Compendium 4

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Compendium: Anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system

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The function of the respiratory system
1- Respiration
4 steps are involved in respiration.

- Ventilation: it’s a physical process and it include inhalation (breathing in the area) and
exhalation (breathing out air)
- External respiration: the air that we breathe in goes through a respiratory tract then it reaches
they alveoli. Which is the last holding point of air In the body. The alveoli are filled with
capillaries. The capillaries carry deoxygenated blood collected from various parts of the body.
The gaseous exchange here takes place between the air in the alveoli and the gases in the blood.
So, oxygen moves alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the alveoli.
This gaseous exchange in the alveoli is called external respiration.
- Respiratory gas transport: (through the blood to the whole body) once the oxygen moves into
the blood from the alveoli it is transported to the tissues at tissues cardon dioxide is collected and
brought to the lungs. So in this way the gas oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the
blood.
- Internal respiration: when the blood reaches the tissue another gas exchange happens called
internal respiration. Oxygen is offloaded from the blood into the tissues and carbon dioxide is
picked up from the tissues and moves moved into the blood and this exchange off gas is at the
tissue level is called internal respiration.

2- Blood Ph regulation
Ph: measures how acidic or alkaline something is. It is on a scale of 0-14. 0 is very acidic and 14 is highly
alkaline, whilst 7 is neutral. Blood Ph ranges from 7.35 and 7.45. changes to the blood’s PH can affect the
body’s physiology.

 If there is an excess of carbon dioxide in our body then the blood would become more
acidic. So carbon dioxide needs to be removed from our system or from the blood to
maintain that ph between 7.35 and 7.45. the respiratory system helps regulates the
blood’s Ph by getting rid of carbon dioxide.
3- Sound production:
As air passes through the vocal cords located in the larynx region of the respiratory track, sound
is produced, and by changing the tension of these vocal folds, the sound can be modified in pitch,
and also, when we forcefully exhale the air that can also increase the loudness of the sound.
4- Olfaction:
Olfaction means smell, so there are specialised cells in the nasal cavity, which are sensitive to
smell so we can get an idea off our surroundings.
5- Protection:
The respiratory tract protects us by filtering out the air that we breathe. The air that we breath
contains dust, debris, spores etc and the respiratory tract gets rid of these harmful substances with
hair, cilia, mucus lymphoid tissue, and other structures.
The organization of the respiratory tract

The air that we breathe in enters our


- Nares or nose
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi (primary, secondary, tertiary)
- Bronchioles (terminal, respiratory)
- Alveolar duct
- Alveoli

Division of respiratory system


Structural classification
Upper respiratory tract: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
Lower respiratory tract: Larynx, trachea, Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.
Functional Classification
Conducting zone aka atomical dead space: nose to terminal bronicles. (no gas exchange). A
passageway for air. Air is cleansed and humidified but no gas exchange.
Respiratory zone: Bronchioles, alveolar duct & alveoli. Gas exchange occurs here.

Conducting zone
Nares and nasal cavity

- External nose (visible part of nose, it is made from hyerline cartilage and bone).

Nasal cavity
Nares to choana ( the place where the nasal cavity becomes smaller is called the chonana)
Nares
Vestibule: the area inside the nostril that leads to the nasal cavity, it has hair, sweat and sebaceous
glands in it . (if you lift up you nose in the mirror what you see is called a vestibule.
Septum (where the two nostrils separate is called the septum)
Floor of the nasal cavity: made up of hard palate (bone), soft palate ( cartilage ) and at the back of
the nasal cavity you have the uvula.
Conchae and meatuses ( in the nasal cavity)
Conchae (bony ridges) is divided into Superior, middle, and inferior conchae
Meatuses (depressions in the nasal cavity) are divided into superior, middle, and inferior meatuses.
Sinuses (within the nasal cavity)
Paranasal sinuses and tear ducts. Empty areas with the bones make your skull lighter and amplify
your voice. They also produce mucus.

