1

Golden Ruler of Mali: Mansa Musa

Kristen Leigh Serrano

Intricate parts of Mali scriptures had suffered at the hands of dreadful fires, but traces of

its culture remain as a valuable part of Africa. Mansa Musa, an emperor of Mali during the

fourteenth century, ensured Islamic religion and sealed countless ends to form an astonishing

civilization for his people. Mansa Musa traveled with an entourage of followers, but he solely

promoted Islam in West African society during his pilgrimage toward Mecca. He was the most

influential African ruler and secured this position with his political advantages, economic wealth,

character and unwavering Islamic devotion to institute the country as a renowned place for

Muslim faith from sheer will. Mansa Musa had an impenetrable legacy that vastly transformed

remarkable Islamic cities, more specifically the city of Timbuktu. This change by Mansa Musa,

provided a vibrant setting for many scholars, poets, and devout followers to develop both their

spiritual and intellectual pursuits.

Islam originated from Saudi Arabia, spread by word from Prophet Muhammad. Through,

the trans-Saharan trade route, Arabian merchants and traders were given the opportunity to

spread their faith and culture in North Africa. They were persistent and traveled through the

extreme conditions of the Sinai desert and the Red Sea in order to successfully reach their

destination up north.1 Their trip to North Africa imminently led them to pursue Western Africa

for trade. In this African civilization, the traders exhorted both their religion and culture, but the

citizens of both regions did not immediately convert. As the years resumed, Muslims from

Mecca and African communication increased which allowed Muslims to develop their practice in

1
Kat Cendana, “Leaders of Mali Converted to Islam,” Amazing Bible Timeline, 7 April 2017,
hCps://amazingbibleFmeline.com/blog/mali-converted-islam-leaders/ (19 November 2023) .
 2

an entirely new continent. 2 Different regions of Africa merged into the thirteenth century Mali

Empire in place of Ghana. This was done by the first ruler of the empire, Sundiata Keita.

Contrary to his great-nephew, Mansa Musa, Sundiata Keita showed an unclear interest in Islamic

faith.3 His beliefs, similar to many other kings at the time, were a mixture of both Islamic and

traditional religion.4Nevertheless, his absence of faith did not shroud his powerful leadership his

ruling served as a tool of flexibility for his people.

Mansa Musa was the most influential African leader, even when he was put up against

Sundiata Keita, the powerful creator of the Mali Empire. Before Islam had fully reformed the

country of Africa, the religion blended with their polytheistic African traditions in a disorderly

fashion.5 Sundiata Keita was the prime ruler that embodied this state of Africa. He was not

particularly Muslim, nor did he try to practice the religion, but his ruling contained many

flexibilities that catered to a variety. There was no clear basis with the rules or practices he

established when he first created Mali, which could lead many to be skeptical of Islam in the first

place. Mansa Musa, due to his strict Islamic devotion, flipped the tides during the fourteenth

century. He instituted countless changes within his citizens’ faith and eventually converted Mali

into a landmark unlike other African rulers. His faith and religion were a tremendous part of his

identity, shown through his virtue and motivation of forgiveness from God.

Mansa Musa, unlike the previous ruler, was born as a Muslim in the fourteenth century

and set on a pilgrimage to Mecca to be forgiven for his faults and strengthen the spiritual aspect

2
Margari Hill, “Mixing, and Reform from the Eighth to the TwenFeth Century,” Spice FSI, January 2009,
hCps://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_
the_eighth_to_the_twenFeth_century (19 November 2023).
3
Margari Hill, “Mixing, and Reform.”
4
Margari Hill, “Mixing and Reform.”
5
“The Kingdom of Mali and the City of Timbuktu in the 14th Century,” South African History Online. 21
January 2015. hCps://www.sahistory.org.za/arFcle/grade-7-term-1-kingdom-mali-and-city-Fmbuktu-14th-century
(19 November 2023)
 3

of his life.6 This specific pilgrimage is called hajj, in which all devout Muslims are expected to

eventually travel to Mecca, Prophet Muhammad’s birthplace. This journey is completed by many

Muslims because it was portrayed as a way to cleanse sins and form a more intimate relationship

with God. A variety of sources have stated different numbers when addressing the amount of

Mansa Musa’s traveling entourage, but it was consistently declared that he trekked alongside a

total of a hundred camels that each carried a load of gold with him during his hajj.7 Mansa Musa

and his followers traveled the trans-Saharan trade route which included passing many cities in

the Sahara Desert, Sinai Desert, and the Red Sea. In Saudi Arabia. Through this trade route he

managed to visit Cairo, Medina, and Mecca, his final destination being Mecca. During this time,

the primary exchange made in the trans-Saharan trade routes were salt and gold, but Mansa Musa

exceeded that expectation. The wealth would eventually lead Cairo, Egypt into a depression

despite his honorable intentions and land him a place on The Catalan Atlas made by Abraham

Cresques.

