Review

The Use of Weather Radar Data: Possibilities, Challenges and

Advanced Applications
Maria Silvia Binetti , Claudia Campanale , Carmine Massarelli * and Vito Felice Uricchio

Water Research Institute, Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy;
[email protected] (M.S.B.); [email protected] (C.C.);
[email protected] (V.F.U.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The climate in recent decades has aroused interest in the scientific community, prompting
us to analyse the mechanisms that regulate it, to understand the climate change responsible for an
increase in extreme phenomena. Consequently, the increase in hydrogeological instability in the
Italian territory has led to an in-depth study of atmospheric parameters to understand the variations
of the atmospheric system. One tool capable of detecting such variations is the weather radar. The
weather radar data available in the area provided by the National Radar Network of the Department
of Civil Protection allow the evaluation of variations on a national scale for hydro-meteorological-
climatic monitoring as well as the disasters that have occurred. Using open-source programming
software, the servers can be queried and data retrieved from a source to perform processing for
specific purposes through data extraction techniques.

Keywords: weather radar; extreme events; rainfall; flash floods; landslide; disaster management;
open-source software; python






Citation: Binetti, M.S.; Campanale,
C.; Massarelli, C.; Uricchio, V.F. The
1. Introduction
Use of Weather Radar Data:
Possibilities, Challenges and Climate is the synthesis statistic of atmospheric parameters (temperature, rain, mois-
Advanced Applications. Earth 2022, 3, ture, pressure, wind) which involve an area over a long time [1]. In recent decades, the
157–171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ climate has aroused interest in the scientific community pushing us to analyze the mecha-
earth3010012 nisms that regulate climate change. In this respect, the Glossary of Meteorology [2] provides
the following definitions for climate change: any systematic change in the long-term statis-
Academic Editor: Charles Jones
tics of climate elements (such as temperature, pressure, or winds) sustained over several
Received: 30 November 2021 decades or longer. Climate change is considered responsible for extreme weather events
Accepted: 31 January 2022 (tornadoes, high winds, hailstorms, flash floods) due to natural external or anthropogenic
Published: 3 February 2022 forcing [3]. Severe convective weather events trigger or have the potential to trigger flash
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
floods, landslides and potential hazards. The damages associated with extreme weather
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
events are relevant in terms of human and social costs; between 1980 and 2019, the Euro-
published maps and institutional affil- pean Environment Agency (EAA) member countries suffered economic losses totaling an
iations. estimated USD 500 billion [4]. In Italy, the situation is made worse by small catchments
along coastlines and by the Alps and Apennines Mountain chains.
This paper proposes an overview of radar applications, potential uses and a system for
the extraction of elaborated weather radar data. Data are based on open-source software,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. useful for producing new thematic maps, to reconstruct historical data related to a particular
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. event. The project provides access to information to allow risk assessment. This project is
This article is an open access article addressed to administrators, institutional users and citizens.
distributed under the terms and This paper is organised as follow:
conditions of the Creative Commons
• Section 1 provides a brief introduction to the theoretical background of Weather radar;
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
• Section 2 shows the potential use of weather radar resources in various applications such
4.0/).
as military, nautical, aviation, marine, meteorology, biology and weather surveillance;

Earth 2022, 3, 157–171. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3010012 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/earth

