Roles and Responsibilities of

Project Coordinators: A
Contingency Model for Project
Coordinator Effectiveness

Authors: James A. Cunningham and

Paul O’Reilly
Editors: Vincent Van Roy and Daniel
Nepelski

2019

EUR 29869 EN
This publication is a Technical report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science
and knowledge service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking
process. The scientific output expressed does not imply a policy position of the European Commission. Neither
the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that
might be made of this publication.

EU Science Hub
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc

JRC117576

EUR 29869 EN

PDF ISBN 978-92-76-11711-7 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/55062

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019

© European Union, 2019

How to cite: Cunningham J.A and O’ Reilly, Paul. Roles and Responsibilities of Project Coordinators: A
Project Contingency Model for Project Coordinator Effectiveness, EUR 29869 EN, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, 2019, ISBN 978-92-76-11711-7, doi:10.2760/55062, JRC117576.

The reuse policy of the European Commission is implemented by Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12
December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Reuse is authorised,
provided the source of the document is acknowledged and its original meaning or message is not distorted. The
European Commission shall not be liable for any consequence stemming from the reuse. For any use or
reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the EU, permission must be sought directly from
the copyright holders.

All content © European Union, 2019

Title: Role and Responsibilities of Project Coordinators: A Project Contingency Model for Project Coordinator
Effectiveness

Abstract
Project coordinators fulfil several roles and responsibilities alongside their primary scientific focus. As boundary
spanners between science and industry they have an invisible central role in the delivery of innovation from
publicly funded science through technology transfer. In this report we review present empirical literature
relating to the role and responsibilities of principal coordinators and we propose a contingency model for
studying the effectiveness of project coordinators. The roles, responsibilities and activities of the PC are
identified. In our contingency model the threshold roles and responsibilities are identified in the PC as: (i)
research leader, (ii) research allocator and controller, (iii) innovation facilitator, (iv) boundary spanner, and (v)
project coordinator and manager. These are developed into expanded PC role capabilities that include: (i)
research strategist, (ii) economic agent, (iii) technology and knowledge transfer enabler, (iv) collaboration and
value creation leader, and (v) manager and governor.
Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 2
Executive Summary .......................................................................................................... 3
1 Introduction and Context ............................................................................................ 5
2 Review Process ........................................................................................................... 8
3 Definitions and Core Responsibilities of PCs ................................................................ 9
3.1 Definition of PC ............................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Role and Responsibilities of PC ...................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 PC Research Strategist Role ............................................................................................. 11
3.2.2 PC Economic Agent Role .................................................................................................. 11
3.2.3 PC Technology and Knowledge Transfer Role ................................................................. 11
3.2.4 PC Collaboration and Value-Creation Role ...................................................................... 12
3.2.5 PC Managerial and Governance Role .............................................................................. 14
3.2.6 Preparation for Role of PC ............................................................................................... 15
4 Antecedent Individual Factors .................................................................................. 17
4.1 Motivation and Faculty Interest..................................................................................... 17
4.2 Networks .......................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Individual Knowledge and Knowhow ................................................................................. 18
4.4 Incentives.......................................................................................................................... 18
4.5 Policy Environment............................................................................................................ 19
4.6 Career Trajectory, Experience and Professional Development ............................................. 19
4.7 Other Relevant and Discrete Factors .................................................................................. 20
5 Project Organisation Factors ..................................................................................... 22
5.1 Challenges and Benefits of Collaborative Research ............................................................. 22
5.2 Diversity of Discipline ........................................................................................................ 22
5.3 Size of Consortia ................................................................................................................ 22
5.4 Diversity of Institutional Context ....................................................................................... 22
5.4 PC as Boundary-Spanner .................................................................................................... 23
5.5 Research Collaboration Management Capabilities .............................................................. 23
6.1 Scientific Impact ................................................................................................................ 25
6.2 Technology Transfer Impact and Project Innovations .......................................................... 25
6.3 Scientific and Technical Human Capital Impact ................................................................... 26
6.4 Economic Impact ............................................................................................................... 26
6.5 Societal and Social Welfare Impacts ................................................................................... 28
6.6 Collaboration and Political Impact ..................................................................................... 28
7 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 29
7.1 PC Role Tensions ............................................................................................................... 29
7.2 Threshold Roles and Responsibilities.................................................................................. 29
7.3 Expanded PC Role Competency Framework........................................................................ 31
7.4 Antecedent Individual Factors............................................................................................ 32
7.5 Project Factors .................................................................................................................. 33
8 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness and Conclusions ...................... 34
8.1 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness ...................................................... 34
8.2 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 35

i
References ...................................................................................................................... 36
List of Abbreviations and Definitions ............................................................................... 43
List of Figures.................................................................................................................. 44
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 45

ii
Foreword
This report is prepared in the context of the three-year research project on Research on
Innovation, Start-up Europe and Standardisation (RISES), jointly launched in 2017 by
JRC and DG CONNECT of the European Commission. The JRC provides evidence-based
support to policies in the domain of digital innovation and start-ups. In particular:
 Innovation with the focus on maximising the innovation output of EC funded
research projects, notably building on the Innovation Radar;
 Start-ups and scale-ups – providing support to Start-up Europe; and
 Standardisation and IPR policy aims under the Digital Single Market priorities.

This research builds on the work and expertise gathered within the EURIPIDIS project.
This report synthesises a review of empirical literature relating to the role and
responsibilities of project coordinators (PC) and their influence on research projects.
Based on this literature review, a contingency model for PC effectiveness is proposed.
The model addresses the individual and project factors that influence the PC in their
choices and practices. PCs are engaged in the different practices at different levels, and
their engagement shapes their roles, from that of project manager (mostly focusing and
innovating) to that of scientific entrepreneur (shaping new models and paradigms and
brokering science). In the proposed model, the practices of PCs are translated into five
roles, each with specific responsibilities for which additional learning is required in order
to assess and measure the necessary thresholds for PC effectiveness: (i) research leader,
(ii) research allocator and controller, (iii) innovation facilitator, (iv) boundary spanner,
and (v) project coordinator and manager. These are developed into expanded PC
capabilities that include: (i) research strategist, (ii) economic agent, (iii) technology and
knowledge transfer enabler, (iv) collaboration and value creation leader, and (v)
manager and governor. The report concludes that the PC has an invisible centrality in
delivering different types of project impact, and supports micro-level investigations of the
challenges involved in the leadership of publicly funded research projects.

1
Acknowledgements

The authors of this interim report would like to acknowledge the research assistance
support of Dr Grace Walsh of the Whitaker Institute, NUI Galway. The authors thank the
PCs participating in this phase of the project who contributed to the refinement of our
conceptual framework. The authors also acknowledge the extensive support of Dr Vincent
Van Roy and Dr Daniel Nepelski of the Joint Research Centre.

Authors
James A. Cunningham, Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University, United
Kingdom
Paul O’Reilly, College of Business, Technological University Dublin, Ireland

2
Executive Summary
In the European Union context, the project coordinator has a key role in responding and
shaping large-scale publicly funded framework projects, and in leading the delivery of
such projects that they have scientific, commercial and societal impacts. This report
synthesises a review of empirical literature relating to the role and responsibilities of
principal coordinators (PC) and their influence on research projects. Our review focused
on three main themes:
 Roles and Responsibilities of PCs
 Antecedent Individual Factor
 Project Organisation Factors

From our review outside of their primary scientific responsibilities we identified several
roles, responsibilities and activities of PCs as:
 Research strategist
 Agent of economic and policy
 Knowledge and technology transfer
 Collaboration and value creation
 Managerial and governance

The antecedent individual factors that influence PCs that we observed in our review
are:
 Motivation and faculty interest
 Networks
 Individual knowledge and knowhow
 Incentives
 Policy environment
 Career trajectory, experience and professional development
 Other relevant and discrete factors – scientific domain, time allocation and gender

The PC is required to bring together different actors in an effective manner and the
project organisation factors that we identified include:
 Diversity of discipline
 Size of consortia
 Diversity of institution context
 Boundary spanner
 Research collaboration management capabilities

For our final theme of our review we focused on effectiveness and impact.
Measurement of PC effectiveness is intrinsically tied to the success or otherwise of the
overall research project and or research programme. We identified the following
effectiveness and impact factors as:
 Scientific impact

3
  Technology transfer impact and project innovation
 Scientific and technical human capital impact
 Economic impact
 Societal and social welfare impacts
 Collaboration and political impacts

The PC role brings with it tensions that individual scientists have to deal with including,
scientific versus economic activities, balancing governance and fiduciary responsibilities
and managing market shaping expectations.
Based on our review we propose a model for studying the effectiveness (see Figure 1).
The model suggests that a number of factors affect the approach of the PC. These include
imposed conditions but, more importantly, are contingent on the PCs interpretation
of their role and the impact of the PC’s previous experience, including training.

Figure 1 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness

The report concludes that the PC has an invisible centrality in delivering different types of
project impact and it is essential to enhance our understanding of exact role they play in
shaping and delivering innovation from publicly funded research.

4
1 Introduction and Context
The requirements for academic research and the management of academic research have
undergone important changes since the beginning of the 1990s. These changes have
seen funded research increasingly organised as part of large projects and programmes,
with an increasingly diverse base of participants and funding structures. Much of this
development has been accelerated by strong adherence to the paradigm of mode 2
knowledge production (Gibbons et al, 1994) and to multi-stakeholder models for research
and economic development such as the triple helix model (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff,
1997), with an emphasis on problem-focused, interdisciplinary and collaborative
research.
There has been an extensive study of issues relating to research collaboration and
technology transfer in the literature, but limited attention has been given to studying the
lead researchers who coordinate and direct extensive research projects and indeed
programmes – often identified as project coordinators (PCs) or principal investigators
(PIs)1. Through national and cross-country research programmes (e.g. Framework
Programme, Horizon 2020), these lead researchers, henceforth referred to as project
coordinators (PCs), have for over a decade been the agents of science policy. As an
outcome of a sharper focus on the knowledge economy, their responsibilities have
extended to PCs becoming agents of economic policy and presiding over the investment
of substantial public monies in research consortia.
In the EU context, the PC has a key role in responding and shaping large-scale publicly
funded framework programmes, and in leading the delivery of such projects that have
scientific, commercial and societal impacts. These projects, often led by academics,
involve consortia that have varying degrees of diversity in terms of institutional context,
size, nationality and discipline. In academic and other contexts, these academics are
typically known as principal investigators rather than project coordinators.
For EU framework programmes, it is commonly understood that the PC, when awarded a
research grant through an EU framework programme, agrees to standard and project-
specific contractual requirements based on a project proposal. In turn, the PC takes on
very specific roles and responsibilities in order to fulfil the contractual requirements of
the funded project (Cunningham et al, 2017).
European Commission research programmes, such as Horizon 2020, have been the main
organisational and funding mechanism within the EU that mobilises diverse collaborative
research teams to respond to predetermined research topics in priority areas for the EU.
Coad et al (2017) state that “one of the main instruments to foster knowledge transfer
between research institutions and industry across Europe has been the promotion of
research consortia between firms, universities, research centres, and public entities
through the framework programmes for research and technological development”. Such
EC framework programmes are structured in such a way that a PC, usually from an
academic institution, takes a lead in assembling, organising and coordinating the
scientific, dissemination and impact aspects of proposed projects for the project proposal
development and for the implementation phase. For the project development and writing
stage, this means that the PC’s role is to organise those scientific, dissemination and
impact aspects of the proposed project into work packages that are typically allocated to
consortia partners (academic, industry, policy, government), based on their expertise
and capabilities. After the review process and when a project proposal has been
successful, the PC role changes to negotiating with the relevant desk officer the final
budget and other contractual requirements of the specific framework programme. For the
implementation phase of EC framework-funded programmes, the PC leads and
coordinates the delivery of all work packages against an agreed project plan, and also
reports to the relevant agency as to the progress of the project. During the proposal

1
For the purposes of this report we are using the EU term of Project Coordinators to describe Principal
Investigators (PIs).