Mansa Musa’s great-uncle and first ruler of the Mali Empire, Sundiata Keita, contributed

as a foundation for Musa’s ruling. As the successor of this newfound empire along with a

towering economic advantage, Mansa Musa was facilitated as one of the richest people in

history. He encountered various cities and blessed them with gold, especially Cairo, as he

“forwarded to the royal treasury many loads of unworked native gold and other valuables.”8

Europeans had explored the lands of Africa and was fortunate enough to encounter Mansa Musa

on his pilgrimage. The creation of The Catalan Atlas provided evidence that the men had

6
Al Hajj Mahmud KaF, Tarikh al Fa*ash, ed. and trans. Christopher Wise (Trenton: Africa World Press,
2011) pp. 64.
7
“Journey to Mali: 1350-1351,” ORIAS UC Berkeley, October 2016, hCps://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-
teachers/travels-ibn-baCuta/journey/journey-mali-1350-1351 (19 November 2023).
8
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, trans. by J. F. P. Hopkins
(Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2000), pp. 269.
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depicted Mansa Musa as a wealthy leader. This preserved map featured Mansa Musa wearing a

crown with a round piece of gold in one hand, a golden staff in another.9 The Europeans most

likely caused the information of Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage. Some of this information that

declared he had traveled with an entourage of over 60,000 people, which included slaves,

women, and warriors from his homeland. The abundance of gold carried by his camels was also

a huge binding factor that contributed to the significant connections he formed within this

journey.10

The most notable part of a nation are its allies and overall relation to the thousand nations

across the globe. Mansa Musa strengthened this connection with other countries as he traveled

on his pilgrimage. The journey was not solely accomplished from his influence, but also the

already existing state of his country which contributed to his wealth. Africa, specifically West

Africa, was a goldmine that every foreigner drooled over and yearned to get their grubby hands

on its gold. So, when Mansa Musa headed north for his pilgrimage, people ogled his riches due

to their unfamiliarity with such. In the end, the endless abundance of gold led Europe to trade

with the citizens of sub-Saharan Africa. Between Europe and the West African coast, Africans

had exchanged their slaves, gold, and ivory for Europe’s salt, cloth, and other goods. The gold

sub-Saharan Africa traded was either carried by camel or slave, which wholly explained the

structure of the entourage Mansa Musa had decided to travel alongside with through the Sahara

Desert. Unfortunately, the latter either died from thirst, starvation, or overexertion as they

trekked through the harsh conditions.11 By that time, the gold had already been spent inside the

nations he and his entourage traveled through. Mansa Musa used the gold to generously spend

9
Abraham Cresques, The Catalan Atlas, 1375 C.E., Atlas of MariFme Charts.
10
ORIAS UC Berkeley, “Journey to Mali: 1350-1351.”
11
South African History Online, “The Kingdom of Mali.”
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his luck on those less fortunate. This led to a significantly increased trust in neighboring nations

and secured the trade routes in and out of Mali. For example, after his pilgrimage to Mecca,

Egypt and Mali had a vast improvement in trade.12

During the fourteenth century, Mansa Musa had an imperious amount of wealth that

generously shifted the perspective foreigners had on Africa. They had known Africa was a

goldmine, but Mansa Musa’s affluent attire and uniform character was bound to greatly

emphasize the value of his nation. The land’s wealth at the time, especially the sultan’s wealth,

improved the relations Mali had with other countries. This made both trade and religion

uncomplicated during Mansa Musa’s rule in the fourteenth century. His wealth lasted two whole

years as he traveled on his pilgrimage to Mecca; lavishly spent due to his grandiose expenditures.

A section of his journey consisted of a rest in the city of Cairo which ended up flooded with his

treasures. Inflation skyrocketed in this city, even though the price of gold prior to Mansa Musa’s

appearance was tremendously high. Alongside the camels that transported his gold and goods, he

traveled with slaves, warriors, women, and many more followers that originated from his empire.

The most important and well-known account of the sultan, Mansa Musa, was written by

an Arab historian, Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari. He described the stories he heard about Mansa Musa

and expressed his extreme wealth and method of practice when preaching God:

It was though he [Mansa Musa] were standing before Him because of His continual

presence in his mind. He and all those with him behaved in the same manner and were

well-dressed, grave, and dignified. He was noble and generous and performed many acts

of charity and kindness. He had left his country with 100 loads of gold which he spent

during his Pilgrimage on the tribes who lay along his route from his country to Egypt…13

12
“South African History Online, “The Kingdom of Mali.”
13
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p. 269
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These stories were written after Mansa Musa had left Cairo to continue his pilgrimage. Ibn

Fadllalah arrived after the sultan’s rest only to encounter the tales of the Cairo citizens. His

primary impression of Mansa Musa was that his actions were “not permissible for a Muslim,

whether in law or reason”14. From the standpoint of Ibn Fadllalah, the sultan had unorthodox and

unacceptable practices. His authority as a king was speculated to be the reason for these actions.