 Earth 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 2

Earth 2022, 3 158

• Section 2 shows the potential use of weather radar resources in various applications
such as military, nautical, aviation, marine, meteorology, biology and weather sur-
• Section
veillance;3 describes the hydrologic applications of weather radar with a focus on
• catastrophic impactsthe
Section 3 describes caused by floods;
hydrologic applications of weather radar with a focus on
• Section 4 summarizes the recent
catastrophic impacts caused by floods; advanced worldwide applications and report the
• result
Sectionof 4the Italian case
summarizes thehistory and, in detail,
recent advanced the Puglia
worldwide Regionand
applications casereport
studythe with a
brief discussion;
result of the Italian case history and, in detail, the Puglia Region case study with a
• Section 5 reports conclusions and opportunities for future work.
brief discussion;
• Section 5 reports conclusions and opportunities for future work.
Theoretical Background
Theoretical Background
The history of Weather Radar (abbreviation of RAdio Detecting And Ranging) begins
duringThe World
history ofII,Weather
War when military radar operators
Radar (abbreviation noticed
of RAdio extraneous
Detecting Andechoes
Ranging) showing
begins up
onduring
their display.
World War David Atlas was
II, when one radar
military of the operators
pioneers of radar extraneous
noticed meteorology, alongshowing
echoes with John
Stewart Marshall,
up on their display.Walter
DavidPalmer
Atlas and
was oneRichard
of theDoviak
pioneers [5].ofAfter
radarthe second world
meteorology, alongwar,
withJohn
Stewart Marshall
John Stewart and Walter
Marshall, WalterPalmer
Palmer investigated
and Richard Z-RDoviak
relationships in the Stormy
[5]. After Weather
second world
war, John
Group. Stewart Marshall
Furthermore, Richardand Walter
Doviak wasPalmer investigated
the father of DopplerZ-R relationships in the
radar at the National
Stormy and
Oceanic Weather Group. Furthermore,
Atmospheric Administration Richard Doviakfor
(NOAA) was the father
storm of Doppler
forecasting. Theseradar
areatjust
the National
some Oceanic and
of the milestones in theAtmospheric Administration
origins of weather radar. (NOAA) for storm forecasting.
These are justradars
Weather some of the milestones
send in the origins of weather
pulses of electromagnetic energy radar.
into the atmosphere, a mi-
crosecond of long microwave radiation to identify the presencethe
Weather radars send pulses of electromagnetic energy into ofatmosphere,
hydrometeors a micro-
[6]. Hy-
second of long microwave radiation to identify the presence of
drometeors from the Greek hýdōr-metéōros, which means literally “water that is high hydrometeors [6]. Hydro-
in the
meteors
sky” from all
represent thephenomena
Greek hýdōr-metéōros, which and
of condensation means literally “water
precipitation that is highhumidity
of atmospheric in the
insky”
liquidrepresent
or solid allparticles.
phenomena of condensation
When and precipitation
the pulses strike an object such of atmospheric humidity
as rain, hail, or snow,
in liquid or solid particles. When the pulses strike an object
Rayleigh scattering occurs and part of the energy is reflected back to the radar such as rain, hail, or snow,
receiver
Rayleigh
(Figure scattering
1) [5]. Rayleighoccurs and part
scattering of the
takes energy
place when is the
reflected back to the
wavelengths are radar
greater receiver
than the
(Figure 1)of[5].
diameters theRayleigh scattering
hydrometeor takesDifferent
particles. place when the wavelengths
wavelengths identifyareparticles
greater of
than the
different
diameters of the hydrometeor particles. Different wavelengths identify
sizes. Rayleigh scattering starts to become invalid when the hydrometeor diameters are particles of differ-
ent sizes.
large Rayleigh
(e.g., 2–3 scatteringtostarts
cm) compared to become invalid
the wavelength when the
of the X-band. hydrometeor
The X-band hasdiameters
the shortest
are large (e.g., 2–3 cm) compared to the wavelength of the X-band. The X-band has the
wavelength compared to the S and C bands.
shortest wavelength compared to the S and C bands.

Figure 1. Weather radar principle of function. Weather radar image reworked from source [7].
Earth 2022, 3 159

Weather radar works in three different frequency bands: S, C and X. S-band radar
has a longer wavelength (8–15 cm) and can provide rain detection up to 300 km. C-band
radar is medium-range (4–8 cm) and measures up to 200 km, and finally, the X-band radar
is the smallest wavelength (2.5–4 cm). These waves are well-suited for measuring up to
a range of 50 km [8]. Further, L-band radar (15–30 cm), with a frequency of 1–2 GHz,
is used for clear air turbulence studies, and K-band radar (0.75–1.2 or 1.7–2.5 cm), with
a frequency of 27–40 and 12–18 GHz, is similar to the X-band, but more sensitive when
compared to them. For example, in heavy rain, due to radar signal attenuation in the
X-Band, the reflectivity information can be completely hidden from radar scans [9]. This
does not happen for K-Bands.
Weather radars have five components: transmitter, antenna, radar processor, receiver,
display system. The transmitter generates electromagnetic pulses and the antenna sends
pulses into the atmosphere and receives the reflected pulses. The antenna dish can rotate
360 degrees horizontally and scan the atmosphere volume using different elevation angles.
The radar processor analyses the received data, and the receiver identifies the signal and
amplifies the weak signals received. Finally, the data system displays the radar data to
their viewers.
The precipitation estimate can be driven from different measurement techniques, such
as weather radar networks, rain gauge networks and meteorological satellites.
The weather radar equation is founded on the basic principles of radar, on the power
of transmission, propagation and reception of echo signals:

Pt · G2 · λ2 ·σ
Pr = (1)
(4π )3 ·r4

where Pr is the received power, Pt is the transmitted power, G is the antenna gain, σ is
the radar cross-section and λ is the transmitter’s wavelength [9]. The weather radar does
not measure rainfall directly but instead uses an algorithm to estimate rainfall from radar
observation [10,11]. The radar calculates rainfall intensities, R (mm h−1 ), from the observed
radar reflectivity, Z (mm6 m−3 ), in single-polarized radar [12]. The rainfall intensity and
reflectivity are related by a power law [13]. The coefficient of the power law relationship
is required to transform reflectivity to rainfall rate [14]. Dual-polarized radar produces
both horizontal and vertical electromagnetic waves to detect the shapes, size, density and
distribution of water droplets in the atmosphere [15].
The radar reflectivity Z product displays echo intensity measured in decibels (dBZ).
Depending on the software system or user preference, the colors display the different
echo intensities, from very weak to very strong hydrometeors. For example, the green–
light-blue is related to light rain precipitation when the dBZ value touches 20. The yellow
(approximately 35 dBZ value) shows moderate precipitation, while red (approximately
50 dBZ value) is for heavy precipitation. The higher radar reflectivity is related to hailstones
mixed in with the liquid hydrometeors (approximately 65 dBZ value).
The rain gauge network measures the accumulated rainfall as a function of time.
This technique uses a point measurement with a temporal resolution of 1 min–1 h. The
instruments count drop measure differently to disdrometers, which measure the statistical
distribution of drop size [14].
Finally, meteorological satellites for rainfall estimation were developed to strengthen
hydrological models and weather forecasting [16]. Rainfall estimates from the radar can
also be combined with estimates from meteorological satellites, potentially strengthening
the reliability of hydrological models and weather forecasts.
There are numerous sources of errors that affect the weather radar measurement. The
errors are due to hardware error, radar beam geometry, scan strategy, the distance from
the radar site, echoes from the non-meteorological target, orographic obstacles, attenuation
signal and anomalous propagation of the radar beam [8,17,18]. It is important to be familiar
with the errors of the radar measurement and the processing complexity.
Earth 2022, 3 160

2. Potential Use of Weather Radar Resources

Radar is used in various applications, such as military, nautical, aviation, marine,
meteorology, biology and weather surveillance. Weather radars are essentially employed
for measurement and forecasting atmospheric phenomena.
The drastic increase of extreme weather events has led to increased frequency and
severity of flood events. Hus et al. [19] developed an automatically combined ground
weather radar with images in real-time for flood monitoring. Closed-circuit television
systems were combined with automatically combined ground weather radar, providing
information regarding the water level in flood monitoring. This system allows one to make
a quick evacuation decision to reduce the adverse effect. Rapant et al. [20] presented a
method with a different technique to obtain a dynamic pluvial flash flooding hazard forecast.
This approach uses weather radar data to carry information on the current precipitation
distribution, watershed and drainage network. In more detail, the 2D weather radar data
are transformed into 1D signals related to the section of watercourses. If the system detects
danger, it sends a possible warning of flash flooding to neighbouring municipalities. The
experimental result showed a substantial reduction in false alarms against imminent flash
floods, including the saturation indicator.
Another application of weather radar is wildfire monitoring and filling in the knowl-
edge gaps regarding dangerous fire conditions. Wildfires constitute considerable nat-
ural hazards, and Doppler radar can be used to identify the fire behaviour of wildfire
plumes [21].
Maki et al. [22] analyse 3D weather radar data from volcanic eruption clouds to under-
stand the ash-fall transportation. It is possible to construct a radar reflectivity microphysical
model to quantify the eruption regimes [23]. Building off previous experimental observa-
tions, it is possible to achieve the classification of eruption regime and volcanic ash category
and estimate ash concentration.
Voormansik et al. [24] presented a method to detect thunderstorm hail and lightning
with C-band dual-polarization Doppler radar. These convective storms, associated with
lightning and hail, cause financial losses and significant damage to infrastructure. The
radar lightning estimation identifies which cells are rapidly growing and approaching the
measures likely to produce lightning in the foreseeable future. The study is based on four
years of the summer periods in Estonia; it was found that 33.9% of the identified cells
produced lightning and 25.9% produced hail.
Weather radar can be used in biology to study bird migration at temporal end spatial
scales. The detailed information on the areal movements of an organism can be explored
to create interpreting regional-scale migration patterns and information in the landscape
and aerial environment [25]. Polarimetric radar observation is used for bird detection.
Furthermore, recent studies have been conducted using weather radars to explore the
harmful influence of artificial light on migratory bird populations [26]. Using multi-year
weather radar measurement, it has been shown that birds are attracted to artificial light
while in flight, and this inhibits habitat selection. The choice of high-quality stopover
habitat is crucial for the conservation of bird populations. Another study evaluated the
spatial and temporal variation in nocturnal migration patterns that are affected by winds.
This first continental-scale study used 70 weather radar stations in Europe for investigating
the ecosystem consequences of large-scale bird movements [27]. Several studies report the
impressive decline of bird population that defined the global biodiversity crisis [28].
Current weather radar literature research has investigated the offshore wind fluctu-
ations for optimizing the administration of wind farms in real-time. Trombe et al. [29]
present an automated decision-support system based on the collection of meteorological
observations at high spatio-temporal resolutions to provide relevant inputs to prediction
systems. Also of relevance is the interference of echoes from the wind farm to weather
radar [30].
The use of weather radar also concerns human health. Using machine learning
methods and Next Generation Weather Radar data, it is possible to estimate daily pollen
Earth 2022, 3 161