5
development and implementation phases, PCs access support for their own institution
with respect to costing the research programmes, intellectual property issues, etc.
In the environment that PCs operate in, they are facing significant drivers of change that
influence their role as PCs. Universities and public research organisations are undergoing
transformation in terms of how research is managed at an institutional level (see Kang,
2004, Park et al, 2010). Universities have responded to these changes by investing in
signature research centres, thereby concentrating research and scientific activities as
well as resources to support transformation and impact-orientated research. Technology
transfer offices (TTOs) have seen their mission, role and influence expanded beyond
protecting university intellectual property (Fitzgerald and Cunningham, 2015; Gubitta et
al, 2015). TTOs are involved in the marketing and promoting of technology, supporting
the creation of start-up and spin-off firms, and encouraging faculty to exploit technology
(see Friedman and Silberman, 2003; Muscio, 2010). This means that TTOs have to
develop and shape dual identities (scientific and business), and building such legitimacy
for TTOs can be challenging with academics (O’Kane et al, 2015). Funding agencies and
governments are expecting greater returns on their research investment (see Bessette,
2003; Hertzfeld, 2002; Link and Scott, 2004). They now need to demonstrate to society
the economic value of public investment in science, innovation and technology.
These contextual drivers and changes have implications for publicly funded PCs as they
seek to develop research programmes that exploit EU framework programmes that seek
to generate economic prosperity. This means that scientists taking on a publicly funded
PC role need to have an ambidextrous mindset to move between scientific and
commercial environments, and the capabilities to translate transformative intent into
action and measurable outcomes. Ambos et al (2008: 1425) describe this as an
extraordinary challenge, where researchers are “not simply required to switch from one
(single-handed) activity to another, but to develop the simultaneous capacity for two
activities (academic rigour and commercialisation)”. Casati and Genet (2014) identify
four sets of practices for principal investigators: focusing in scientific discipline (scientific
production); innovating and problem-solving (bridging academia and industry to solve
problems); shaping new paradigms and models (implementing the principal investigator’s
vision of the evolution of science) and brokering science (implementing vision through
leveraging new networks and forming new organisations).
Ambos et al (2008) note that few studies have examined the capacity of researchers to
handle what they describe as conflicting demands and the tensions created by this
requirement. Among many scientists, there is a firm conviction that academic research
and commercial research are fundamentally different. Some scientists highlight that
engagement in technology transfer is insufficiently valued in their institutions, particularly
in relation to scientific publishing activity (Markmann et al, 2005). Indeed, some senior
faculty may even be reluctant to alter a system that has provided the basis for their own
success. Other scientists simply lack the competence to undertake commercial activities
or engage in technology transfer initiatives (Clarysse and Moray, 2004). For publicly
funded PCs, the new paradigm is that they are transformative scientific and economic
agents for public-sector entrepreneurship policy programmes. This requires an
ambidexterity and effective boundary-spanning abilities to influence and shape scientific
and economic directions that generate economic prosperity (Cunningham et al, 2017).
For any consideration of the role of the PC in publicly funded research, it is necessary to
distinguish the differences between public and private research. Public researchers are
primarily driven by an urge to expand knowledge frontiers, and to make this knowledge
publicly available through scientific publication, while their private counterparts are
influenced by profit motivations, which means that any new, commercially applicable
knowledge that the firm develops is kept confidential for competitive reasons (Drejer and
Jørgensen, 2004). The distinction between science and technology is also relevant.
Science is often viewed as a non-market allocation mechanism where knowledge is
treated as a pure public good. In science, the assumption is that findings must be made
known completely and speedily. For technology, however, results may not be entirely

6
disclosed. Science aims to increase the stock of knowledge by promoting originality,
while technology seeks the rents that can be secured from this knowledge (Rausser,
1999). Science has become expensive, and seldom contributes to near-term profitability
in a direct sense. University research rarely involves the scale, breadth or timeliness that
suit industrial needs. Fundamental science has a long-term generic perspective on what
is important, and scientists are motivated by achievement of scientific fame. Technology
has a shorter-term view, focused on solving a particular problem; and technologists are
motivated by the satisfaction of solving a problem and being rewarded by commercial
and financial success (Betz, 1996).
The purpose of this paper is to report on a review of the relevant literature pertaining to
the work and context of the PC. The paper defines the role and responsibilities of the PC
and proposes a conceptual framework for assessing the effectiveness of the PC in the
delivery of research and innovation outcomes from research collaborations.

7
2 Review Process
This review of the role and influence of PCs in publicly funded research projects focuses
chiefly on empirical research, including qualitative research. It addresses the following
areas, which in turn set out the structure of this report:
(a) Understanding of the role and activities of the PC in funded research context
(b) Antecedent individual factors of project coordinators affecting effectiveness and
the impact of project technology transfer and innovation outcomes
(c) Project-level organisation factors affecting project coordination and effectiveness
and the impact of projects for delivering innovations
(d) Effectiveness and impact criteria relevant to project delivery and the PC

The review emphasises a European orientation and in particular seeks to gather pertinent
observations from research conducted in the context of European-funded research. The
emphasis is on post-2000 published scholarly articles except in a few instances where an
allusion to previous literature is required for clarifying our understanding of research
trajectories.
Initial searches were carried out using key search themes including “project coordinator”
and “principal investigator”. Such search terms did not prove useful due, in the first
instance, to a general dearth of research on PC, but also, more importantly, the lack of a
consistent definition in relation to PCs reflected in the academic literature. Taking
guidance from literature review papers published by Bozeman et al (2015) and Perkmann
et al (2013), we focused on those scholarly journals most concerned with research
management, research policy, and technology transfer. These include Journal of
Technology Transfer, Research Policy, Technovation, Research Evaluation, Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, R&D Management, Regional Studies, International
Journal of Technology Management, Science and Public Policy, Industry and Innovation,
and Scientometrics.

8
3 Definitions and Core Responsibilities of PCs

3.1 Definition of PC
Becoming a PC is a career milestone and brings prestige to the individual scientist (see
Cunningham et al, 2014; Romano et al, 2017). Definitions of the role of PCs tend to be
set by funding agencies and higher-education institutions, and their emphasis typically
centres on scientific leadership, governance and administrative responsibilities (see Table
1). In the context of public funding, such as Horizon 2020, the PC is the person charged
with direct responsibility for completing a funded project, directing the research and
reporting directly to the funding agency.

Table 1: Definitions of PCs

Agency/Organisation Definitions

European Research Principal investigators are expected to be active

Council researchers who have a track record of significant
research achievements in the last 10 years. The
Principal investigators should be exceptional leaders
in terms of originality and significance of their
research contributions.

National Institute of The individual(s) judged by the applicant

Health (US) organisation to have the appropriate level of
authority and responsibility to direct the project or
program supported by the grant.

European Commission2 The Principal Investigator (PI) is the researcher

applying for the ERC grant. By creating a proposal in
the Funding & Tenders Portal, the PI gets the role of
"Primary Coordinator Contact (PCoCo)".

As the host organisation, the PI should encode the

organisation (via its Participant Identification Code –
PIC) that would host the future project in case the
proposal is successful (i.e. if the PI plans
implementing the project at an institution different
from its current employer, the PIC of the future host
institution must be used, not the one of the current
employer).

The Primary Coordinator Contact is nominated

for each project as the main contact point
between the consortium and the Commission for a
particular grant. By default this is the proposal
initiator in the submission phase.
The PCoCo can nominate or revoke an unlimited
number of Coordinator Contacts (CoCos), who will
then have the same rights - except the right to
revoke the PCoCo.
All Coordinator Contacts can:
 nominate/revoke Participant Contacts for other

2
Source http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/docs/h2020-funding-guide/user-account-and-roles/roles-
and-access-rights_en.htm

9
 organisations in the consortium
Coordinator - for this reason, it is important to
give all your partner organisations access to
the proposal on the Funding & Tenders Portal
as soon as possible.
 nominate/revoke Task Managers and Team
Members in their own organisation
 assign Legal and Financial Signatories in their
organisation to their projects
 make changes to project documents on the
Funding & Tenders Portal
 submit proposals and project documents to the
Commission

The Engineering Physical The Principal Investigator should be the individual

Science Research Council who takes responsibility for the intellectual
UK leadership of the research project and for the overall
management of the research. He/she will be the
Council's main contact for the proposed project.

In general, such definitions used by universities and funding agencies to explain the role
and responsibilities of PCs tend to be designed from a contractual perspective and do
little to reflect the complexity and strategic importance of the role in the context of the
implementation of EU framework programmes that are carried out in a multi-layered
institutional setting and involve industrial partners across international research systems
(Cunningham et al, 2017).
In the growing body of academic research on PCs, some definitions have emerged to
capture the totality of the role. Cunningham et al (2016) define PCs as: ‘scientists who
orchestrate new research projects, combine resources and competencies, deepen
existing scientific trajectories or shape new ones that are transformative in intent, nature
and outcome that can be exploited for commercial ends and or for societal common
good’. O’Kane et al (2017) simply define PCs as ‘lead researchers on successful
programme and project grants’, while Kidwell (2013) suggests that PCs are at ‘the
forefront of new scientific knowledge’. Boehm and Hogan (2014) suggest in their study of
PCs that they have an important role in building networks, and Feeney and Welch (2014)
describe the PC key responsibility as: ‘The primary responsibility for the conduct,
completion and reporting on the research outlined in the proposal’.
In our research on the title project coordinator, it is clear that this is understood in the
research context to be orientated towards the project management role.

3.2 Role and Responsibilities of PC

The literature identifies a number of roles, responsibilities and activities of PCs that are
outside their primary scientific responsibilities. These roles are:
● Research strategist
● Agent of economic policy
● Knowledge and technology transfer
● Collaboration and value creation
● Managerial and governance
The following sub-sections summarise observations from the literature on each of these
PC roles.

10
3.2.1 PC Research Strategist Role
In the evolving research environment, PCs are key strategic and transformation actors
who engage in boundary-spanning activities. As scientists, they design and orchestrate
new research projects and take a proactive and reactive strategic posture in doing so.
This involves combining resources and competencies with other researchers, research
organisations and enterprise partners (Kidwell, 2014). To varying degrees they seek to
deepen scientific trajectories and shape new areas (Casati and Genet, 2014). Despite this
important strategic aspect to their roles, surprisingly little is understood about the
strategic orientation of researchers, or indeed their approach to strategising in relation to
their role as leaders in national and international research systems. One study has
specifically focused on this; and O’Kane et al (2015) identified four categories of strategic
behaviours that adopted research designers, research adapter, research supporter and
research pursuer. They also found proactive PCs are consistently strategising to realise
their long-term scientific mission and are open to different forms of collaboration to
realise their mission.

3.2.2 PC Economic Agent Role

Policy direction relating to public research has also imposed new demands on academic
researchers. The Triple Helix model is based on the assumption that industry, university
and government are increasingly interdependent. In most countries there is a tendency
towards a knowledge infrastructure in which these three institutional spheres overlap
(Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1997). In this configuration, the spheres can take each
other’s forms, and hybrid organisations emerge at the interfaces. The linear model of
utilisation of scientific knowledge is replaced by new organisational mechanisms that
integrate market pull and technology push. Basic research is linked to utilisation through
a series of intermediate processes such as government-initiated programmes that
facilitate university–industry interaction. The rise of this configuration is mainly due to
the enhanced role of knowledge in our economy and society. The role of universities in
this configuration is often referred to as its ‘third mission’. Making a contribution to
economic growth is becoming a central task, next to teaching and research. In their 1997
book, Slaughter and Leslie introduced the concept of Academic Capitalism to describe
their case study-based observations on the increasing market (for profit activity,
patenting, licensing, spin-off enterprises and university–industry partnerships with profit
components) and market-like activities at universities (competition for external funding,
university–industry partnerships, and institutional investment in spin-off companies)
(Slaughter and Leslie, 1997).
Whether PCs accept they are part of a triple helix model or not, the reality for most is
that there is an expectation attached to most publicly funded research that their efforts
contribute to such a system’s economic and social objectives. This is normally realised
through the technology transfer of the research outputs, with many studies highlighting
that the research leader’s involvement in this process is critical to determining success.
This requires a completely new set of competencies that are often outside the scientific
training of scientists, including IPR management, business acumen and commercial
awareness. A number of authors have commented that the process of technology
transfer is a complex topic and one that is not fully comprehended (Bozeman, 2000). In
essence, the PC is now viewed as a key economic actor in the exploitation of publicly
funded research.

3.2.3 PC Technology and Knowledge Transfer Role

When scientists take on the role of PC for publicly funded projects they become agents of
technology and knowledge transfer. Nearly all publicly funded research programmes
require PCs to proactively disseminate their project outcomes through traditional
knowledge transfer mechanisms such as scientific papers, conferences, etc. They now
also require PCs to be actively involved in technology transfer based on project outcomes
through licensing, material transfer agreements, and spin-out and spin-in companies.

11
PCs have become agents of technology and knowledge transfer. In essence, they have to
contribute to scientific and economic environments and, where appropriate, society. The
most prevalent knowledge transfer activities among publicly funded PCs in an Irish study
(Cunningham et al, 2017) were peer publications, research symposiums, end-of-project
reports, collaborative research with industry, and industry- workshops. Notably, all of the
commercially orientated activities (licensing, spin-offs, consulting and contractual
research) are less prevalent than the other technology transfer activities. Cunningham et
al (2016) also found that, when technology transfer activities are broken down by
institution type and ranged in their order of prevalence, collaborative research with
industry, licensing of intellectual property and consulting are more likely to happen at
universities.
Given their role as agents of technology transfer, the limited literature on PCs highlights
certain factors that enable or create barriers with respect to technology transfer and
exploitation of scientific discovery for innovation and entrepreneurship purposes.
Personal relationships, asset scarcity and proximity are enablers and barriers of
technology transfer for PCs in collaborating with SMEs (see O’Reilly and Cunningham,
2017). Cunningham et al (2014) found that broader barriers related to political,
environmental, institutional and project-based factors also inhibit PCs. In particular, their
study highlighted barriers with respect to technology transfer, institutional support for
technology transfer and the power of industry partners. In a study set in New Zealand
among healthcare PCs, O’Kane et al (2017) found that the personal preparedness of PCs
with respect to commercialisation also acted as a barrier.

