendly tools that offer multiple functions.

4.2. RQ2: What are the factors that may influence students’ use and perceptions
of the Books vs Brains@PolyU vocabulary app?

4.2.1. Playing time and app design

The interviewees indicated that, during the 10-week period, they used the app several
times a week and discussed the time that they spent using it, and certain words that they
encountered on it with their fellow mentees. This collaborative effort seems to have
rendered the learning process more social and motivating. Thus, one of the participants
stated,
“Personally, I found it really good to discuss with friends about words and
definitions from the app. It was like, even though we were using the app, we could
still discuss and learn.” (S16)
Another participant described the points system as motivational: “It’s fun and
makes me wanna play longer to score higher than my friends” (S12). The interviewees
consistently mentioned the gamified nature of the app as a key motivating factor—and,
indeed, gamification seems to stimulate today’s learners more than other teaching
resources (Chen et al., 2019).
The participants also highlighted the intuitive capabilities of the app, with
comments such as “Actually, it is very simple, so no instructions are needed” (S9) and
“It is not fancy but very practical” (S2). The simplicity of the app’s design contributed to
its usability. As another participant mentioned,
“There are very few functions to handle…. I see the explanation of the word and
how many letters the word should have, plus, I can click on “Hint” to see a couple
of letters in the definition, and then just drag the letters.” (S5)
All of the participants gave positive feedback about the convenience of the user
experience, but a few found that the interface design, though intuitive and easy to use,
could be improved. One of them mentioned,
“Not much happening in the app; it would be better if it was more exciting, moving
parts with short animations. Yes, more moving parts.” (S8)
This is a fair criticism of the app, as more effort could have been made to
integrate features that allow users to watch short animations and videos so that it would
112 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

be more exciting for learners to complete each task. Various features of the design were
mentioned during the focus groups as having enhanced the user experience, including the
scoring system, hints, and pronunciation guidance. In any case, as the aforementioned
comments demonstrate, the participants persevered in using the app. Several stressed that
the app’s design features had helped them to acquire new discipline-specific vocabulary.

4.2.2. Levels of difficulty and understanding of definitions and examples

The participants stated that the progression from level to level was helpful, and most of
them agreed that the discipline-specific words were relevant to and useful for their
studies. In particular, they liked the clear definition provided for each word as one said:
“The definition was shown in simple words which helped.” (S10)
“Yes, the words describing the ideas were good. Most of them used very general . .
. English, and this helped me to understand the word later.” (S9)
Others found that being able to download the complete list of the words together
with the pronunciation guidance on their phones when they had reached the end of each
level was especially useful in terms of developing their discipline-specific vocabulary
and motivating them to keep playing and, later, to continue using the app.
“I really liked having access to all [of] the words and being able to listen and [to]
try to pronounce them without having to play the game again.” (S11)
“Explanations made it easier to understand the concept.” (S16)
A few of the participants found that some of the words were too challenging—
overly long and complicated—which made it difficult for them to proceed to the next
level. One stated, “I remember [that] one word was over 10 letters” (S15). Thus, while
most of the participants believed that the definitions and examples provided in the app
were appropriately pitched to their particular language level, this comment draws
attention to the fact that their language levels differed. The differences among learners
should, therefore, receive more attention in the development of apps. In light of research
indicating that the nuances of English words are particularly puzzling for ESL learners
(Crib & Wang, 2019), it is clearly important to consider carefully the selection of both
words and examples while developing vocabulary apps and word lists.