over a 300 km × 300 km region at a resolution of 0.5 km × 0.5 km [31]. The models are
developed using radar measurements of reflectivity, direction and speed of the wind, line
of sight Doppler velocity and spectral width at the lowest two elevations to estimate the
daily pollen dispersal. The study results provide pollen alerts and predict allergic pollen of
different species.
Recent weather radar literature has investigated the Radar Simulator, which can
reproduce realistic weather radar measurement [32–34]. The simulation starts from a
known meteorological scenario to build processing algorithms.
The increasing use of weather radar generates a large amount of data transmission
and storage. Zeng et al. [35] present a weather radar lossless compression approach called
spatial and temporal prediction compression (STPC).
Regarding interference in weather radar, the growth of wireless telecommunication
systems represents the primary concern with regards to guaranteeing radar data quality.
The electromagnetic interference negatively affects the quantitative precipitation estimation
and can lead to a biased hydrometeor classification [36]. Oh et al. [37] proposed a clutter
elimination algorithm for the non-precipitation echo of radar data, such as anomalous
propagation and interference, biological target and sea clutter.
Concerning airborne weather radar, the literature is extensive. Airborne weather radar
detect potential weather hazards during flight. Li et al. [34] introduce a microphysics-
based simulator applied in different weather scenarios to address the theoretical basis and
uncertainties of hydrometeor scattering. Nepal et al. [38] present a radar implementation
on a low-cost weather radar platform for multi-mission applications. Nekrasov et al. [39]
developed a conceptual approach for measuring near-surface wind vectors with airborne
weather radar to predict the future sea surface conditions and weather patterns.

3. Hydrologic Applications of Weather Radar

Surface precipitation measurements are extremely important in hydrology, climatol-
ogy and meteorology studies. These data can be improved by using weather radar and
conventional rain and snow gauges.
Recent advances in digital radar data management make it possible to provide
high-resolution quantitative precipitation information (QPI) for a wide range of hydro-
logical applications [40]. With the progress of Geographical Information System (GIS)
technology, radar-based quantitative precipitation estimates (QPE) have enabled routine
high-resolution hydrologic modeling worldwide [41]. Recent progress and changes in
weather radar hydrologic applications make its use a crucial tool for water resource man-
agement. The main topics of growth concerning weather radar applied to hydrology
related to: (i) radar QPE [42–46], (ii) multi-radar and multi-sensor precipitation analy-
sis [47–49], (iii) hydrologic modelling [50–52], (iv) urban hydrologic and hydraulic appli-
cations [48,53–56], (v) precipitation frequency analysis [57,58], (vi) hydrometeorological
process studies [59,60], (vii) precipitation nowcasting, forecasting [61], (viii) hydrometeoro-
logical applications [62].