3.2.4 PC Collaboration and Value-Creation Role

The nature of public science means that collaboration with academic, industry and other
relevant stakeholders is an integral part of how it is organised. While various authors use
different concepts when considering the collaboration in science, such as ‘Mode 2’
(Gibbons et al, 1994), ‘Academic Capitalism’ (Slaughter and Leslie, 1997), ‘Post-
Academic Science’ (Ziman, 2000) and ‘Triple Helix of government, university and
industry’ (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1997), they all highlight a trend towards such
research organisation. Indeed it has been posited that policymakers take for granted that
collaboration is the appropriate instrument for public research funding as they expect
collaboration to increase the quantity and quality of research. This is particularly evident
in the design and structure of EU framework programmes where collaboration is
mandatory. This sometimes leads to a positive valuation of collaboration without
justification (Duque et al, 2005).
Collaborations occur for a range of reasons, which include: access to expertise or
particular skills, access to equipment or resources, cross-fertilisation across disciplines,
improved access to funding, learning tacit knowledge about a technique, pool knowledge
for tackling large and complex problems, increasing specialisation of science, obtaining
prestige, visibility or recognition, enhancing student education and fun (Bozeman and
Corley, 2004). Most of these reasons can be reduced to one overarching consideration:
that the point of working with someone else is that they have a perspective, skills,
resources or some other attribute that contributes something relevant to addressing the
research problem, either in improving understanding about it or in implementing that
understanding in decisions and action (Bammer, 2008).
The partners in a research partnership can come from either the public or private sector.
Given these parameters, research partnerships can be public, they can be private, or
they can be public-private (Hagedoorn et al, 2000). From a literature and technology
policy perspective, public-private partnerships have attracted the greatest attention
because they represent a relationship that directly embodies government intervention in
the innovation process and hence are scrutinised more carefully. In terms of
organisational structure, research partnerships can be formal or informal. A drawback of
the research regarding science collaboration is that it is dominated by a macro
perspective, addressing the trends on a high aggregation level without taking into

12
account the position of individual scientists (Van Rijnsoever et al, 2008). There is a need
for increased concentration of the study of research collaborations at an individual rather
than institutional or systems level. A university is a professional organisation, for which
success depends to a large extent on the work of its individual researchers. These
institutions can be regarded as coalitions whose members and stakeholders seek to
maximise their personal goals. Therefore, it makes sense to view these collaborations at
the individual level.
In addressing this imbalance, Cunningham et al (2018) have taken a micro-level
perspective using the quadruple helix to conceptualise how PCs are value creators and
through their boundary spanning create value for multiple stakeholders (see Figure 2).
They argue that the simmelian ties of PCs enable them to create the collective value that
is necessary to develop and implement publicly funded research programmes.
Cunningham et al (2018) reinforce this by arguing that PCs ‘building strong simmelian
ties with other quadruple helix actors shape and drive public science value creation’.
Moreover, Cunningham et al (2018) suggest that PCs can create but also destroy value
for quadruple actors and conclude that PCs ‘that have created strong simmelian ties with
other helix actors mobilise resources, capabilities and actors to address such public
science calls. The informal activities that PIs have done such as networking and bridging
activities with other helix actors such as the sharing of knowledge and expertise
contributes to building strong simmelian ties and enables them to assemble the best
possible group of helix actors to respond effectively to meeting the envisaged outcomes
of public science research calls’.

Figure 2: A Conceptual Model of Principal Investigators as Quadruple Helix Value

Creatorsas Quadruple Helix Value Creators
A Conceptual Model of Principal Investigators

Industry
Individual Value Motive: Profit,
Technological Leadership, Sustainable
Competitive Advantage
Value Creation/Posture: Create, Add, and
Appropriate
Value Orientation: Producer

PI Friction Friction PIPI

Boundary Boundary
Spanning Spanning

Simmelian Ties
Scientists as Principal Investigator
Government Individual Value Motive: Public Good, Academia
Individual Value Motive: Public Good, Scientific Control & Autonomy Individual Value Motive: Reputation
Economic Development and Retail Price Value Creation/Posture: Create, Add, and Value Creation/Posture: Create, Add,
Index (RPI) Appropriate PI and Appropriate
Value Creation/Posture: Create and Add Value Orientation: Producer and Buyer Value Orientation: Producer and Buyer
Value Orientation: Buyer

PI PI
PI Friction Friction PI
Boundary Boundary
Spanning Spanning

End User/ Customer

Individual Value Motive: Price
Value Creation/Posture: Appropriate
Value Orientation: Buyer

Source: Cunningham et al (2018)

13
3.2.5 PC Managerial and Governance Role
From the definitions of PCs, it is clear that, while there might be a common and tacit
understanding in practice of what they do, different organisations have different
interpretations. In addition to their scientific excellence, PCs have to be effective
managers in order to deliver multi-environment transformation. PCs often acquire
managerial skills on the job (Kidwell, 2013). One recent study of research centres
established by the US National Science Foundation found that some PCs demonstrated
managerial capabilities and some did not (Boardman and Ponomariov, 2014). Boardman
and Ponomariov (2014) suggest that managerial capabilities matter with respect to how
research gets done effectively. Managerial capabilities are also essential in dealing with
inter-organisational relationships such as industry collaborators (Boehm and Hogan,
2014). What emerges for the various definitions of PCs and the emerging literature is
that PCs have managerial and governance roles and associated challenges. From our
review of definitions of principal investigators, it is both implicit and explicitly clear that
the scientist, in taking on the publicly funded PC role, takes on managerial and
governance roles and responsibilities (see Cunningham et al, 2014). The PC assumes all
the managerial responsibilities that are associated with the successful delivery of a
funded project. From a managerial perspective, PCs have to manage budgets, select and
recruit the research team, set up the governance management structure for the project,
engage with stakeholders and provide scientific leadership to the whole project team. For
large-scale multi-partner projects, there is considerable complexity in managing and
leading for the publicly funded PC.
Despite the increased emphasis by policy and funding agencies on the role of the PCs and
the diverse roles required of this individual, the literature offers limited consideration of
the managerial challenges that PCs face. Research on successful research environments
has pointed to the importance of management and leadership for good research output
(Peltz and Andrews, 1976), but surprisingly little has been published on different
approaches and their relevance in different settings. The only specific study to date on
the managerial challenges of PCs found that they centred on project management,
project adaptability and project network management (see Cunningham et al, 2015) and
concluded that PCs were heavily committed to the operational management of publicly
funded awards.
The role of the PC is to lead researchers from multiple disciplines, often from different
public/private research centres and different countries, and often dedicating only part of
their time to the specific research project or programme. The PC also has to manage
multiple stakeholders, all with different expectations and driven by different value-
creation motives. Key stakeholders can include (but are not restricted to) research team
members (including doctoral research students), public research centre partners,
industry, the employing academic institution (including its technology transfer office), the
academic department, the funding agency, potential technology transfer recipients,
national and local government, as well as the general public. This poses both managerial
and governance challenges. Moreover, in reality, successful scientists in the PC role tend
to coordinate the management of a series of interconnected projects and other non-
project work, and their work can be organised as a chain, portfolio or network of
activities (Maylor et al, 2006). The management of multiple projects creates a set of
issues that extends beyond the challenges associated with managing a single project, the
major constraint relating to resources and in particular the management time available to
the PC.
One of the key governance challenges that PCs need to balance is the ‘allocation of and
benefits to relevant entrepreneurial ecosystem actors’ (see Cunningham et al, 2018).
One of the most challenging aspects of the PC’s role is to build and maintain positive and
meaningful relationships with key stakeholders, but also to harness their ideas, resources
and capabilities that deliver the multiple intended outcomes. In the context of research
project leadership, it is the responsibility of the PC to devise and implement mechanisms
to maintain positive and beneficial relationships with key stakeholders through

14
appropriate governance structures. Governance structures are imposed by the funding
bodies and host institutions, with technology transfer arrangements being influenced by a
combination of university and industry policies. The PC host country’s legal environment
also influences the type of legal frameworks that are used to support such consortia and
for technology transfer purposes. In summary, there been a dearth of empirical studies
that examined PCs and governance. However, Cunningham et al (2018) developed a PC-
centric conceptual model of entrepreneurial ecosystems at the micro level that details PC
capabilities, costs and benefits, and governance solving mechanisms for partner
organisations (see Figure 3).
The PC has to balance project leadership and management responsibilities with other
demands with respect to teaching and service, and they need to manage their time
effectively (Link et al, 2008).

Figure 2: P1-Centred Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Governance Framework

Public Policy

PI Capabilites
Research & Scientific Excellence Resource Acquisition
Research Leadership Boundary Spanning & Relationship Building
Managerial Responsiveness Envisioning, Strategizing, & Value Creation

Value Creation Problem Categories

Solving Mechanisms
(Indicators/Benefits) (Costs)
Economic Growth (E) Ambiguity in strategic mission (P) Consideration of regional
Job Creation (E) Regulatory restrictions (P) knowledge assets (P)
New Start-ups (E) Demand-driven research (A) IP protection (P)
New Patents (E) Supply-driven research (A)
Technological Leadership (NE)
Public Capital
Industry
Provider

PI Capabilites PI Capabilites
Managerial Responsiveness
Research & Scientific Excellence
Resource Acquisition
Research Leadership
Envisioning, Strategizing, & Value Creation

Value Creation Problem Categories Value Creation Problem Categories

Solving Mechanisms Solving Mechanisms
(Indicators/Benefits) (Costs) (Indicators/Benefits) (Costs)
New Technologies (E) Lack of resources (P) Provision of research autonomy (P) Successful and Timely Delivery Lack of resources (P) IP protection (P)
Patents (E) Misestimation of value (P) IP protection (P) of Public Science Programmes Administrative burdens (P) Efficient controlling mechanisms (P)
Financial Returns (E) Non-disclosure of research (A) Openness to technological change (E & NE) Misusage of resources (A) Reporting of financial and scientific
Misusage of resources (A) (P) Non-disclosure of research (A) key figures (A)
Supply-driven research (A) Demand-driven research (A)
Signalling reputation (A)
Principal
Investigators
(PIs)

PI Capabilites PI Capabilites
Research & Scientific Excellence Managerial Responsiveness
Research Leadership Resource Acquisition
Boundary Spanning & Relationship Building Envisioning, Strategizing, & Value Creation

Value Creation Problem Categories Value Creation Problem Categories

Solving Mechanisms Solving Mechanisms
(Indicators/Benefits) (Costs) (Indicators/Benefits) (Costs)
Publications (NE) Lack of resources (P) Provision of research autonomy (P) Financial Returns (E) Lack of resources (P) IP protection (P)
Prestige/ Reputation (E & NE) Administrative burdens (P) Efficient TT mechanisms/ TTOs (P) Administrative burdens (P) Efficient controlling mechanisms (P)
Human Capital (E & NE) Misestimation of value (P) IP protection (P) Misusage of resources (A) Reporting of financial key figures (A)
Royalties (E) Non-disclosure of research (A) Signalling reputation (A) Non-disclosure of research (A)
Misusage of resources (A)

Research Private Capital

Organisations Provider

(Cunningham et al, 2018)

3.2.6 Preparation for Role of PC

In summary, the main key responsibilities of PCs can be aggregated into three main
domains that broadly correlate to the criteria used to assess applications for collaborative
research in Horizon 2020:

15
  Scientific leadership
 Managing the resources and relationships (budgets, people, project, etc)
 Research dissemination and impact (technology transfer, etc)
This diverse range of responsibilities highlights the pivotal role of the PC in successfu lly
delivering research and innovation outcomes from collaborative and publicly funded
research. The complexity of the PC role and the different skills and competencies that
are required also highlights the importance of preparation for this role. However,
despite the range and complexities of these responsibilities, based on an Irish PC study
by Cunningham et al (2014), PC preparation for the role is based on accumulation of
knowledge and experience through on-the-job learning. Scientists in the various studies
of PCs acknowledge that there is a deficit of dedicated career support to take on this
role (Cunningham, 2015).

16
4 Antecedent Individual Factors

4.1 Motivation and Faculty Interest

There has been a growing body of literature examining what motivates scientists. Studies
have used Merton’s (1973) seminal work as the basis for research; in brief, these
conclude that scientists’ primary motivation is focused on prioritising new knowledge.
Scientists are not motivated by financial rewards. Peer recognition, such as awards,
grants, publications, etc, are rewards that contribute to the motivation of scientists. In
her study of UK scientists, Lam (2011:1365) concludes that ‘a fuller explanation of
scientists’ commercial behaviour will need to consider a broader mix of motives beyond
the narrow confines of extrinsic rewards to include the social and affective aspects
related to the intrinsic motivation’. Experience and networks (academic, industry,
scientific) are factors that influence scientists to start their own company (Krabel and
Mueller, 2009). Having the scientists involved in the technology transfer process through
social networks of the triple helix is essential to greater involvement (Padilla-Meléndez
and Garrido-Moreno, 2012). Cunningham et al (2016) in their empirical study of the
motivations of PCs found push and pull factors; key pull factors included control, career
ambition and advancement, personal drive and ambition, and push factors identified
were project dependencies and institutional pressures.
Becoming a PC gives a scientist control over their scientific direction and also adds to
career prestige (Romano et al, 2017). A key fear for scientists is that, by not choosing to
become a PC, they would lose ‘scientific direction, influence and resources’ (Cunningham
et al, 2016). Early career researchers may have no choice but to become a PC so that
they maintain their position in an academic institution. If they are not successful in
securing funding, they are forced to search for alternative employment, probably outside
academia (see Cunningham et al, 2016). Evidence of this more forced motivation is
further highlighted by Rizzo (2015), who found in an Italian study that early career
researchers set up academic spin-outs ‘in order to find a job position related to their
background field of expertise’. Linked to this, an interesting subtheme emerges with
respect to motivation – research autonomy. Cubin and Hackett (1990) considered
publicly funded research as the ‘freest form of support’ for publicly PCs; it provides them
with the organisational space to pursue the scientific mission. This autonomy is an
attractive element of motivation and is necessary to engage in effective technology
transfer (see Zalweska-Kurek et al, 2018).