4.2.3. Vocabulary learning and university studies

The participants then described the mobile vocabulary app as useful (for example, S7).
Though the students in the mentorship program were not required to use the mobile app
for their coursework, several did so and were pleased with the results, as show in the
following comments.
“Many of the words appeared in our readings and, later, I tried to incorporate
them in my assignments.” (S4)
“Throughout my introductory course, I kept looking at the words in the word list
and listening to the pronunciation. And after a while, I became quite confident in
using them during the tutorials. I want to say that some words I have never used,
but I’m just a first-year student.” (S13)
These are very pertinent insights, as the purpose of the app is to help students to
develop discipline-specific vocabularies that will, in turn, help them with their academic
studies. These comments are encouraging since they show that the participants went
beyond the expected receptive vocabulary learning and attempted—and, at least to some
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 113

extent, were successful in doing so—to learn to use appropriate and sophisticated
vocabulary in their academic work.
One of the participants (S8) emphasized that EAP students find it difficult to
understand discipline-specific words since they rarely encounter such words outside the
context of the coursework for their majors. By using the Books vs Brains@PolyU app,
students can learn the meanings of discipline-specific words through exposure to their use
in simple sentences and their definitions. Several participants stated that the simple and
plain English of the app provided a good starting point for acquiring specialized
vocabulary. Other sentiments expressed repeatedly in the interviews included
appreciation for the opportunity to repeat the levels and for the availability of new words.
Two of the participants (S10, S2) suggested that the app would be better if learners could
choose the level at which they wanted to play at any given time rather than being
compelled to move from the beginner to the advanced level sequentially. One (S10)
suggested that this improvement would make the app more challenging because students
could preview the more difficult levels to see and be motivated by what is coming next.

5. Conclusion
The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of and to offer further insights into
the use of a MALL mobile app by university students in Hong Kong to develop
discipline-specific vocabulary. The findings presented here suggest that students at
tertiary institutions in Hong Kong have been making increasing use of vocabulary apps to
facilitate their understanding of subject-specific lectures and course readings. The
participants in the study stated that dictionary apps facilitated access to direct translations
of words, but several of them had found that such apps often contained only limited
discipline-specific vocabulary. They responded favourably to the custom-built Books vs
Brains@PolyU app, indicating that it had met their needs for building and expanding
their knowledge of discipline-specific vocabulary. These results highlight the importance
and potential of mobile apps for helping EAP learners of various abilities to succeed
academically in English-medium universities and, specifically, the emancipatory
educational effects of Books vs Brains@PolyU in terms of facilitating discipline-specific
vocabulary acquisition.
The findings are promising overall, thought the study was relatively small in scale
and did not measure the efficacy of the app itself. Instead, the focus was on students’
strategies for using MALL and their perceptions of the in-house app. Future studies can
build on these findings by collecting further data on students’ progress with the written
and spoken aspects of language using paired pre- and post-tests and on their levels of
motivation over longer periods. Also, when developing a custom app for studies such as
this one, it is important that researchers understand the technical constraints and
intricacies involved, the limitations of the hardware (especially when designing such
features as point systems, storing and downloading vocabulary lists, graphics, and social
media integration), and the general and specific academic purposes for which English is
used in various fields.
The development of discipline-specific vocabulary is vital for EAP students to
succeed in their academic studies associated with their majors. Because students have
limited time and opportunities to acquire such vocabulary, language apps can play an
important role in facilitating independent learning by providing personalized and
immediate feedback. The functionality of vocabulary apps can improve significantly
114 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

when teachers share their strategies and resources for vocabulary acquisition with app
developers and with one another.

Author Statement
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

ORCID
Lucas Kohnke https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6717-5719
Adrian Ting https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1354-9364