Floods Forecasting
Catastrophic impacts caused by floods worldwide will tend to grow due to more
frequent climate changes in the next few years [63]. A flood is an excess of water that inun-
dates usually dry land, with tragic effects. The factors responsible for flooding include the
greenhouse effect, seismic and neotectonics activities, excessive development, soil erosion,
damming of rivers, deforestation, riverbed aggradation, subsidence and compaction of
sediments, inadequate sediment accumulation and local relative sea-level rise [64]. The
negative impact of flooding includes economic damage to structures, roadways and bridges,
and especially life loss [65–67].
An essential component of flood management is implementing and improving flood
forecasting and warning systems.
Earth 2022, 3 162

Over the past years, institutions have adopted different data collection systems for
supporting flood management, including rainfall gauges, hydrological stations, humidity
sensors, and weather data. Unlike in situ sensors capable of monitoring only a limited
region, weather radar is remote sensing-based equipment that measures the volume of
rainfall over an entire area instead of measuring a single point.
Recently, several countries have investigated using weather radar precipitation to
improve situation awareness in a disaster and early warnings (e.g., floods). In a case study
carried out in São Paulo, Brazil, in the period 2017–2018, crowdsensing and weather radar
data together helped generate high-quality information at more satisfactory spatial and
temporal resolutions to improve the decision-making related to weather-related disaster
events. Rainfall data provided by two weather radars located in the city were used to
validate flooded areas identified by volunteered information. Moreover, a clustering
approach identified those flooded areas, which may support more informative decisions in
flood management.
Based on the soil saturation, the physical-geographical characteristics of an area and
QPEs and forecasts (QPFs) is possible to calculate a Flash Flood Indicator (FFI). This system
is used at the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute to evaluate the risk of flash floods
resulting from torrential rainfall events over the whole Czech Republic. To improve the
accuracy of flash flood forecasting, accurate calculations of QPEs and QPFs are required [68].
Radar data were also used in 2021 to test a new method in the Czech Republic to
forecast the flash flooding hazard usually occurring in very small, typically ungauged,
watersheds using raw weather radar data and watercourse network. The developed
method can provide a map of the flash flooding hazard distribution on the watercourse
sections. This result allows an evaluation of the identified hazard and a risk estimation for
inhabitants of the area, with a system of alerts for municipalities [20].
In Taiwan, taking advantage of a dense network of surveillance cameras installed
in the city, an automatic ground weather radar (ARMT) and a closed-circuit television
system were combined to develop images for real-time flood monitoring. The system
integrates real-time ground radar echo images and automatically estimates a rainfall
hotspot according to the cloud intensity, providing real-time warning information. The
ARMT showed reliability between 83 and 92% using historical data input, while with
real-time data, reliability slightly decreased from 79 to 93% [19].

4. Overview of Recent Advanced Worldwide Applications

There are many weather radar applications in multiple areas. Table 1 reports the
most significant studies, with their reference, for applications that we consider most rep-
resentative, with a summary regarding the principal aims. The applications are divided
into two main categories: natural disasters (flood events, wildfires, volcanic ash) and the
enhancement of ecosystem services (airborne, urban hydrology, bird migration), which
indicate the many advantages to humans furnished by the natural environment and from
healthy ecosystems, as popularized in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [69].
Table 1. Recent advanced worldwide applications.

Year of
Application Principal Aim Application Reference
Publication
Flood events Substantial reduction in false alarms 2021 [20]
Understanding of volcanic eruption column dynamics and horizontal
Volcanic ash 2021 [22]
Natural ash-fall transportation with three-dimensional analyses
disasters Wildfires A better understanding of fire behaviour and fire atmosphere interaction 2019 [21]
Thunderstorm hail and Reduced financial losses and significant damage to infrastructure products
2017 [24]
lightning by thunderstorm hail and lightning
Detailed information on bird movements in the landscape and aerial 2020
Bird migration [25]
environment
Enhancement Wind farms Detecting interference from wind farm echoes 2019 [30]
of ecosystem Pollen 2019
Providing pollen alerts and predicting allergic pollen of different species [31]
services concentration
Urban hydrology Improve the applicability of radar and rain gauge rainfall estimates 2019 [55]
Airborne Radar implementation low-cost for multi-mission applications 2017 [38]
Earth 2022, 3 163