4.2 Networks
The nature of scientific work means that scientists have the opportunity to participate in
academic, industry and societal networks to advance their research agenda. These
networks are influential in building and sustaining their scientific networks to maintain
scientific excellence and in particular to support the creation of new scientific trajectories
(O’Kane et al, 2015). Networks outside of academic ones, particularly with industry,
provide a platform that scientists can use and leverage to support the commercialisation
of scientific discovery. These networks evolve over time and are structured both
informally and more formally through, for example, collaborative research agreements,
contract and sponsored research, etc. Moreover, these networks and relationships are
essential to driving commercialisation and, as Breschi and Catalini (2010:24) highlight in
their study, ‘certain individuals, i.e. author-inventors, play a key role in connecting the
scientific and technological research communities, by acting as gatekeepers that bridge
the boundaries between the two domains.’ Furthermore, the peer networks influence how
scientists engage with industry and are particularly influential for early-career scientists
and less so for star scientists (Tartari et al, 2014). International mobility of scientists also
shapes their scientific and industry collaboration at home and in other countries as well
as further enhancing their scientific productivity (see Edler et al, 2011). The emerging
literature on PCs finds that to be effective they need to boundary-span between different
stakeholders in the entrepreneurial ecosystem to create value that addresses the

17
different value motives (see Cunningham et al, 2018; Cunningham, 2018; Mangematin et
al, 2014). The boundary-spanning activities that PCs undertake in the role support the
bridging activities between academia and industry. As Bohem and Hogan (2014) suggest:
‘PIs are better placed than Technology Transfer Office managers to act as boundary
spanners in bridging the gap between science and industry’.

4.3 Individual Knowledge and Knowhow

Information, skills, judgment and wisdom form a taxonomy of knowledge with respect to
technology transfer (Gorman, 2002). The scientist inventor knowledge contributes to the
technology transfer and they should be involved to some degree in the process. In
particular, Lowe (2006) argues that ‘when the knowledge related to the invention is
largely tacit, an inventor can extract full monopoly profits related to an invention’.
Moreover, Lerner (2006) notes that it is ‘hard’ setting up a university-based technology
venture and that ‘universities can add considerable value to young firms that faculty
begin’. Given their knowledge intensity and types of networks, universities can provide a
good environment for a scientist to access the knowledge and knowhow required to
successfully commercialise their scientific discovery.
For grant applications and managing successful grants, universities provide different
forms of organisational support such as research offices and technology transfer offices
that, in theory, are designed to support the PC and to complement any knowledge
deficits or gaps they may have with respect to commercialisation and the research
management of the project. For scientists, the core individual knowledge that pertains to
their scientific domain provides the basis for original knowledge creation and competitive
research funding applications. This knowledge is codified in relevant peer-reviewed
journals, books, book chapters, etc., which forms part of the basis for peer assessment
for competitive funding applications. Knowledge and knowhow is also accumulated
outside an academic environment, through industry. Such knowhow and knowledge
gained in an industrial setting can support the exploitation of scientific discovery and
complement scientific-domain expertise. Using data in an Irish context studying gender
differences between male and female PCs, Cunningham et al (2017:245) found ‘some
evidence that male PIs have more commercial experience, are more externally orientated
and are involved in more academic entrepreneurship activities than female PIs’. This
would suggest that industrial experience brings some knowledge advantages to PCs, and
thus increases the probability of commercialisation. Combining such knowledge,
knowhow and commercialisation interest can provide the PC with a better understanding
of the industry problem their scientific research is orientated towards. Choi and Lee
(2000) state that ‘labs researchers’ commitment to commercial success, their
understanding about user firms, and education or non-periodical consulting are critical to
the success of technology transfer’.

4.4 Incentives
Incentives play a role in effective technology transfer (see van de Burgwal et al, 2017).
In the academic literature, there is some debate on how incentives influence technology
transfer, and there is some agreement that having faculty more involved in technology
transfer does matter. Friedman and Silberman (2003) succinctly state that ‘universities
that provide greater rewards for faculty involvement in technology transfer will generate
more licenses and royalty income’. Universities’ policies with respect to incentives
associated with commercialisation can shape individual scientists’ behaviour. However, as
Renault (2006) found, personal beliefs about universities’ role in commercialisation really
matter in how individual scientists respond to technology transfer incentives. Other
incentives focus on the enhanced academic status and prestige that new venture creation
can bring to the individual academic (Fini et al, 2009).

18
4.5 Policy Environment
Research on the policy environment focused on such issues as academic spinoff (Degroof
and Roberts, 2004), academic patenting (Mowery and Ziedonis, 2002) and research
centres (Feller et al, 2002). Funding structures are essentially part of the framework for
the innovation system. They have a major influence on how public research is managed,
particularly as they often directs how projects should be managed. Mode 2 models of
research management are largely endorsed by funding agencies, but funding agency
expectations vary across a number of areas, including expectations relating to technology
transfer, industry involvement in public research, technical project management
requirements, and nature of research (basic, applied, etc.). The funding structure within
which the PC is operating has direct implications for the management approach taken. In
the emerging empirical studies of PCs, the policy and funding environment they inhabit
influences behaviour with respect to interest in funded projects and the support for
technology transfer and commercialisation activities. The changing policy environment,
as reflected by the evolving funding agencies’ remit and priorities, creates more long-
term uncertainty for PCs in terms of realising their long-term research ambitions.
Transparency from funding agencies in their dealings and intentions with scientists is
critical (see Cunningham et al, 2014). Furthermore, the lack of knowledge among
funding agencies and their project officers has been a source of frustration for PCs.
Cunningham et al (2014:101) state: ‘This can put a significant strain on the relationship
between the PI, their institution, and the funding agency and industry partners in a
collaborative project’. In addition, from the policy operational perspective, PCs have
highlighted challenges with respect to timing of funding calls, contracts and payments,
which they view as inhibiting factors for the PC role. More broadly, national policy on
technology transfer and commercialisation set the behaviour intent for stakeholders. For
example, the Bayh-Dole Act, along with other legislative initiatives in the US, has
influenced how scientific knowledge from universities and public research laboratories is
exploited (Grimaldi et al, 2011; Link et al, 2011; Stevens, 2004).

4.6 Career Trajectory, Experience and Professional Development

When a scientist decides to become a PC, one influence is the stage of career. While
there is a growing array of publicly funding schemes to support early career researchers
to become independent researchers, they are very competitive and highly sought after in
practice. Such publicly funded programmes within the EU, such as the European
Research Council schemes, target researchers at different stages of their career to
pursue blue-skies research. To support scientists’ research trajectory and to facilitate
them in becoming a PC, institutional and faculty support and investment are also
required (Rosser and Chameau, 2006). To provide such support and to encourage
scientists to pursue commercialisation, universities have put in place specific
programmes that sometimes are supported by public funding, such as the i-Corps
programme funded by the National Science Foundation in the US (Huang-Saad et al,
2017). Other public policy and funded initiatives are used to support career trajectories
at different stages, such as the START programme in Austria aimed at post-doctoral
fellows (see Seus and Bührer, 2017), the Swedish INGVAR programme, and the EU Marie
Curie Programmes (European Union, 2004). A study of researchers funded by the Dutch
Research Council Innovation Research Incentive (IRI) Programme by Gerritsen et al
(2013) found evidence that IRI awardees were more likely to stay in academia, more
likely to become a full professor and more likely to receive future grants. In essence,
such programmes strengthen the research capacity of an individual researcher with
respect to original research, which is critical threshold factor in becoming a PC. Also, such
programmes offer opportunities for scientists to enhance this knowledge and skills base.
The stage of career does matter as to whether a scientist can become a PC.
Previous commercial experience influences PCs in their propensity to commercialise their
scientific discoveries in publicly funded research. This experience gives them additional
knowledge over and above their scientific domain knowledge, which they can use in

19
building up industry networks, to create credible business cases and commercialisation
strategies to support the exploitation of their scientific discoveries. However, while their
career stage and previous experiences influence PCs with respect to technology transfer,
they also need dedicated professional support to prepare them for the role and while
they are in the role (Cunningham et al, 2014). PCs are professionally trained to be
excellent researchers. During this period they receive little or no professional support
that prepares them for the expanded roles and responsibilities of becoming a PC, which
requires leadership and managerial skills coupled with being an effective boundary-
spanner bridging difference ecosystem actors. Increasingly the role demands commercial
and business acumen and knowledge to effectively create and implement credible
commercialisation strategies. Cunningham et al (2014:105) sum this up as, ‘in particular,
the lack of leadership development opportunities for researchers and multiple (and
sometimes contradictory) expectations and logics from different stakeholders. The lack of
formal structured preparation to becoming a PI in what are normally large-scale
collaborative projects in a context where the existing support structures are ‘stretched’
with limited human capital support, means that PIs tend towards research management
rather than research leadership’. There is a formal professional development need for
researchers to be better prepared for the PCs that is not currently being fulfilled by
current professional development training that they receive as part of their career and
formation process. PCs learning on the fly (Kreeger, 1997) and on the job (Cunningham,
2014).

4.7 Other Relevant and Discrete Factors

Scientific Domain: There are obvious differences between different disciplines when it
comes to eagerness and need to collaborate, and hence the forms in which it is done. In
the medical sciences, there are almost always teams working together, from time to time
collaborating with other teams. In the humanities, on the other hand, there are basically
no teams and collaborations are not common (Melin, 2000). Moreover, consultancy and
contract research are more of the norm with respect to commercialisation (see Olmos-
Peñuela et al, 2014). The scientific discipline norms that PCs experience influences their
involvement in commercialisation and how they seek to ensure societal impact for their
publicly funded research projects.
Time Allocation: PCs in leading and managing large-scale funded projects have to
allocate their time to different key tasks associated with project delivery. Some of these
key tasks include leading and conducting the research, project administration, technology
and market-shaping activities, which are combined in a project to create value and
impact that can be measured in a variety of ways. A study that specifically examined the
time allocation of PCs found that ‘PIs who spend more time on general research related
activities allocated a higher proportion of time to technology transfer activities and that
PIs who spend more time on technology activities engaged more in end of project
reports and collaborative research with industry. Furthermore, PIs who spend more
time on technology transfer placed greater value on technology transfer, market and
economic impact’ (Cunningham et al, 2016). For PCs, having sufficient research
administrative support helps them to concentrate on tasks and activities that create
value for the overall project and its partners. The danger is that PCs will misallocate
their time on activities for which they lack the expertise and skills, and thereby take
time away from conducting the core research that they were funded to undertake.
Gender: Several themes such as scientific productivity, careers stage and patenting have
been explored with respect to gender differences among scientists (see Borrego et al,
2010; Ding et al, 2006). The only gender study to date of PCs (see Cunningham et al,
2017) found that male PCs that have more commercial experience are externally focused
and more involved in academic entrepreneurship, while female PCs are more focused on
internal project dynamics and concentrate on scientific capital impacts. Commercial
experience, project organisational experience and international projects are leveraged by
male PCs, and they place greater importance on activities that suggest they have a

20
stronger academic entrepreneurship focus than female PCs. Moreover, an overriding
issue is that there may under-representation of females among the population of PCs

21
5 Project Organisation Factors

5.1 Challenges and Benefits of Collaborative Research

A key instrument to support knowledge transfer between research institutions and
industry has been the promotion of collaborative research delivered through research
consortia. Collaboration is seen as important for scientific research (Jones et al, 2008)
and innovation (Hoekman et al, 2013). Research funding programmes such as Horizon
2020 underline the idea of diverse international consortia assembled to deliver research
and innovation objectives (European Commission, 2011). However, knowledge transfer
within groups for the purpose of delivering combined innovation outcomes is not without
challenge from an organisational perspective, and particularly from the perspective of the
PC. In particular, it requires establishment and maintenance of strong social relations
between consortia members (Alexopoulus and Buckley, 2013). The PC is required to
bring together different actors, often from different institutional, disciplinary and cultural
contexts, in an effective and arguably quasi-firm arrangement. The diversity of research
consortia offers specific benefits and challenges.

5.2 Diversity of Discipline

Multidisciplinarity is defined as the spanning of a diversity of knowledge areas, which
could be disciplines, technological fields or industrial sectors (Rafols and Meyer 2010). In
terms of research funding systems promoting multidisciplinarity, the thinking is that such
research favours a greater diversity of idea generation and creativity (Alves et al, 2007).
Bringing together ideas and actors from different domains increases the chances of
innovation (Cummings, 2005), particularly recombinant innovation (Fernandez-Ribas and
Shapiro, 2009). However, multidisciplinary research is not without challenges. Too much
distance between disciplines can lead to communication problems (Jeong and Lee, 2015).
However, it is to be expected that these potential difficulties are mitigated in the
formation process of the consortium, and that partners have sufficient proximity to
collaborate successfully (Boschma, 2005). The expectation from this is that we expect
that the degree of multidisciplinarity of a project has a positive effect on innovation
outcomes.

5.3 Size of Consortia

Van Rijnsoever et al (2015) state that the number of actors refers to ‘the size of the
project consortium in terms of distinct actors’. The benefits from research collaborations
involving larger numbers of actors are that they can support more dynamic collaboration
that achieves faster outcomes, shorter product lifecycles and competitive advantages
(Edmondson and Nembhard, 2009). Larger project teams also provide a greater chance
of recombining different types of knowledge, expertise and ideas, and thus innovation
(Powell et al, 1996; Ruef, 2002). However, it is also argued that, when a large number of
parties is involved, the process of communication, agreement, problem-solving and
project coordination requires a complex process of integration and coordination of
knowledge (Jeong and Lee, 2015).