References
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative
Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Burston, J. (2015). Twenty years of MALL project implementation: A meta-analysis of
learning outcomes. ReCALL, 27, 4–20.
Chen, C. M., Liu, H., & Huang, H. B. (2019). Effects of a mobile game-based English
vocabulary learning app on learners’ perception and learning performance: A case
study of Taiwanese EFL learners. ReCALL, 31(2), 170–188.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.).
Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Colpaert, J. (2006). Pedagogy-driven design for online language teaching and learning.
CALICO Journal, 23(3), 477–497.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic wordlist. TESOL Quarterly 34(2), 213–238.
Coxhead, A. (2019). Working with multi-word units in ESP/EAP. In E. Hinkel (Ed.).
Teaching Essential Units of Language: Beyond Single-Word Vocabulary (pp. 36–54).
New York, NY: Routledge.
Crib, M. V., & Wang, X. (2019). Making academic vocabulary count through strategic
deployment in oral presentations by Chinese students of English. Language Learning
Journal. doi: 10.1080/09571736.2019.1566396
Dang, T. N. Y., Coxhead, A., & Webb, S. (2017). The academic spoken word list.
Language Learning, 67(4), 959–997.
Dang, T. N. Y., & Webb, S. (2014). The lexical profile of academic spoken English.
English for Specific Purposes, 33, 66–77.
Durrant, P. (2014). Discipline and level specificity in university students’ written
vocabulary. Applied Linguistics, 35(5), 328–356.
Ehri, L. C., & Rosenthal, J. (2007). Spellings of words: A neglected facilitator of
vocabulary learning. Journal of Literacy Research, 39(4), 389–409.
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2018). Adjusting to higher education in Hong Kong: The
influence of school medium of instruction. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 21(8), 1016–1029.
Flowerdew, J. (1993). Concordancing as a tool in course design. System, 21(2), 231–244.
Fu, Q. K. (2018). Impacts of mobile technologies, systems and resources on language
learning: A systematic review of selected journal publications from 2007-2016.
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 10(4), 375–388.
Gardner, D., & Davies, M. (2014). A new academic vocabulary list. Applied Linguistics,
35(3), 305–327.
Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 115

Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2017). Smartphones and language learning. Language Learning &
Technology, 21(2), 3–17.
Healey, D. (2018). Technology enhanced learning environments. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.),
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi:
10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0437
Hsu, W. (2011). A business word list for prospective EFL business postgraduates. The
Asian ESP Journal, 7(4), 63–99.
Hyland, K. (2016). General and specific EAP. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The
Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes (pp.17–29). Abingdon, Oxon,
UK: Routledge.
Hyland, K., & Tse, P. (2007). Is there an ‘‘Academic vocabulary’’? TESOL Quarterly,
41(2), 235–253.
Kohnke, L. (2020). Exploring learner perception, experience and motivation of using a
mobile app in L2 vocabulary acquisition. International Journal of Computer-Assisted
Language Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 15–26.
Kohnke, L., Zou, D., & Zhang, R. (2019). Using mobile vocabulary learning apps as aids
to knowledge retention: Business vocabulary acquisition. The Journal of Asia TEFL,
16(2), 683–690.
Kohnke, L. Zou, D., & Zhang, R. (2020). Exploring discipline-specific vocabulary
retention in L2 through app design: Implications for higher education students. RELC
Journal. doi: 10.1177/0033688219899740
Kukulska-Hulme, A., Lee, H., & Norris, L. (2017). Mobile learning revolution:
Implications for language pedagogy. In C. A. Chapelle & S. Sauro (Eds.), The
Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 217–
233). Oxford, UK: Wiley & Sons.
Lei, L., & Lin, D. (2016). A new medical academic word list: A corpus-based study with
enhanced methodology. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 22, 42–53.
Lesaux, N. K., Kieffer, M. J., Kelley, J. G., & Harries Russ, J. (2014). Effects of
academic vocabulary instruction for linguistically diverse adolescents: Evidence from
a randomized field trial. American Educational Research Journal, 51(6), 1159–1194.
Levy, M., & Steel, C. (2015). Language learner perspectives on the functionality and use
of electronic language dictionaries. ReCALL, 27(2), 177–196.
Li, E. S. L., & Pemberton, R. (1994). An investigation of students’ knowledge of
academic and subtechnical vocabulary. In Proceedings of the joint Seminar on
Carpus Linguistics and Lexicology (pp. 183–196). Hong Kong: Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology.
Lin, J. J., & Lin, H. (2019). Mobile-assisted ESL/EFL vocabulary learning: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32(8), 878–919.
Liu, J., & Han, L. (2015). A corpus-based environmental academic word list building and
its validity test. English for Specific Purposes, 39, 1–11.
Liu, X., Zheng, D., & Chen, Y. (2019). Latent classes of smartphone dictionary users
among Chinese EFL learners: A mixed-method inquiry into motivation for mobile
assisted language learning. International Journal of Lexiography, 32(1), 68–91.
Loewen, S., Crowther, D., Isbell, D. R., Kim, K. M., Maloney, J., Miller, Z. F., & Rawal,
H. (2019). Mobile-assisted language learning: A Duolingo case study. ReCALL, 31(3),
293–311.
Ma, Q. (2017). A multi-case study of university students’ language-learning experience
mediated by mobile technologies: A socio-cultural perspective. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 30(3/4), 183–203.
116 L. Kohnke & A. Ting (2021)