4.1. Italian Case Studies

The Italian Civil Protection Department is designed to monitor weather-hydrological
and volcanic ash fallout. The Department has the fundamental role of gathering and
coordinating the national resources necessary and ensuring assistance to the population in
case of emergency.
The Italian national weather radar network is coordinated by the Civil Protection De-
partment (DPC), in collaboration with the Air Traffic Control service (ENAV), the Weather
Service of the Air Force (CNMCA), regional authorities and research centers. The Ital-
ian radar network includes both C-band radars and five dual-polarized X-band radars,
deployed throughout the country [70]. The Civil Protection Department provides a plat-
form called Radar-DPC [71] that allows seeing both ongoing phenomena and those of the
previous six days on a national scale. This platform provides basic products, previously
processed data from ground stations networks, satellite and lightning [72]. We focused
on Vertical Maximum Intensity (VMI), which represents the maximum reflectivity value
present in the vertical column above each point. The VMI can be used for general monitor-
ing, as it allows one to distinguish very well the areas in which significant phenomena are
underway and to classify them according to their type (fronts, convection systems, etc.).
The reflectivity dBZ is a quantity directly related to the cloud’s density, and therefore to the
water content. Reflectivity values higher than 10 dBZ usually (but not necessarily) indi-
cate the presence of precipitation on the ground (values lower are typically not displayed
to avoid disturbances and/or residues of unwanted clutter, increasing the data quality
threshold). Reflectivity values above 40 dBZ are considered very intense, and when value
of 45 dBZ are reached and exceeded, there is a high probability of extreme phenomena
dangerous for people, animals or things, and these values typically indicate the presence of
convective storms with high rainfall rates.

4.2. The Puglia Region Case Study

The Puglia region is located in southern Italy and shows landform depending on struc-
tural and geolithological factors. The prevailing morphologic characteristic of the Apulian
region is the presence of plains and hills with highly diversified climatic conditions [73].
It is possible to discern the area in five main physiographic areas: Daunian Appennines,
Gargano, Tavoliere, high and low Murge and Salento. The region is segmented by a NW-SE
trending normal fault, divided into three structural blocks of Mesozoic limestone with
different degrees of uplift: Gargano, Murge and Salento. Daunian Appennines, the eastern
boundary of the southern Appenninic chain, is characterized by hilly landscapes, with the
highest peak being approximately 1150 m. The Tavoliere, the northern part of the Bradanic
Trough domain, is the wildest alluvial plain in south Italy (Figure 2).
In recent years, there have been more and more frequent phenomena of soil instability
related to the evolution of the slopes, the collapses along the high coast and the sinking of
underground cavities as well as floods for which, given the heterogeneity of the territory,
it is always difficult to correctly identify the areas involved as it is necessary to process
the data further. So, considering the particular characteristics of the territory and above
all its heterogeneity, in order to insert a further phase of data processing that could also
include these geomorphological aspects of the territory, a system for data extraction and
use of weather data in real-time has been implemented, followed by a specific processing
workflow. This application has been tested at a regional scale. The technique, called data
extraction, refers to the process, put into practice by a user, of extracting and retrieving
data from a data source to perform further processing or storage.
 tions [73]. It is possible to discern the area in five main physiographic areas: Daunian Ap-
pennines, Gargano, Tavoliere, high and low Murge and Salento. The region is segmented by
a NW-SE trending normal fault, divided into three structural blocks of Mesozoic lime-
stone with different degrees of uplift: Gargano, Murge and Salento. Daunian Appennines,
the eastern boundary of the southern Appenninic chain, is characterized by hilly land-
Earth 2022, 3 164
scapes, with the highest peak being approximately 1150 m. The Tavoliere, the northern
part of the Bradanic Trough domain, is the wildest alluvial plain in south Italy (Figure 2).

Earth 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 9

(a)

(b)

Figure
Figure 2. 2.
(a)(a) Administrative
Administrative limits
limits of the
of the Puglia
Puglia region
region (Base
(Base mapmap
fromfrom
BingBing Maps).
Maps). (b) Geograph-
(b) Geographical
ical subdivisions based on the morphology of the territory of the Puglia region
subdivisions based on the morphology of the territory of the Puglia region (Base map (Base map from
from SIT
SIT
Puglia [74]).
Puglia [74]).