Functions of the nasal cavity


-pass away for air
Hair in nose filters out the coarse particles in the air that you breathe in.
Mucus: traps ducts, bacteria, and other debris from the air and humidifies air.
Cilia: create gentle current beating moving contaminated mucus towards the throat to be swallowed
in the lower respiratory system and in the upper respiratory system it is coughed out.
Lysozymes: kills bacteria in the nasal cavity.
Capillaries in the nasal cavity maintain the temperature of the air that is inhaled and exhaled.
Conchae and meatuses; create turbulence help air to come in contact with more surface area.
Olfaction: olfactory epithelium contains olfactory receptors which sense smell.
Sinsues; resonate voice and lighten skull.

Pharynx: start from choana up to the start of the esophagus.

- Throat is another name and it’s a common passage for air and food.
- Three regions
Nasopharynx:
 posterior to the nasal cavity,
 choana to the uvula, air only,
 two structures are found here the eustachian tube opening (opens into the ear maintains air
pressure in the air) and pharyngeal tonsils (lymphatic tissue that are our first line of defense for
immunity) if they get inflamed they disrupt your breathing.
Oropharynx:
- Posterior to the oral cavity
- Uvula to epiglottis
- Common passage for air and food.
- Palatine ( they are the ones that normally get removed) and lingual tonsils. ( all these tonsils
protect, they get inflamed when bacteria or viruses enters your body)
Laryngopharynx ( part of the pharynx that is posterior to the larynx is called laryngopharynx)

- Posterior to the epiglottis


- Epigolits (hyoid bone) to Larynx/ esophagus.

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Larynx (voice box)
- Passageway of air
- Mainly made up of cartilage
- Lies between pharynx and trachea ( superior to larynx is pharynx and inferior to larynx sis
trachea.)
- 9 cartilage

3 UNPAIRED Cartilage Info


Thyroid (Adam’s apple)  Largest cartilage
 Like a shield
 Prominent in males
 Thyroid gland sits inferior to the
thyroid cartilage.

Cricoid cartilage  Inferior to the thyroid cartilage


 Looks like collar
 The thyroid gland wraps around the
cricoid cartilage.
Epiglottis  Looks like a flap
 Made up of elastic cartilage
 Attached posteriorly to the thyroid
cartilage

3 paired cartilage
- Arytenoid , Corniculate, cuneiform

-
Ligaments extend from the arytenoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage. These ligaments are
called vocal cords.
There are two vocal cords
- true vocal or vocal folds.
- Vestibular folds or false vocal folds
- The opening between the vocal cords and the vestibular folds is called the glottis
As air moves into the glottis the vocal cords vibrate and creates a sound

Males tend to have longer cords which means they have lower pitch.
Functions of larynx

- Open passageway for air movement (cartilage)


- Direct food into the esophagus away from the respiratory tract (epiglottis, vocal folds)
- Sound production via vocal folds
- Traps debris from entering lungs (cilia and mucus)

TRACHEA
From the larynx to the carina (special cartilage)

- Trachea is tough but flexible membranous tube, approximately 10-12 cm long and 2 cm in
diameter.
- Anterior to the esophagus, passes through mediastinum (a space in your chest that contains the
heart and other important structures.)
- Cartilages, dense regular connective tissue, and smooth muscle.
- 15-20 c-shaped hyaline cartilage rings that are not complete when you look at it posteriorly. And
they have smooth muscles.
- Presence of tracheal muscle posteriorly
- Divides into two main bronchi at the carina.

Function of trachea

- Cartilages keep the airway open.


- trachealis muscle facilitates ease of peristaltic movement in the esophagus.
- Contraction of trachealis muscle causes expired air to rush out with greater force.
- Cleaning air that is breathed in.
- In the trachea there is epithelium which contains the goblet cells that produce mucus, that traps
the dust. And then there are cilia that are going to move the dust out of the respiratory track.
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Tracheobronchial tree
Primary bronchi (main bronchi): separate at carina (right and left bronchi)