Ma, Q. (2019). University L2 learners’ voices and experiences in making use of

dictionary apps in mobile assisted language learning (MALL). International Journal
of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and teaching, 9(4), 18–36.
Malmström, H., Pecorari, D., & Shaw, P. (2018). Words for what? Contrasting university
students’ receptive and productive academic vocabulary needs. English for Specific
Purposes, 50, 28–39.
Mason, A., & Zhang, W. (2017). An exploration of the use of mobile applications to
support the learning of Chinese characters employed by students of Chinese as a
foreign language. In Q. Kan & S. Bax (Eds.), Beyond the Language Classroom:
Researching MOOCs and Other Innovations (pp. 99–112). Research-publishing.net.
Masrai, A., & Milton, J. (2018). Measuring the contribution of academic and general
vocabulary knowledge to learners’ academic achievement. Journal of English for
Academic Purposes, 31, 44–57.
Merriam, S. B. (2017). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd
ed.), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Moini, R., & Islamizadeh, Z. (2016). Do we need discipline-specific academic word lists?
Linguistics academic word list (LAWL). Journal of Teaching Language Skills, 35(3),
65–90.
Morrison, B., & Evans, S. (2018). Supporting non-native speaker student writers making
the transition from school to an English-medium university. Language Learning in
Higher Education, 8(1), 1–20.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Ravitch, S. M., & Carl, N. M. (2016). Qualitative research: Bridging the conceptual,
theoretical, and methodological. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Read, T., & Barcena, E. (2016). Metacognition as scaffolding for the development of
listening comprehension in a social MALL app. RIED: Revista Iberoamericana de
Educación a Distancia, 19(1), 103–120.
Reinders, H., & Benson, P. (2017). Research agenda: Language learning beyond the
classroom. Language Teaching, 50(4), 561–578.
Rosell-Aguilar, F. (2016). User evaluation of language learning mobile applications: A
case study with learners of Spanish. In A. Palalas & M. Ally (Eds.), The International
Handbook of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (pp. 454–581). Beijing, CN: China
Central Radio & TV University Press.
Rosell-Aguilar, F. (2018). Autonomous language learning through a mobile application:
A user evaluation of the Busuu app. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(8),
854–881.
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., & Huang, Y. M. (2017). Review of research on mobile
language learning in authentic environments. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
30(3/4), 284–303.
Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile
phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365–
383.
Sweeney, P., & Moore, C. (2012) Mobile apps for learning vocabulary: Categories,
evaluation and design criteria for teachers and developers. International Journal of
Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 2(4), 1–16.
Pojanapunya, P. (2019). Tailoring academic words to multidisciplinary EAP classes.
TESOL Journal, 10(3): e00439.
West, M. (1953). A general service list of English words. London, UK: Longman, Green
& Co.
Winestock, C., & Jeong, Y. (2014). An analysis of the smartphone dictionary app market.
Lexicography: Journal of ASIALEX, 1(1), 109–119.
 Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 102–117 117

Yang, M. N. (2015). A nursing academic word list. English for Specific Purposes, 37,
27–38.
Zou, D., Xie, H., & Wang, F. L. (2018). Future trends and research issues of technology-
enhanced language learning. A technological perspective. Knowledge Management &
E-Learning, 10(4), 426–440.
Zou, D., Wang, F. L., Xie, H., & Kohnke, L. (2018). Game-based vocabulary learning in
China and Hong Kong: Students’ evaluation of different word learning apps. In
Proceedings of the International Conference on Technology in Education (pp. 44–55).
Springer.

View publication stats