In recent years, there have been more and more frequent phenomena of soil instabil-
ity related to the evolution of the slopes, the collapses along the high coast and the sinking
of underground cavities as well as floods for which, given the heterogeneity of the terri-
tory, it is always difficult to correctly identify the areas involved as it is necessary to pro-
cess the data further. So, considering the particular characteristics of the territory and
Earth 2022, 3 165

The created real-time radar weather data system extracts the weather-climatic data
from DPC. Its data structures are implemented through relational databases and are based
on a complex system architecture [75]; the services [76] are provided through an open-
source server for sharing geospatial data designed for interoperability [77]. These services
are provided according to the standards [78].
Consultation of the DPC platform [71] takes place through interactive maps and allows
access to weather-radar products compatible with international standards to exchange
geo-related data.
The spread of web databases has made numerous data accessible to users [79]. As
mentioned, the DPC radar platform allows the visualization of radar weather data over
the previous seven days; on this assumption, a specific data extraction procedure has been
implemented based on the open-source scripting language python [80], as shown below.
Python was chosen because it is considered very robust and highly versatile and has a
consistent number of python bindings [81], which are packages and extensions tools for
programming and manipulating the Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL) [82].
First of all, it is important to be aware of the territory extension to extrapolate the data,
the resolution with which these are provided and, consequently, the coordinates of the
bounding box based on information [83].
The data extraction system has been implemented through python scripts based
mainly on the ogr, gdal, pyproj, NumPy and PIL libraries and allows the geo-referencing of
the information, which can be viewed on the radar platform available to the user.
Below we report the rules used for data extraction and georeferencing in pseudocode
format; this is a way of expressing an algorithm without conforming to specific syntax rules
and is an efficient way to communicate ideas and concepts (note that indentation represents
nested code). The purpose of inserting this pseudocode is to make people understand
the operating principles of the extraction technique implemented in order to be able to
replicate it.
START
defining bounding box
defining time of the query
executing query via urllib.urlretrieve method
saving the tiles provided as the response from DPC servers
load the image tiles in the memory
transform the images into NumPy array
for each X Y dimension of the NumPy array do this:
if parameters of X and value of Y is more than 250 for component
Red and equal to 0 for the components Green and Blue of the
colours:
save these coordinates in another NumPy array
open this second array of coordinates
for each couple of coordinates memorised and considering the X and
Y coordinates of the bounding box:
add a line to a file with attributes coordinate_X and
coordinate_Y
save the file
END
(An array is a grid of values and it contains information about the
raw data, how to locate an element and how to interpret an element.
It has a grid of elements that can be indexed in various ways.)

The DPC servers are queried by executing the script, the data of interest selected and
the radar weather data tiles for the area of interest saved in the PC. The areas with powerful
phenomena in progress are then selected, processed and classified as fronts or convection
systems, and their coordinates are saved.
Below are the reported results of n; two tests were performed on the whole Puglia
territory. It is possible to view the perimeter of the Puglia Region, the coverage map of the
radar services provided with the VMI parameter and the result of the script execution. The
red dots represent points of a shapefile imported into a Geographical Information System
(GIS) of very heavy rain cores present at that time (Figure 3).
 Below are the reported results of n; two tests were performed on the whole Puglia
territory. It is possible to view the perimeter of the Puglia Region, the coverage map of the
radar services provided with the VMI parameter and the result of the script execution.
Earth 2022, 3 166
The red dots represent points of a shapefile imported into a Geographical Information
System (GIS) of very heavy rain cores present at that time (Figure 3).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Legend
Colour bar related to the intensity of the phenomena in progress from DPC.

weak
Earth 2022, moderate
3, FOR PEER REVIEW intense strong very strong 12

Vertical Maximum Intensity Points obtained after executing the script.