5.4 Diversity of Institutional Context

An additional feature of research collaborations is the types of actors that can be
involved. These can be from different institutional contexts – for example, universities,
public research centres, public bodies, SME enterprises, large enterprises, multinational
enterprises, etc. Each actor type brings to the project unique knowledge and skills that
can be recombined to form novel concepts and designs (Mo, 2016), creating more
technological diversity (Van Rijnsoever et al, 2015). However, having too much diversity
among actor types requires the capacity to manage collaborative research and to take
advantage of the knowledge from the network to achieve the goals of the project. Not all

22
the actor types have these managerial capabilities (Pandza et al, 2011). Additionally,
researchers from diverse types of organisations need to understand different points of
view, people from different institutional backgrounds and cultures, or even diverse
technical language (Paez-Aviles et al, 2015).
Diversity in terms of the nationalities of the members exposes the research team to
different norms and beliefs, possible difficulties in communicating across cultural
categories (Dahlin et al, 2005), and higher costs of coordination and management.
Having international teams can also hamper diversity creation. Cultural differences lead
to difficulty in transference or decoding of certain types of messages (Lundvall, 1992).
Hence, the costs of international teams can exceed the gains of diversity (Faber et al,
2016; Sirmon and Lane, 2004; Williams and O’Reilly, 1998), since resources can be
diverted into smoothing cultural differences in the team, which comes at the expense of
innovation and diversity creation (see Nepelski et al, 2019).
From a project coordination perspective, key questions for PCs are: what is the
appropriate level of diversity in a project, and how should diversity be managed to
successfully deliver research and innovation outcomes. Limited research has been done
on this in a European context. Coad et al (2017) examined the diversity of research
collaborations that received FP7 funding. They found that indicators of diversity in
organisational form, nationality and inequality in research funding are negatively
correlated with each other. This research is limited in that it refers to projects that were
funded, for which there are a multitude of factors, and successful funding achievement
does not imply automatic achievement of innovation outcomes. A key question not
addressed is whether diversity in collaborative research teams in EU-funded research is a
factor in successful technology transfer of innovation outcomes. A further question is how
influential is the capacity of the PC to effectively manage this diversity in order to achieve
successful technology transfer of innovation outcomes.

5.4 PC as Boundary-Spanner
The role of PCs as boundary-spanners to articulate different disciplines, different points of
view and logics to solve problems has been approached in several studies (Adler et al,
2009; Bozeman and Corley, 2004; Comacchio et al, 2011; Jain et al, 2009). The
boundary-spanning perspective is set out across three dimensions. First all, as boundary-
spanners PCs are bridging different areas, academia, higher education, policymakers and
firms. They have a role to articulate different objectives, timeframes, logics and cultures.
They also have a role within academia to create a dialogue between disciplines, shape
research avenues and combine different approaches and instruments to propose
solutions. Finally, emphasising the boundary-spanner roles obliges scholars to reconsider
the definition of PCs and their characteristics, and to question their role in academic
science, not only in the light of their productivity but also their ability to implement
visions and to share expectations.

5.5 Research Collaboration Management Capabilities

As outlined in the previous section, the coordination of collaborative research is both
challenging and complex. The level of complexity is reinforced by diversity in a range of
project-level characteristics. While it is suggested that research collaboration is quasi-
firm in nature, in practice it is unlikely that many firms would be as diverse in nature as a
typical EU-funded collaborative research project. This raises the question of how
important collaboration management is in the context of delivering successful innovation
outcomes. Leischnig and Geigenmuller (2018) observe that technology transfer requires
universities to maintain and strengthen research capabilities, but also to strengthen
management capabilities to build and manage relationships with external partners. Their
study of academic units in German universities found that the academic unit’s alliance
management capability has a significant positive effect on technology transfer success.
Academic unit and institutional influences on technology transfer effectiveness have been

23
addressed in other studies also, with organizational capacity to manage alliances shown
to contribute to more structured interactions between alliance partners and more
effective technology transfer (Leischnig et al, 2014). However, the focus of their research
was on the academic unit – typically the research group or centre, and not the PC.
Leischnig and Geigenmuller (2018) conceptualise alliance management capability as
supporting technology transfer as a multi-faceted construct that consists of four
components that commence prior to the research collaboration:
 Alliance Proactiveness – this refers to efforts to identify potentially valuable
partnering opportunities.
 Alliance Transformation – this refers to the flexibility of a transfer agent or
recipient to adapt the transfer process with regard to changing conditions.
 Interorganisational Coordination – this pertains to the governance of individual
relationships within the research collaboration. It involves identifying and building
consensus about task requirements, ensuring efficient governance of processes.
 Interorganisational Learning – this refers to the ability to acquire and use
knowledge throughout the collaboration, allowing for improvements in knowledge
bases and also for research collaboration interactions.
A useful feature of their concept is that it integrates institutional and individual actor
requirements in alliance management. In addressing the deficit of empirical studies on
managerial challenges at the level of the PC, Cunningham et al (2015) found three main
categories of managerial challenges: project management, project adaptability and
project network management (see Cunningham et al, 2015). These challenges are
summarised:
Project management: The main managerial challenges that PCs face are organising and
controlling. The research found that most PCs experienced the managerial challenges of
assembling and managing the research team and consortia, project supervision and
project alignment. PCs have to ensure that they have the best research team fulfilling the
publicly funded project objectives.
Project adaptability: As well as dealing with the project management-orientated
challenges, PCs are focused on challenges related to maintaining project relevance.
Specifically, project adaptability consists of two PC tasks: environment scanning and
maintaining project agility. In dealing with this management challenge, the research
found that PCs adopted different approaches. Experienced PCs were more likely to
engage in environmental scanning and to purposefully develop flexibility within projects,
while less experienced PCs tended to be more concerned with completing the project as
per the specified details of their research proposals.
Project network management: This relates to challenges PCs have to deal with when
working in their own institutions. It also highlights the range of external stakeholders
that PCs engage with for publicly funded projects. To negotiate their way through
bureaucracy, PCs had to build up institutional social capital. In dealing with external
networks, the overall preference of PCs is to have a range of external stakeholders to
assemble project teams and for project execution. However, PCs are cautious about the
type of commitments they seek from these external stakeholders. In the context of
managing external consortia partners, PCs find that they can exert influence rather than
control. The managerial function of organising and influencing is critical for PCs in dealing
effectively with external network management.

24
6. Effectiveness and Impact
The final element of our review of PCs is focused on effectiveness and impact. Much of
the literature on effectiveness and impact that we have reviewed as part our systematic
literature review takes a macro or meso-level perspective. Measurement of PC
effectiveness is intrinsically tied to the success or otherwise of the overall research
project or research programme. The project management literature identifies a range of
potential effectiveness criteria. The starting point for considering these criteria is to
determine the unit of analysis – in this case, what exactly constitutes a project? A widely
quoted definition of a project is ‘a set of activities with a defined start point and a defined
end state, which pursues a defined goal and uses a defined set of resources’, and which
has cost, quality, and time objectives and a project lifecycle (Slack et al, 2004). In a
traditional project context, project success dimensions typically include: (i) meeting time
and budget requirements, (ii) impact on the customer and (iii) benefit to the performing
organisation (Shenhar et al, 2001). However, for the purposes of publicly funded
academic research, project success is a multidimensional strategic concept that extends
beyond quantitative and economic measures.

6.1 Scientific Impact

An important primary benefit of publicly funded research is the creation of platforms for
research collaboration and the teamwork advantages that this offers. The perspective of
knowledge recombination predicts that knowledge creation is often enhanced by
combining different expertise and knowhow from a wide variety of sources (He et al,
2009). According to this perspective, when partnering scientists bring together
complementary knowledge and skills in a research project, the resulting research output
should be of higher quality than it would be otherwise. Moreover, by working together,
research collaborators form an internal quality control process to improve research
quality by rigorously selecting out unpromising combinations. The teamwork advantage
should also realise additional scientific outputs in the form of publications. Various
studies demonstrate a positive correlation between co-authorship, especially international
co-authorship, and an article’s quality as measured by the number of citations it receives
from other articles. However, there are also warnings that publications should only be
used as a partial measure (He et al, 2009). First, research collaboration does not always
lead to co-authored articles. For example, a researcher may provide a key idea for an
article but, for some reason, does not appear as a co-author. Secondly, co-authorship
can arise without research collaboration. A researcher may be listed as a co-author
simply by providing experiment materials or performing a routine test. Moreover, the
scholarly outputs from publicly funded research projects contributes to the body of
knowledge in a particular domain. The measurement of such scientific outputs can be
measured in a variety of standard ways. Such measurements are used to understand and
evaluate the quality of research excellence. Previous scientific quality and excellence is
also used as part of the evaluation process for PCs.

6.2 Technology Transfer Impact and Project Innovations

Technology transfer has been defined in many ways across various dimensions, but it can
be simply defined as the movement of knowhow, technical knowledge or technology from
one organisation to another. The transfer of scientific and technological knowhow into
valuable economic activity has become an important priority in many policy agendas,
with links between industry and science being a crucial element of this policy direction
(Debackere and Veugelers, 2005). Indeed, in many countries, an optimisation of the
interface between science and economy has become one of the most important
guidelines of technology policy (Balthasar et al, 2000). Measures of technology transfer
can be derived from the take-up of the science through IPR licenses, spin-outs and
technology-related consultancy. Furthermore, this literature examines different
technology transfer mechanisms such as spin-off firms (see Druilhe and Garnsey, 2004;
Wright et al, 2004; Lockett et al, 2005) and patents (Hall, 2004; Jaffe, 2002; Cohen et

25
al, 2002; Balconi et al, 2004). Many of the studies of technology transfer and university-
based R&D have found that they can have beneficial impacts on firms as well as
universities (see Thursby and Kemp, 2002). For example, Coupe (2003), using US data,
found that ‘more money spent on academic research leads to more university patents’. In
their study of the European Space Programme, Bach et al (2002) found three factors that
have a major impact on the technology transfer process: first, the nature of the
technology, the network of participants in the funded project, second, their ability to
collectively engage and their absorptive capacity; and, third, the organisational structure
of the firms and organisation participating in the consortium Wu et al (2015) found that
university inventions are more likely to be commercialised when academic investors are
working with industry partners and if they are positively disposed to technology transfer.
When it comes to technology-orientated disciplines, Perkmann et al (2011) found that
faculty quality is positively related to industry involvement. Moreover, there is a growing
body of evidence indicating that private-sector R&D is dependent on public-sector
research (see Tijseen, 2002).
Innovation outcomes available for technology transfer can be classified by the type, the
degree of novelty and the nature (Terziovski, 2007; Tidd et al, 2005). The Oslo Manual
(OECD, 2005) distinguishes four types of innovation: product or service innovations,
process innovations, marketing innovations and organisational innovations together with
three degrees of novelty: new to the firm, new to the market and new to the world.
There are also three types of innovation nature defined: incremental, radical, disruptive
(Terziovski, 2007). Types of innovation, degree of novelty and innovation nature define
the dimensions of technology transfer impact, and are reflected in the Joint Research
Centre Innovation Radar’s innovation potential assessment (de Prato et al, 2015). Types
of innovation included in the Innovation Radar potential assessment framework include
product innovation, service innovation, process innovation, marketing method
innovation, and organisational innovation. In a review of 279 projects, the Joint
Research Centre identified 517 innovations of which 55% were product innovations and
23% were service innovations (de Prato et al, 2015).

6.3 Scientific and Technical Human Capital Impact

Scientific and technical human capital (S&T human capital) is the sum of scientific,
technical and social knowledge, skills and resources embodied in a particular individual
(Bozeman and Corley, 2004). It includes both human capital endowments, such as
formal education and training, and social relations and network ties that bind scientists
and the users of science together in a value-creating collective. S&T human capital is the
unique set of resources the individual brings to his or her own work and to collaborative
efforts. Research collaboration offered through publicly funded research projects provides
a learning experience for a scientist to acquire skills and techniques from partners for
their future research activities (He et al, 2009). The acquisition of tacit knowledge
between scientists is best achieved when they jointly experience problem-solving and
spend time together discussing and reflecting.

6.4 Economic Impact

The cost of public research and particularly research collaboration is rarely examined in
the literature. One notable exception applied the concept of transaction costs to
investigate why a certain governance structure is adopted in organising collaborative
research (Landry and Amara, 1998). Publicly funded research projects can be envisioned
as mini joint ventures where collaborating scientists exchange resources and skills to
generate and share expected research output (Landry and Amara, 1998). Research
management, including research collaboration, entails various costs, including the costs
of finding and assessing research partners, of establishing an agreement to organise
collaboration and allocate the credit of expected research output, and of coordinating the
collaborating scientists, among others. International collaboration incurs additional costs
relative to local collaboration. Because of bounded rationality, no-one could exhaust all

26
the contingencies of a public research project, no-one is absolutely sure what research
findings will be produced in the future, and no-one is fully aware of the costs of
implementing a specific part of the project. This impossibility of designing complete
project plans creates room for opportunistic behaviours such that a scientist may
strategically misrepresent information to secure more resources or credit for their
contribution to the final research output. Some attempts have been made to assess how
to measure economic impacts (see Table 2). Martin et al (1996) argue that publicly
funded research contributes to economic growth through useful knowledge, skilled
graduates, new scientific instruments and methodologies, new social networks, new
ventures and enhanced problem-solving. Measuring the economic impact of public
funding is difficult and challenging; economic analysis is the most widely used
methodology. In summarising their review of economic evaluation models of basic
research, Salter and Martin conclude (2001:527) that there is ‘no simple model of the
nature of economic benefits from basic research is possible’.

Table 2: Economic Impact Measures of University-Based Research

Outputs Benefiting Private Sector Outputs Benefiting Public Investors

New products sold (revenues per year). New jobs created (average annual
salary per job). Retained jobs (average
License agreements (revenues per
annual salary per job).
year). Manufacturing improvements
(cost savings per year). Tax revenues.
Trained graduates hired by a company Secondary impact of worker’s spending
(work force cost savings). on local economy.
Start-up company (projected annual Indirect effect on secondary
revenues). subcontractors.
Knowledge spillover (revenues in Acquisition of federal funds.
creating another product).