- Right primary bronchi is large

Secondary bronchi (lobar): the lungs have lobes the right lung has 3 lobes (superior lobe, middle lobe,
inferior lobe) and the left lobes has 2 lobes (superior lobe and inferior lobe). Each secondary bronchi
supports a lobe that why they are called lobar.
Tertiary bronchi (segmental): each secondary bronchi branches off to territory bronchi. 10 tertiary
bronchi in each lung.
Bronchioles (less than 1 mm diameter) further division of bronchi.
Terminal bronchioles (.5 mm in diameter): further division of the tertiary bronchi.
Trachea to terminal bronchi there are 16 generation of branching
Hyaline Cartilage rings

Progressive changes in tracheobronchial tree

- Decrease in passageway diameter


- Decrease in cartilage. In the trachea there are incomplete rings as you go down replaced by
irregular cartilage plates and finally by elastic fibres bronchioles
- Increase of smooth muscle to form a complete layer of circular smooth muscle
- Changes in epithelium: pseudo ciliated columnar to simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium.

Respiratory zone
Difference between terminal bronchial and respiratory bronchial is that alveioal is on the
respiratory bronchial. These respiratory bronchial lead to alveoli ducts which lead to alveolar sact

Respiratory bronchioles
Very few alveoli
Alveolar ducts
Have more alveoli, end in alveolar sacs
Alveolar sacs
Chambers connected to two or more alveoli
Alveolus
Small like strcutrues, richly supplied by blood cappilaries
Has elastic fibres
300-500 million alveoli
Large surface area for gas exchange

- Pulmonary artery bring deoxygenated blood into the lungs for purification. PA breaks down into
pulmonary cappilaries and here the gasoues exchange between carbon in the blood and oxygen in
the alceoli. (external respiration)
Lungs

- Thoracic the cavity, one on either side of mediastinum.


- Different surfaces on the lungs: costal (surface facing the ribs, diaphragmatic surface ( the surface
the diaphragm sits in), medial surface ( towards the midline of the body).
- Cardiac notch on the left lung because the heart pushes into the left lung that’s also why the left
lung is smaller than the right lung.
- Right lung has 3 lobes (superior, middle and inferior) separated by two fissures (oblique and
horizontal)
- Left lung is separated by two lobes( superior and inferior ) serpearted by one (oblique) fissure.
- Hilum- area for tubes to in and out of the lungs ( blood vessels , pulmomnary vein, pulmonary
artery, lymphatic vessels and bronchi, nerves, primary bronchi

- Bronchopulmonary segments- 10 in right and 8/9 in left lung ( 10 each lung)


- Further divides into lobules
- They are connected by connect tissue septum
- Each segment has it’s own blood supply incase there is anything wrong with a particular
bronchopulmanory segment is can be removed without effect the other pulmonary segments.
- 25 levels of branching from trachea to alveolar ducts.
- Primary supplys the lungs
- Secondary bronchi supply the lobes
- Teritary bronchi supply the bronchopulmonary segments.

Pleura/pleural membrane
Double layer Serous membrane protecting the lungs.
Two types
Parietal pleura: superficial, lines inner wall of thoracic cavity attach to rib cgae.
Visceral pleura: deep, covers the lungs.
Pleural fluid in between the two membrane
- Lubricates fluid secreted by pleura and fills pleura cavity.
- Reduces friction, cause two membranes to adhere, protects and reduces the impact of force.

Respiratory epithelium

- Epithelium changes along the rt to accommodate the specific function of the structure.

Vestibule: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.


Nasal cavity: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Nasopharynx: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Oropharynx; stratified squamous epithelium (
Laryngopharynx- stratified squamous epithelium (non-keratinised epithelium)

Passage for food and air not fine and rough so we can’t have pseudostratified ciliated columnar
because it is an abrasive environment.
Trachea- pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (with goblet cells) for secretion of musucus
Trachea to alveoli
Bronchi: pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Bronchioles: ciliated simple columnar
Terminal bronchioles: simple cuboidal
Respiratory bronchioles; simple squamous epithelium ( quick gaseous exchange)
Alveoli: simple squamous epithelium

Conduction zone
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, Primary bronchus, secondary bronchus, tertiary bronchus
Bronchiole, terminal bronchiole, tertiary bronchiole
Respiratory zone
respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveolar sac, alveoli
Gas exchange
Epithelium of the capillary is capillary endothelium.
Alveolus

- 300-500 million alveoli


- Cup-shaped pouches
- Lined by simple-squamous epithelium.