Administrative limits of Puglia Region.
Figure 3. Example of two tests carried out: (a) and (c) are data from DPC servers, respectively, on 4
Figure 3. Example of two tests carried out: (a) and (c) are data from DPC servers, respectively, on
July 2020 and at 21:00 and 14 October 2021 at 17:00, (b) and (d) are the same data with the point
4 July 2020 and at 21:00 and 14 October 2021 at 17:00, (b) and (d) are the same data with the point
obtained after running the script and imported into a GIS system.
obtained after running the script and imported into a GIS system.
Figure 3 shows how the data extraction technique outputs a reliable result. Other
tests have been carried out, but the results have always only been satisfactory. The points
with a red circle (on the right of the figures), obtained from data on the left of the figure,
have been imported into a GIS system and superimposed on the official data of the DPC.
Therefore, we can assert that the extraction technique works well as we can now use the
Earth 2022, 3 167

Figure 3 shows how the data extraction technique outputs a reliable result. Other tests
have been carried out, but the results have always only been satisfactory. The points with a
red circle (on the right of the figures), obtained from data on the left of the figure, have been
imported into a GIS system and superimposed on the official data of the DPC. Therefore,
we can assert that the extraction technique works well as we can now use the data provided
according to our needs. Moreover, this can be done every time the DPC data is updated,
i.e., every 15 min.
The use of the processed data, made possible by implementing this ICT tool through
the scripting language in python, allows any user to query the databases and obtain solid
rainfall values related to a specific territory point in a given moment. Following the query,
the result could also be provided in the form of a summary report or information sheet
containing a series of useful information relating to the calculation and validation process
already carried out by the DPC, which is very useful for understanding the phenomena
in progress and those that have previously taken place, and also for insurance purposes.
Pursuing this goal, where the areas of interest and the reasons require it, we could apply
geostatistical techniques and algorithms to obtain more precise results according to the
peculiarities of the considered area. This result could also be pursued by integrating
the data with other available data sources, such as the weather stations of the Regional
Agrometeorological Service (ARIF) [84] and those provided by the Regional Agency for
the Prevention and Protection of the Environment (ARPA) [85]. Regarding this, it seems
relevant to us to implement an Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) based spatialization
algorithm contemplating other factors such as the altitudes, the distance from the sea and
rivers (the five largest in Puglia) to obtain measurements more accurate by weighing the
recorded values with the mutual distances.
The IDW algorithm represents a deterministic spatial interpolation method (it pro-
duces the same results if the input data are the same) proposed by Shepard [86]. It is one of
the more popular methods used by hydrologists and earth scientists, it is easy to imple-
ment, and most specialized software integrates it among the basic options. It is applied
to estimate unknown values based on known values, assuming closer values are more
related than further values. It uses only distance to make estimates. For this reason, we
believe it necessary to implement it by integrating the calculating of the weighted values of
other variables.
Finally, working exclusively with open-source software, the goal is to develop interop-
erability services and tools between databases. This makes the maximum diffusion and
use of high value-added services for the Public Administration possible, increasing the
potential of the interoperability standards that can be implemented, for which the Italian
Agency has recently adopted the Guidelines [87].

5. Conclusions and Future Challenges

This study proposes an overview of possibilities, challenges and advanced applications
in weather radar. Weather radar measurements have enormous prospective in various
applications, in particular hydrological ones. As a result of straightforward reworking,
the weather radar data of the Department of Civil Protection can be used and enhanced
in the different regional territories for different purposes. The approach identified and
described in this report allows the extraction of weather radar data. These data evolve into
information and then into knowledge. This is easily divulged for the provision of a series
of predictive services, emergency management and the assessment of damage resulting
from extreme events. In addition, python proves to be a versatile and powerful tool for
managing data with a strong space-time connotation. Because of this, it was possible to
develop a new ICT tool that was able to use information already available but in a different
way from how it is currently used, for example, for insurance purposes. This can ensure
fair rewards for citizens affected by extreme events and identify the illegal conduct of
undue claims.
Earth 2022, 3 168

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.S.B., C.M. and C.C.; methodology, M.S.B. and C.M.;
software, C.M.; validation, M.S.B., C.M. and C.C.; formal analysis, M.S.B., C.M. and C.C.; investi-
gation, M.S.B.; resources, C.M. and V.F.U.; data curation, M.S.B. and C.C.; writing—original draft
preparation, M.S.B. and C.C.; writing—review and editing, M.S.B., C.M. and C.C.; visualization,
M.S.B., C.M. and C.C.; supervision, C.M.; project administration, V.F.U.; funding acquisition, V.F.U.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Omninext Group.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Acknowledgments: We thank ©2021 Omnitech, S.r.l., Omninext Group for helpful discussions in
this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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