Source: Bessette, R. W. (2003). Measuring the economic impact of university-based research. Journal of
Technology Transfer, 28(3-4), 355-361.

At a macro level, several studies have examined the economic impact of publicly funded
research programmes. In the main, these studies have found positive economic impacts
of publicly funded research. For example, a study by Amesse et al (2002) cited some of
the overall economic affects, both direct and indirect, of the Canadian space programme
as private firm sales, new technology and knowledge, new research consortia, industry
standards and use of physical infrastructure. In studying the returns of NASA’s life-
science technology transfer, Hertzfeld (2002) found economic returns that centred on
commercial applications, as well as extending the product lines Mueller (2006), based on
her study of West German regions, found that ‘the proposed knowledge transmission
channels – entrepreneurship and university-industry relations – increase the permeability
of the knowledge filter, thus improving regional economic performance’. For R&D projects
with universities, geographical proximity matters when the lead time to market is short,
but does not when the R&D projects are long-term (Broström, 2010).
Studies at the micro level are challenging from a methodological and data perspective
and thus the literature includes few empirical studies. However, the Zellner (2003) study
of those formerly employed at the Max Planck Society (MPS) ‘supports the claim that
important socio-economic benefits of basic research accrue through the embodied
knowledge transfers associated with scientists’ migration into the commercial sector’.
Hoye and Pries (2009) identified a group of researchers that they termed repeat
commercialisers who are different from other academics, and can account for a

27
significant percentage of a university’s commercialisation activities (up to 80% in the
institutions studied). They suggest that these repeat commercialisers are very productive
researchers, have extensive linkages with industry and should be supported and
incentivised differently from other academics. Such studies highlight the important and
understated role that individual scientists play in supporting commercialisation.

6.5 Societal and Social Welfare Impacts

Evaluating the impact of the societal and social welfare impacts of publicly funded
research and researchers can be problematic given the lack of universally accepted
measures and indicators. Many publicly funded programmes are now being increasingly
orientated toward society issues that affect society in both beneficial and negative ways.
Moreover, there is increasing expectation among funders that publicly funded science will
have spillover societal and social welfare impacts. As a consequence, there is a growing
literature that attempts to address these impacts by using the notion of the end user.
For example, Link and Scott (2004) combine private and social to assess the social
impacts of public-sector R&D using the Advanced Technology Programme in the US. In
this study, they looked at pull costs to society, and defined society to include consumers
and private-sector firms. Mazzoleni (2006) argues that: ‘the social welfare impact of
university patenting depends largely on whether or not the disclosure and patenting of a
particular university invention allows firms engaged in downstream R&D to obtain patents
on their innovative achievements.’ However, Langford et al (2006:1595) raise an
important concern about the use of indicators and associated proxies in measuring socio-
economic impacts of universities and suggest that they ‘do not measure several
important paths of knowledge flow’.

6.6 Collaboration and Political Impact

As noted above, public research typically involves collaborations between public and
private partners, with varying numbers of partners depending on the scale and
complexity of the project. Collaboration provides scientists with social networks where
they can capture valuable information on research opportunities and expose themselves
to future research collaboration, which leads to future research output (He et al, 2009).
The ability of a scientist to develop and maintain network contacts is thought to vary with
distance, but there is also evidence that the success of the individual researcher in a
collaboration is due to success as a social individual and as a scientist at the same time
(Melin, 2000).
In terms of political impact, there are three possible avenues for political reward for
scientists delivering on technology transfer targets, which are also applicable in the
overall project management context (Slack et al, 2004). Where research projects or
programmes have the potential to have a major impact on national or regional socio-
economic priority areas, the PC role in developing and transferring the technology is
recognised by policymakers. Another avenue for political reward to be achieved is via
appraisals of the research initiative provided by industry partners, often the technology
recipients in a technology transfer process. In this scenario, the industrial partner
actively pursues the policymaker, often a key funder of public research, to commend the
academic partner for their work on the project and their commitment to technology
transfer. The policymaker, in turn, ‘rewards the lab for being a good industrial partner’.
The third and most common rationale under the political impact criteria is for the
research project or initiative to be rewarded for the appearance of active and aggressive
research and technology transfer success. This part explains the aggressive pursuit of
publicising research projects, partnerships, breakthroughs and technology transfer
achievements by research institutions.

28
7 Discussion

7.1 PC Role Tensions

This review affirms the invisible and central role that PCs play in creating original
knowledge, by assembling the mix of relevant stakeholders that support their scientific
and commercialisation efforts and ambitions. The scope of our literature review also
highlights the invisibility of the PC’s role in shaping and influencing the impacts of
publicly funded science. Our review highlights that, while there is common understanding
in practice of the PC role, there is no consensus as to a universally acceptable definition
of the PC role. The role also brings with it some tensions that individual PCs can find
challenging to reconcile in practice when leading a large-scale publicly funded research
project.
The first of these tensions is scientific versus economic activities. In the main, publicly
funded research is now designed to leverage economic impacts such as the creation of
new ventures, enhancing the innovation capacity of industry partners, new patents, etc.
Scientists have been formally and professionally trained to be excellent researchers. They
have not been professionally trained to be knowledge brokers and technology transfer
agents. The tension arises when they have to balance the scientific and
economic/commercialisation impacts in a manner that delivers for both agendas.
The second source of tension centres on balancing governance and fiduciary
responsibilities. It is clear from the definitions of PCs and the empirical evidence to date
that they have a responsibility to govern and manage funding in an effective manner.
This requires careful project management so as to ensure that the funded project
complies with financial requirements, good scientific governance, etc. For the PCs, the
core tension arises on how to balance this research management associated with leading
a funded project against scientific research leadership. This, in essence, means that PCs
spend more of their time focused on the research management of a funded project and
less time on scientific leadership.
The third tension arises around managing market-shaping expectations. At the time of
the funding application, PCs outline a commercialisation strategy for their proposed
scientific discovery that is supported with relevant market data and analysis. In some
cases, given the consortia design, an industry partner can further enhance this
commercialisation strategy and its execution. The tension for the PC is proposing a
validated market-shaping/commercialisation strategy that is credible but also is adaptive
to respond to external environmental changes or related scenarios, such as an industrial
partner no longer having an interest in the scientific discovery because their business
needs have changed over the duration of the funded project.
Based on the literature review, we conclude that, when a scientist takes on the PC role,
they take on threshold roles and responsibilities that are necessary to fulfil the role.
However, we posit that, for PCs to fulfil the basic role requirements and responsibilities,
they require further role enhancements that are essential in shaping multiple impacts.

7.2 Threshold Roles and Responsibilities

PCs need to fulfil three main threshold roles and responsibilities in leading publicly funded
research projects. They are research leader, resource allocator and controller, and
project coordinator and manager (see Table 3). Each of these roles has a core focus.
Research Leader: The PC designation signifies that the PC is the research leader for the
duration of the publicly funded project. The PC thus needs to be a competent and
excellent researcher and have the ability to coordinate different academic, industry and
societal actors to support their research leadership of a publicly funded project. The role
responsibility means that they have to ensure that the project delivers on the research
objectives set out in the project proposal. Where there are setbacks or unexpected

29
challenges or failures, the PC must provide the research leadership that enables delivery
according to the stated research objectives.
Resource Allocator and Controller: The aspect of the role means that the PC has acquired
the necessary resources (financial, knowledge, expertise, infrastructure, etc.) to support
scientific discovery and a broad range of impacts. This is initially scoped out during the
project initiation stage and is finalised when a project proposal is approved for support by
a publicly funded research agency. The responsibility of the PC changes once the funding
is allocated by the agency to ensuring that the financial and other resources are deployed
appropriately. The PC also has to put in place necessary control measures to ensure that
the project meets the financial and other conditions set by the funding agency. This
requires the PC to also adhere to the control systems that are in place in the institution
that the PC is based in. This fiduciary responsibility is central, and a critical factor in
determining the success of the funded project.
Innovation Enabler: In a project context, the role of the PC as an innovation enabler
commences in the project formation phase where the PC as the project designer is
required to be aware of market requirements and new opportunities, to enable them to
detect project partners that will facilitate technology transfer – either as agent or
recipient. The innovation role then extends throughout the project, with the PC having a
lead role in aligning delivery of research and innovation outcomes. A key aspect of this is
optimal inter-organisational co-ordination.
Project Co-ordinator and Manager: A publicly funded project typically involves a range of
academic and industry partners across different geographical regions and countries. At
the project development phase, the role of the PC is to assemble the best research team
involving such partners in order to maximise the probability of securing the grant. This
requires selecting partners that have specific expertise, through the project plan is that
they complement each other and are aligned with the project objectives. The
responsibility of PC post-funding is focused on ensuring that all project activities are
undertaken according to the project plan, as well as ensuring through their co-ordination
that project deliverables are met on schedule and within the allocated budget. This may
require day-to-day operational management as well as putting in place the project
governance structure needed to support effective project co-ordination and management.
Boundary-Spanner: As boundary-spanners, PCs bridge different areas, academia, higher
education, policymakers and industry. They have a role to articulate different objectives,
time-frames, logics and cultures. They also have a role within academia to create a
dialogue between disciplines, shape research avenues and combine different approaches
and instruments to propose solutions. This emphasis on the boundary-spanner role
initiates a reconsideration of the definition of PCs and their characteristics, and raises the
question of their role in science, not only in the light of their productivity but also of their
ability to implement visions and to share expectations.

30
 Table 3: PC Threshold Roles and Responsibilities

Role Core Responsibility

Research Leader Research excellence Deliver stated scientific research objectives

Resource Determine resource Acquire and deploy resources

Allocator and requirement
Controller

Innovation Innovation Envision and maintain scientific and

Enabler excellence innovation alignment

Project Co- Proactively manage Deliver delivery of project objectives on

ordinator and all facets of the time
Manager project

Boundary Bridge gap between Manage and coordinate internal and

Spanner science and industry external boundaries (discipline,
international, intersectoral, institutional)
Source: Authors

7.3 Expanded PC Role Competency Framework

To go beyond fulfilling the basic PC role, scientists in this role need to have an enhanced
role capacity that enables them to achieve the multiple impacts that are now required
from large-scale publicly funded research programmes. Fulfilling the threshold role
requirement demonstrates to a funding agency an ability to manage and lead. Being able
to go beyond the threshold role requirement provides the basis to build and demonstrate
a track record of research excellence and multiple impacts. Such enhanced roles that we
have identified are as follows:
Research Strategists: PCs need to be always scanning research and industry horizons for
novelty, the basis for new knowledge and scientific discovery. This requires them to
constantly strategise about new developments within their discipline as well as monitor
relevant industry environments so that they can respond in a proactive manner to
realising their scientific mission and to create the necessary value for relevant
stakeholders.
Economic Agent: The novelty and new knowledge that PCs create as part of scientific
discovery can be translated for economic means. PCs thus become economic agents and
their research can support the evolution of industries or the creation of disruptive
technologies that can form the basis for new industries. To be an effective economic
agent, the PC needs to have a clear understanding of how their research enhances value
creation for industry, where their novelty is positioned (demand or supply), and how it
can be exploited collectively or individually within an industry context.
Technology & Knowledge Transfer Enabler: An increasing number of research funding
bodies expect that the projects they support through peer review processes will have
technology and knowledge transfer. An enabling role capability for PCs is that they have
a knowledge of the different mechanisms of technology and knowledge transfer, and
have some expertise in this domain. This means that PCs can determine and
operationalise the optimal approach to exploit the new knowledge that they create. This
capacity enables the PC to bridge the academic-industry gap and in doing so optimise
individual value-creation for stakeholders in each of these settings.
Collaboration and Value Creation Leader: To be an effective PC it is essential to
collaborate with partners irrespective of discipline and with any size of industry, policy

31
and societal stakeholders. They need the individual openness to consider all forms of
collaboration with any configuration of partners that enables the realisation of multiple
impacts. Coupled with collaboration is the ability of the PC to identity relevant value
drivers for collaborators and to align these with the overall project objectives so as to
create and deliver value for individual partners as well as for the overall project.
Manager and Governor: Becoming a PC is career-enhancing. It also means taking on
additional responsibilities. This requires PCs to be very effective managers of people,
resources, and relationships within and outside the institution in which they are based.
PCs have to be able to navigate effectively among different institutional governance
systems and that of the funder.

7.4 Antecedent Individual Factors

From our literature review, it is evident that individual factors underpin and influence the
PC. The personal motivation of the individual scientists is a key driving factor, along with
how they view their role in science. Are they focused purely on scientific discovery or do
they want to realise scientific discovery through technology and knowledge transfer to
the marketplace or society?
It is essential for a PC to have extensive networks within and outside academia in order
to build consortia that increase the probability of success both in securing competitive
funding and in realising the multiple-impact objectives that are now becoming a
prerequisite for such large-scale projects. Building such networks takes time and also
requires trust between the PC and relevant stakeholders. It is about building long-term
collaborative arrangements that are a mix of formal and informal, and over time are
mutually beneficial.
Knowledge and knowhow support the sustainability of scientists in the PC role. A unique
advantage that PCs possess is their domain/discipline knowledge. Knowhow centres on
the practices and activities of being a PC. It can, for example, involve knowhow on
developing and ultimately implementing a technology and knowledge transfer strategy
for the project that fulfils the value-creation needs of all stakeholders; knowhow with
respect to the legal and value-creation implications associated with different technology
transfer mechanisms, and knowhow about resourcing and managing large-scale project
budgets across different academic and industry partners.
The final antecedent individual factor centres on career trajectory and experience. The
literature and emerging empirical evidence suggests that PCs with prior industry
experience are able to bridge the gap between academia and industry and tend to be
more effective with respect to technology and knowledge transfer. The stage of career
influences whether a scientist becomes a PC. Scientists gain knowledge and experience of
the PC role by being a co-PC and through experiences of being part of a funded research
team led by a PC.
Context also influences antecedent individual factors, in particular incentives and the
policy environment. Incentives can influence whether a scientist takes on the role of PC.
Such incentives can include career progression, retention of a proportion of project
overheads, institutional recognition, leave, etc. Such incentives create the conditions to
support the PC to undertake the role and/or when they are in the role. The broader policy
environment also can influence the scientist in terms of pursuing commercialisation and
collaborating with relevant stakeholders in realising such opportunities. The policy
environment scope includes the broad environmental conditions that affect any business
but also encompasses specific supports that encourage scientists in the PC role to pursue
technology transfer opportunities from publicly funded research programmes. These
supports can range from hard supports such as grants to softer supports such as industry
mentorship.