There are two types of epithelial cells in the alveolus.

- Type 1 pneumocytes: simple squamous epithelial cells, site of gas exchange.


- Type 2 pneumocytes: simple cuboidal cells there function is to secrete alveolar fluid and
surfactant.

Surfactant is like a detergent it breaks the surface tension that produce by alveolar fluid.

Dust cells
They are also called alveolar macrophages.
Remove fine dust and debris from alveolar spaces.

Respiratory membrane
- Very thin, 0.5 micrometers
- Alveoli increase surface area for gas exchange (70 metre squared)
- Gas exchange through simple diffusion.

Consists of three layers

- Alveolar epithelium
- Fused alveolar and capillary basement membrane.
- Capillary endothelium

Characteristics of a respiratory membrane


Thickness of the respiratory membrane:

- Thinner membrane increases the rate of movement of gas.

Surface area

- Higher surface area increases the volume of gas exchange taking place.

Diffusion coefficient

- Diffusion coefficient: how easily a gas can diffuse in and out of a liquid or tissue
- A relative number.

Partial pressure

- It is the pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture of gases.


When the partial pressure is greater on one side of the respiratory membrane compared to the
other side , the gas moves towards from the side with higher partial pressure to the side with the
lower partial pressure.
Moist membranes

- Gases dissolve in the fluid helping them to diffuse.


- Alveolar fluid (respiratory membrane) plasma in the blood gases dissolve in this fluid.

Gas transport and exchange


Oxygen has poor solubility in water so
it travels in the blood
98.5% is attached to haemoglobin (protein in red blood cells)
1.5% is dissolved in blood plasma.
Exchange in the body:
Oxygen moves from alveoli into the blood (external respiration).
Oxygen moves from the blood into the tissue (internal respiration).

Carbon dioxide
Travels in blood
70% is travel in the blood as Bicarbonate dissolves In plasma.
7% as cardon dioxide in dissolved in plasma
23% of carbon dioxide is bound to haemoglobin.
Exchange in the body:
Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli (external respiration).
Carbon dioxide moves from the tissue into the blood (internal respiration).
Pulmonary ventilation

- Breathing in and out/ inhalation and exhalation


- Prevents build up of CO2 in blood, supply o2 in tissue
- Involves partial pressure changes, muscle movement, respiratory rates and volumes.

External respiration
Gas exchange of alveoli and capillaries.
Gases move from a higher partial
gradient pressure to lower partial
pressure.

Partial pressure gradient o2 and CO2


dictates the direction of movement.

In deoxygenated blood the pressure in the 40 but


the alveoli it is 104 when it becomes
deoxygenated blood the pressure becomes
equalized so the pressure in the alveoli for oxygen is the same in the alveoli and in the deoxygenated
blood.

Internal respiration
When deoxygenated blood is moves into the tissue the
oxygen is 95 and when in is in the interstitial fluid it is 40 and
when it is in the tissue it is 20.

Whereas the carbon dioxide is 40 it is 45 in the interstitial fluid it


is 45 but when in the tissue it increases 46. Because carbon dioxide
has more solubility is gradient coffeinct is higher

Carbon dioxide moves from the tissues to into the interstitial


fluid into the capillaries, drained by renal system, then it goes to
the lungs for oxygenation.

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Pulmonary ventilation
Process of moving air into and out of the lungs

What structures are included in ventilation?

-sternum

- ribs

- lungs

-muscle

What types of muscles are included in ventilation?

Internal external intercostal muscles, diaphragm, abdominal muscles, sternocleidomastoid, scalene,


pectoralis minor.

What muscles are involved in quiet breathing?

Inhalation: Diaphragm, External intercostal muscles

Exhalation: relaxation of inspiratory muscle so the diaphragm and external intercostal muscle and
elastic recoil of lungs, surface tension in alveoli.
What muscles are involved in active breathing?

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