32
7.5 Project Factors
Much of the literature on research consortia relates to complexity driven by different
types of diversity. As stated above, assumptions have been made by funding agencies,
including the European Commission, that diversity in discipline, institution and nationality
will support the delivery of innovation outcomes, and there is evidence to support this
rationale. From a PC perspective, translating this infrastructural preference into research
funding instruments puts an onus on PC competencies relating to boundary-spanning,
alliance planning, alliance formation, and alliance management. While the project can be
envisaged as a quasi-firm, the PC does not have the same controls as a CEO in an actual
firm. The public-private nature means that firing and replacing project partners is usually
not an option. The PC is required to manage project commitment and the limited range
of project management controls available to them. This requires leadership and technical
competencies. The context of the project, including its diversity and commitment of
actors, further influences the project operating environment. The overall range of
competencies is quite invisible and their development is influenced by a myriad of
factors, including the PC’s prior experience and the operating practices and culture of the
PC unit (e.g. research centre).

33
8 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness and
Conclusions

8.1 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness

This paper proposes a model for studying the effectiveness of PCs (see Figure 4). The
model suggests that a number of factors affect the approach of the PC. These include
imposed conditions but, perhaps more importantly, are contingent on the PC’s
interpretation of their role and the impact of the PC’s previous experiences, including
training.
The invisible centrality of the contribution of the PC in the delivery of innovation from
publicly funded science is largely unexplored. Much of the literature relating to
technology transfer addresses the impact of the institution or the research unit. At an
individual scientist level, the focus of research undertaken tends towards examining the
impact of different antecedent individual factors. Few studies have sought to interpret the
lynchpin role of the PC.

Figure 4: Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness

The model addresses the individual and project factors that influence the PC in their
choices and practices. PCs are engaged in the different practices at different levels, and
their engagement shapes their roles, from that of project manager (mostly focusing and
innovating) to that of scientific entrepreneur (shaping new models and paradigms and
brokering science). The scientific entrepreneur links different worlds and different

34
activities to cross the borders of knowledge, and enacts their environments by changing
the boundaries of their organisation and setting up new ones.
In the proposed model, the practices of PCs are translated into five roles, each with
specific responsibilities for which additional learning is required in order to assess and
measure the necessary thresholds for PC effectiveness. Typically, it is the scientific
achievement of the prospective PC that carries most weight at the research application
phase in terms of evaluating their competence to successfully lead a project. However,
this review demonstrates that the PC qualities are of an ambidextrous nature. This
observation also suggests that it is necessary to examine how PCs are prepared for their
responsibilities from a professional development perspective.

8.2 Conclusions
This paper supports a micro-level investigation of the challenges involved in the
leadership of publicly funded research projects. The role of a PC is in some ways akin to
that of the CEO of a temporary organisation, but the measurements required to evaluate
PCs are under-developed and require further study. Similarly, our understanding of the
human resource development of PCs needs to be enhanced. The managerial challenges
are both complex and extensive, yet there are few formal mechanisms for training and
developing PCs outside traditional business-school MBA-type programmes. At this point,
we caution against an easy assumption that the PC requires to undertake management
or leadership training. It is arguable that many of their roles and responsibilities are
more akin to that of an entrepreneur, where prior to the project and during the proposal
development phases they envision the scientific and commercial trajectory of the
research. Through public research funding applications, they acquire the resources to
deliver on this vision through assembling the optimally diverse research consortia.
Finally, during the project, they prepare and manage the environment and project
resources to deliver their scientific and innovation outcomes. Further study is also
required on how PCs interpret their role and responsibilities: what attributes do PCs
perceive as most significant in delivering both scientific and innovation project outcomes?
Given the movement of the PC towards centre stage of science and innovation policy and
the expenditure of vast amounts of public monies, it is essential to enhance
understanding of the exact role and responsibilities of the PC in delivering innovation
outcomes and impact.

35
References

Adler, N., Elmquist, M. and Norrgren, F. (2009). The challenge of managing boundary-
spanning research activities: Experiences from the Swedish context, Research Policy, 38,
7, pp. 1136-1149.
Alves, J., Marques, M. J., Saur, I., & Marques, P. (2007). Creativity and innovation
through multidisciplinary and multisectoral cooperation. Creativity and Innovation
Management, 16(1), pp. 27–34.
Amesse, F., Cohendet, P., Poirier, A., & Chouinard, J. M. (2002). Economic effects and
spin-offs in a small space economy: the case of Canada. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 27(4), pp. 339-348.
Azagra-Caro, J. M., Carayol, N., & Llerena, P. (2006). Patent production at a European
research university: exploratory evidence at the laboratory level. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 31(2), pp. 257-268.
Bach, L., Cohendet, P., & Schenk, É. (2002). Technological transfers from the European
space programs: A dynamic view and comparison with other R&D projects. Journal of
Technology Transfer, 27(4), pp. 321-338.
Balconi, M., Breschi, S., & Lissoni, F. (2004). Networks of inventors and the role of
academia: an exploration of Italian patent data. Research Policy, 33(1), pp. 127-145.
Balthasar, A., Bättig, C., Thierstein, A. and Wilhelm, B. (2000). “Developers”: key actors
of the innovation process. Technovation, 20, pp. 523-538.
Bammer, G., 2008, Enhancing research collaborations: Three key management
challenges, Research Policy 37, pp. 875-887.

Baskerville, R., & Pries-Heje, J. (2003). Diversity in modeling diffusion of information

technology. Journal of Technology Transfer, 28(3-4), pp. 251-264.
Betz, F. (1996). Targeted basic research: industry-university partnerships, in Handbook
of Technology Management, G. H. Gaynor (Ed.), 8.1-8.13.
Boardman, C., & Ponomariov, B. (2014). Management knowledge and the organization of
team science in university research centers, Journal of Technology Transfer, 39(1), pp.
75–92.
Borrego, Á., Barrios, M., Villarroya, A., & Ollé, C. (2010). Scientific output and impact of
postdoctoral scientists: A gender perspective, Scientometrics, 83(1), pp. 93-101.
Boschma, R. (2005). Proximity and innovation: A critical assessment. Regional Studies,
39(1), pp. 6-74.
Bozeman, B., Rimes, H. & Youtie, J. (2015) The evolving state-of-the-art in technology
transfer research: Revisiting the contingent effectiveness model, Research Policy, 44, pp.
34-49.
Bozeman, B. (2000). Technology transfer and public policy: a review of research and
theory. Research Policy, 29, pp. 627-655.
Bozeman, B., Corley, E. (2004). Scientists’ collaboration strategies: implications for
scientific and technical human capital. Research Policy 33, pp. 599-616.

Broström, A. (2010). Working with distant researchers: Distance and content in

university–industry interaction. Research Policy, 39(10), pp. 1311-1320.
Breschi, S., & Catalini, C. (2010). Tracing the links between science and technology: An
exploratory analysis of scientists’ and inventors’ networks. Research Policy, 39(1), pp.
14-26.

36
Chubin, D. E., & Hackett, E. J. (1990). Peerless science: peer review and US Science
Policy, SUNY Press: New York.
Coad, A., Amoroso, S., & Grassano, N. (2017). Diversity in one dimension alongside
greater similarity in others: evidence from FP7 cooperative research teams. Journal of
Technology Transfer, 42, pp. 1170-1183.
Cohen, W. M., Goto, A., Nagata, A., Nelson, R. R., & Walsh, J. P. (2002). R&D spillovers,
patents and the incentives to innovate in Japan and the United States. Research
Policy, 31(8-9), pp. 1349-1367.
Coupe, T. (2003). Science is golden: academic R&D and university patents. Journal of
Technology Transfer, 28(1), pp. 31-46.
Cummings, J. N. (2005). Collaborative research across disciplinary and organizational
boundaries. Social Studies of Science, 35(5), pp. 703-722.
Cunningham, J. A., Mangematin, V., O’Kane, C., & O’Reilly, P. (2016). At the frontiers of
scientific advancement: The factors that influence scientists to become or choose to
become publicly funded principal investigators. Journal of Technology Transfer, 41(4),
pp. 778-797.
Cunningham, J. A., O’Reilly, P., Dolan, B., O’Kane, C., & Mangematin, V. (2017). Gender
differences and academic entrepreneurship: a study of scientists in the principal
investigator role. In Gender and Entrepreneurial Activity, pp. 221-251, Edward Elgar.
Cunningham, J. A., O’Reilly, P., O’Kane, C., & Mangematin, V. (2016). Publicly funded
principal investigators as transformative agents of public sector entrepreneurship. In
David Audretsch and Albert N. Link (eds), Essays in public sector entrepreneurship, pp.
67-94 Springer, Cham.
Cunningham, J., O’Reilly, P., O’Kane, C., & Mangematin, V. (2014). The inhibiting factors
that principal investigators experience in leading publicly funded research, Journal of
Technology Transfer, 39(1), pp. 93-110.
Cunningham, J.A., O’Reilly, P., Dolan, B., O’Kane, C. and Mangematin, V., (2016).
Publicly Funded Principal Investigators’ Allocation of Time for Public Sector
Entrepreneurship Activities, Economia e Politica Industriale (Journal of International
Business & Economics), 43(4), pp. 383-408.
Cunningham, J., O’Reilly, P., O’Kane, C. & Mangematin, V. (2015). Managerial Challenges
of Publicly Funded Principal Investigators, International Journal of Technology
Management, 68(3-4), pp.176-202.
Cunningham, J., Menter, M. and Wirsching, K. (forthcoming). Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
Governance: A Principal Investigator Centred Governance Framework, Small Business &
Economics. DOI: doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9959-2.
Cunningham, J.A. Menter, M. and O’Kane, C. (2018) Value creation in the Quadruple
Helix: A Micro Level Conceptual Model of Principal Investigators as Value Creators, R&D
Management, 48, (1), pp. 136-147.
Debackere, K. and Veugelers, R. (2005). The role of academic technology transfer
organisations in improving industry science links. Research Policy, 34, pp. 321-342.

Ding, W. W., Murray, F., & Stuart, T. E. (2006). Gender differences in patenting in the
academic life sciences, Science, 313(5787), pp. 665-667.
Drejer, I. and Jørgensen, B. H. (2004). Public-private collaboration on knowledge
generation and in new product development projects. Research on Technological
Innovation and Management Policy, 8, pp. 285-308.

37
Druilhe, C., & Garnsey, E. (2004). Do academic spin-outs differ and does it
matter? Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(3-4), pp. 269-285.
Duque, R.B., Ynalvez, M. et al, (2005). Collaboration Paradox, Social Studies of Science,
35, 5, pp. 755-785.

Edmondson, A. C., & Nembhard, I. M. (2009). Product development and learning in

project teams: The challenges are the benefits. Journal of Product Innovation
Management, 26, pp. 123-138.
Etzkowitz, H. and Leydesdorff, L. (1997). Universities and the Global Knowledge
Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations, Pinter.
European Commission (Ed. (2014a). Marie Curie researchers and their long-term career
development: A comparative study.
Faber, J., van Dijk, J., & van Rijnsoever, F. (2016). Incentives and barriers for R&D-
based SMEs to participate in European research programs: An empirical assessment for
the Netherlands. Science and Public Policy, 43(3), pp. 414-428.
Fernandez-Ribas, A. A., & Shapira, P. (2009). Technological diversity, scientific
excellence and the location of inventive activities abroad: The case of nanotechnology.
Journal of Technology Transfer, 34(3), pp. 286-303.
Fini, R., Grimaldi, R., & Sobrero, M. (2009). Factors fostering academics to start up new
ventures: an assessment of Italian founders’ incentives. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 34(4), pp. 380-402.
Friedman, J., & Silberman, J. (2003). University technology transfer: do incentives,
management, and location matter? Journal of Technology Transfer, 28(1), pp. 17-30.
Gerritsen, S., Plug, E., & van der Wiel, K. (2013): Up or out? How individual research
grants affect academic careers in the Netherlands. In CPB Discussion Paper, 249.
Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., et al (1994). The New Production of Knowledge:
The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, Sage.

Gorman, M. E. (2002). Types of knowledge and their roles in technology transfer. Journal
of Technology Transfer, 27(3), pp. 219-231.
Grimaldi, R., Kenney, M., Siegel, D. S., & Wright, M. (2011). 30 years after Bayh–Dole:
Reassessing academic entrepreneurship. Research Policy, 40(8), pp. 1045-1057.
Hagedoorn, J., Link, A. and Vonortas, N. (2000). Research partnerships, Research Policy,
29, 4-5, pp. 567-586.

Hall, B. H. (2004). Exploring the patent explosion. Journal of Technology Transfer, 30(1-
2), pp. 35-48.
He, Z.L., Geng, X.S., Campbell-Hunt, C. (2009) Research collaboration and research
output: A longitudinal study of 65 biomedical scientists in a New Zealand university.
Research Policy, 38 (2): pp. 306-317.
Hertzfeld, H. R. (2002). Measuring the economic returns from successful NASA life
sciences technology transfers. Journal of Technology Transfer, 27(4), pp. 311-320.
Hoekman, J., Scherngell, T., Frenken, K., & Tijssen, R. (2013). Acquisition of European
research funds and its effect on international scientific collaboration. Journal of Economic
Geography, 13, pp. 23–52.
Hoye, K., & Pries, F. (2009). ‘Repeat commercializers,’the ‘habitual entrepreneurs’ of
university–industry technology transfer. Technovation, 29(10), pp. 682-689.

38
Huang-Saad, A., Fay, J., & Sheridan, L. (2017). Closing the divide: accelerating
technology commercialization by catalyzing the university entrepreneurial ecosystem with
I-Corps™. Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(6), pp. 1466-1486.
Jaffe, A. B. (2000). The US patent system in transition: policy innovation and the
innovation process. Research Policy, 29(4-5), pp. 531-557.
Jeong, S., & Lee, S. (2015). What drives technology convergence? Exploring the
influence of technological and resource allocation contexts. Journal of Engineering and
Technology Management, 36, pp. 78–96.
Jones, B. F., Wuchty, S., & Uzzi, B. (2008). Multi-university research teams: Shifting
impact, geography, and stratification in science. Science, 322(5905), pp. 1259-1262.
Kidwell, D. (2014). Navigating the role of the principal investigator: a comparison of four
cases. Journal of Technology Transfer, 39(1), pp. 33–51.
Kidwell, D. K. (2013). ‘Principal investigators as knowledge brokers: A multiple case
study of the creative actions of PIs in entrepreneurial science’, Technological Forecasting
and Social Change, 80(2), pp. 212-220.
Krabel, S., & Mueller, P. (2009). What drives scientists to start their own company?: An
empirical investigation of Max Planck Society scientists. Research Policy, 38(6), 947-956.
Kreeger, K. Y. (1997). Researchers setting up labs must learn skills on the fly. The
Scientist, 11(5), pp. 14–15.
Lam, A. (2011). What motivates academic scientists to engage in research
commercialization: ‘Gold’, ‘ribbon’ or ‘puzzle’? Research Policy, 40(10), pp. 1354-1368.
Landry, R. and Amara, N.., (1998), The impact of transaction costs on the institutional
structuration of collaborative academic research, Research Policy, 27, 9, pp. 901-913.

Langford, C. H., Hall, J., Josty, P., Matos, S., & Jacobson, A. (2006). Indicators and
outcomes of Canadian university research: Proxies becoming goals? Research
Policy, 35(10), pp. 1586-1598.
Link, A. N., & Scott, J. T. (2004). Evaluating public sector R&D programs: the advanced
technology program’s investment in wavelength references for optical fiber
communications. Journal of Technology Transfer, 30(1-2), pp. 241-251.
Link, A. N., Siegel, D. S., & Van Fleet, D. D. (2011). Public science and public innovation:
Assessing the relationship between patenting at US National Laboratories and the Bayh-
Dole Act. Research Policy, 40(8), pp. 1094-1099.
Lockett, A., Siegel, D., Wright, M., & Ensley, M. D. (2005). The creation of spin-off firms
at public research institutions: Managerial and policy implications. Research Policy, 34(7),
pp. 981-993.
Lowe, R. A. (2006). Who develops a university invention? The impact of tacit knowledge
and licensing policies. Journal of Technology Transfer, 31(4), pp. 415-429.
Mangematin, V., O’Reilly, P., & Cunningham, J. (2014). PIs as boundary spanners,
science and market shapers, Journal of Technology Transfer, 39(1), pp. 1-10.
Martin, B., Salter, A., Hicks, D., Pavitt, K., Senker, J., Sharp, M., Von Tunzelmann, N.,
1996. The Relationship Between Publicly Funded Basic Research and Economic
Performance: A SPRU Review. HM Treasury, London.
Maylor, H., Brady, T., Cooke-Davies, T., and Hodgson, D. (2006). From projectification to
programmification, International Journal of Project Management, 24, pp. 663-674.

Mazzoleni, R. (2006). The effects of university patenting and licensing on downstream

R&D investment and social welfare. Journal of Technology Transfer, 31(4), pp. 431-441.

39
Medda, G., Piga, C., & Siegel, D. S. (2004). University R&D and firm productivity:
evidence from Italy. Journal of Technology Transfer, 30(1-2), pp. 199-205.
Melin, G., 2000. Pragmatism and self-organization. Research collaboration on the
individual level. Research Policy 29, pp. 31–40. [31] Edquist, C. (ed.) (1997) Systems of
Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, Pinter/Cassell.
Menter, M. (2016). Principal investigators and the commercialization of knowledge.
In University evolution, entrepreneurial activity and regional competitiveness, pp. 193-
203, Springer, Cham.
Merton, R.K., (1973). The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Mo, G. Y. (2016). Examining cross-disciplinary communication’s impact on
multidisciplinary collaborations: Implications for innovations. Information,
Communication & Society, 19(5), pp. 673–690.
Mueller, P. (2006). Exploring the knowledge filter: How entrepreneurship and university–
industry relationships drive economic growth. Research Policy, 35(10), pp. 1499-1508.
Nepelski, D., Van Roy, V., & Pesole, A. (2019). The organisational and geographic
diversity and innovation potential of EU-funded research networks. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 44(2), pp. 359-380.
OECD. (2005). Oslo Manual: The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities
– Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Technological Innovation Data. 3rd Edition.
Paris: OECD.
O’Kane, C., Cunningham, J., Mangematin, V., & O’Reilly, P. (2015). Underpinning
strategic behaviours and posture of principal investigators in transition/uncertain
environments, Long Range Planning, 48(3), pp. 200–214.
O’Kane, C., Zhang, J. A., Cunningham, J. A., & O’Reilly, P. (2017). What factors inhibit
publicly funded principal investigators’ commercialization activities?, Small Enterprise
Research, 24(3), pp. 215-232.
O’Reilly, P and Cunningham, J.A. (2017). Enablers and barriers to university technology
transfer engagements with small and medium-sized enterprises: Perspectives of Principal
Investigators, Small Enterprise Research, 24(3) pp. 274-289.
Olmos-Peñuela, J., Castro-Martínez, E., & D’Este, P. (2014). Knowledge transfer activities
in social sciences and humanities: Explaining the interactions of research groups with
non-academic agents, Research Policy, 43(4), pp. 696-706.
Padilla-Meléndez, A., & Garrido-Moreno, A. (2012). Open innovation in universities: What
motivates researchers to engage in knowledge transfer exchanges? International Journal
of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 18(4), pp. 417-439.
Paez-Aviles, C., Juanola-Feliu, E., Bogachan-Tahirbegi, I., Mir, M., Gonzalez-Pinero, M., &
Samitier, J. (2015). Innovation and technology transfer of medical devices fostered by
cross-disciplinary communities of practitioners. International Journal of Innovation
Management.
Pandza, K., Wilkins, T. A., & Alfoldi, E. A. (2011). Collaborative diversity in a
nanotechnology innovation system: Evidence from the EU Framework Programme.
Technovation, 31(9), pp. 476–489.
Peltz, D., and Andrews, F. (1976). Scientists in organizations. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for
Social Research.

Perkmann, M. et al. (2013). Academic engagement and commercialisation: A review of

the literature on university-industry relations, Research Policy 42, pp. 423-442.

40
Perkmann, M., King, Z., & Pavelin, S. (2011). Engaging excellence? Effects of faculty
quality on university engagement with industry. Research Policy, 40(4), pp. 539-552.
Powell, J., & Moris, F. (2004). Different timelines for different technologies. Journal of
Technology Transfer, 29(2), pp. 125-152.
Rafols, I., & Meyer, M. (2010). Diversity and network coherence as indicators of
interdisciplinarity: Case studies in bionanoscience. Scientometrics, 82(2), pp. 263–287.
Rausser, G. (1999). Private/Public Research: Knowledge Assets and Future Scenarios.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81 (5), pp. 1011-1027.
Renault, C. S. (2006). Academic capitalism and university incentives for faculty
entrepreneurship. Journal of Technology Transfer, 31(2), pp. 227-239.
Rizzo, U. (2015). Why do scientists create academic spin-offs? The influence of the
context. Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(2), pp. 198-226.
Romano, M., Elita Schillaci, C., & Nicotra, M. (2017b). Principal Investigators in
Entrepreneurial Universities A Research Framework. James A Cunningham, Maribel
Guerrero and David Urbano (eds). In The World Scientific Reference on Entrepreneurship,
Volume 1: Entrepreneurial Universities, Technology and Knowledge Transfer, pp. 165-
184.
Rosser, S. V., & Chameau, J. L. (2006). Institutionalization, sustainability, and
repeatability of ADVANCE for institutional transformation. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 31(3), pp. 335-344.
Ruef, M. (2002). Strong ties, weak ties and islands: structural and cultural predictors of
organizational innovation. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11(3), pp. 427–449.
Salter, A. J., & Martin, B. R. (2001). The economic benefits of publicly funded basic
research: a critical review. Research Policy, 30(3), pp. 509-532.
Seus, S., & Bührer, S. (2017). The evaluation of the Austrian START programme: an
impact analysis of a research funding programme using a multi-method approach.
Journal of Technology Transfer, pp. 1-26.
Shenhar, A., Dvir, D., Levy, O., and Maltz, A. (2001). Project success: a multidimensional
strategic concept, Long Range Planning, 34, pp. 699-725.

Slack, N., Chambers, S., Johnson, R. (2004). Operations management, Harlow: Prentice
Hall, pp. 515-516.
Slaughter, S. and Leslie, L. (1997). Academic Capitalism, John Hopkins University
Press.

Stevens, A. J. (2004). The enactment of Bayh–Dole. Journal of Technology

Transfer, 29(1), pp. 93-99.
Terziovski, M. (2007). Building Innovation Capability In Organizations: An International
Cross-Case Perspective. London, England: Imperial College Press
Thursby, J. G., & Kemp, S. (2002). Growth and productive efficiency of university
intellectual property licensing. Research Policy, 31(1), pp. 109-124.
Tidd, Joe & Bessant, John & Pavitt, Keith. 2005. Managing Innovation: Integrating
Technological, Market and Organizational Change. England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Tijssen, R. J. (2002). Science dependence of technologies: evidence from inventions and
their inventors. Research Policy, 31(4), pp. 509-526.
van de Burgwal, L. H., Dias, A., & Claassen, E. (2017). Incentives for knowledge
valorisation: a European benchmark. Journal of Technology Transfer, pp. 1-20.

41
van Rijnsoever, F. Hesselsand Rens, L., and Vandeberg, L. (2008). A resource-based
view on the interactions of university researchers, Research Policy, 37, 8, pp. 1255-1266.
van Rijnsoever, F. J., Van den Berg, J. C. J., Koch, J., & Hekkert, M. P. (2015). Smart
innovation policy: How network position and project composition affect the diversity of an
emerging technology. Research Policy, 44(5), pp. 1094–1107.
Wright, M., Vohora, A., & Lockett, A. (2004). The formation of high-tech university
spinouts: the role of joint ventures and venture capital investors. Journal of Technology
Transfer, 29(3-4), pp. 287-310.
Wu, Y., Welch, E. W., & Huang, W. L. (2015). Commercialization of university inventions:
Individual and institutional factors affecting licensing of university
patents. Technovation, 36, pp. 12-25.
Zalewska-Kurek, K., Egedova, K., Peter, A. T. M., & Roosendaal, H. E. (2018). Knowledge
transfer activities of scientists in nanotechnology. Journal of Technology Transfer, 43(1),
pp. 139-158.
Zellner, C. (2003). The economic effects of basic research: evidence for embodied
knowledge transfer via scientists’ migration. Research Policy, 32(10), pp. 1881-1895.
Ziman, J. (2000). Real Science: What It Is, and What It Means. Cambridge: Cambridge
UP.

42
List of Abbreviations and Definitions
EC European Commission
EU European Union
FP7 Framework Programme 7
JRC Joint Research Centre
PC Project Coordinator
PI Principal Investigator

43
List of Figures
Figure 1 Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness ................................... 4
Figure 2: A Conceptual Model of Principal Investigators as Quadruple Helix
Value Creators ...................................................................................................13
Figure 2: P1-Centred Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Governance Framework ........15
Figure 4: Contingent Model of Project Coordinator Effectiveness ......................34

44
List of Tables
Table 1: Definitions of PCs ...................................................................................... 9
Table 2: Economic Impact Measures of University-Based Research .............................27
Table 3: PC Threshold Roles and Responsibilities ......................................................31

45
GETTING IN TOUCH WITH THE EU
In person
All over the European Union there are hundreds of Europe Direct information centres. You can find the
address of the centre nearest you at: https://europa.eu/european-union/contact_en
On the phone or by email
Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about the European Union. You can contact this
service:
- by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain operators may charge for these calls),
- at the following standard number: +32 22999696, or
- by electronic mail via: https://europa.eu/european-union/contact_en
FINDING INFORMATION ABOUT THE EU
Online
Information about the European Union in all the official languages of the EU is available on the Europa
website at: https://europa.eu/european-union/index_en
EU publications
You can download or order free and priced EU publications from EU Bookshop at:
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publications. Multiple copies of free publications may be obtained by
contacting Europe Direct or your local information centre (see https://europa.eu/european-
union/contact_en).
 KJ-NA-29869-EN-N

doi:10.2760/55062
47 ISBN 978-92-76-11711-7