As the king of Mali, Mansa Musa was doused in riches and was offered beautiful daughters as

concubines as soon as they were born.15 Mansa Musa’s rest in Cairo diminished the value of gold

for twelve whole years. It was of great value before his arrival, but Mansa Musa’s gold led the

citizens of Cairo to the act of “buying and selling and giving and taking”16 since they had greatly

profited off his purchases. This instance primarily illustrates the impact the sultan’s wealth had

on the economy from even nations outside his own.

Gold was a massive portion of Mansa Musa’s overall legacy, but his character was also

filled with virtue, and his motivations were anything but a façade.17 Mansa Musa went on the

hajj after he had accidentally killed his mother and felt a drastic feelings of remorse.18 After her

death, “he gave away enormous sums of money throughout his life, both in alms and on behalf of

those who fasted.”19 From his perspective, Mansa Musa speculated that the pilgrimage and

money was his path to forgiveness. Although, Mansa Musa was not a saint, he was incredibly

generous and showed compassion to those around him. Most notably, his wife, Inari Konte.

Konte had wished for a river in the middle of their camp, but the nearest river was a two-week

walk away. In the end, Mansa Musa had hinted towards his slaves and servants to bring a river to

14
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p. 268.
15
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p. 268.
16
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p. 271.
17
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p.268.
18
Al Hajj Mahmud KaF, p. 64.
19
Al Hajj Mahmud KaF, p. 64.
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the camp using just the tools around them. This river caused the Inari and other women on the

pilgrimage to become “radiant and joyful, pushing and shoving their way towards the river.”20

Many rulers may have seen his wife’s problems above themselves, but Mansa Musa’s religious

view and devotions motivated him to bless his wife with a gift beyond his capabilities. This

instance exhibits the sheer drive Mansa Musa had for those around him and explained the

number of new followers he had gathered to head back to Mali alongside him. His prestige and

followers did not solely manifest through his valuables, but his personality as well, as it

amplified his credibility towards those skeptical of his generosity.

Before his trip back to Mali, Mansa Musa had singlehandedly persuaded and acquired

more followers for his group with the use of his political advantage. The majority of the people

the sultan brought back were Arab scholars that were to widen and elevate the teachings of

Islam. Out of the few that were not scholars, was a poet and architect from Mecca named Abu

Ishaq al-Sahili. Another man that was completely devoted to his practice, was also highly

talented with words.21 This made the communication between him and Musa easier due to

Musa’s linguistic intelligence in Arabic.22 The sultan thoroughly studied the culture of his

religion, and this only further confirmed that his Islamic practice was not solely for selfish

intentions. His fluency showed the Arab scholars, and other followers, that he was a person that

considered those around him and put in the work to secure his standing within that group. This

huge influential characteristics from Mansa Musa brought Abu Ishaq al-Sahili to join his

entourage and follow his leadership.

20
Al Hajj Mahmud KaF, p. 69.
21
J.O. Hunwick, “AN ANDALUSIAN IN MALI: A ContribuFon to the Biography of Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, c. 1290-
1346,” Paideuma 36 (1990): 60.
22
Hunwick, “AN ANDALUSIAN IN MALI,” 61.
 8

When the architect, Abu Ishaq, arrived at Timbuktu, he constructed a renowned landmark

in Africa called Djingareyber Mosque in 1327 C.E. which would not have been established

without Mansa Musa’s influence over his followers. This mosque had an architectural foundation

of tied wooden beams and brick slathered with mud. It was later rebuilt a in the sixteenth century

by Imm Al Aqib, a scholar of Timbuktu, to stabilize its structure for future use. Mosques were

destined to be used for prayers and religious events, but it was not consistently used for one

function throughout the centuries. Since mosques were open to the public, there were plenty of

community services Muslims could participate in. In Timbuktu, Mali for example, the

Djingareyber Mosque was used as a learning center for Islamic scholars. Mansa Musa brought

back the scholars to make use of the universities and libraries that architectures built. His

involvement in the intellectual aspect of his religion, set Timbuktu as a heritage site for many

years in the future.

Mansa Musa’s influence had spread to more cities outside of Timbuktu, but Timbuktu

was the principal location for Islamic faith and intellect in Africa.23 There was an overabundance

of scholars which was the reason for Timbuktu’s buildings generously filled to the brim with

countless manuscripts.24 These scholars were brought to the city from Mansa Musa’s voyage and

put Timbuktu as a landmark for Islamic scholars, giving them the basic necessities for their

practice such as wealth, community, trade routes, and mosques. These books contained teachings

of the Qur’an, economic, and scientific information, but what attracted many scholars to

Timbuktu was the knowledge that “the word of God and the treasures of wisdom are only to be

23
Brent D. Singleton “Africa Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu,” Libraries & Culture 39
(2004): 2.
24
Singleton, “Africa Bibliophiles,” 3.
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found in Timbuctoo.”25 Mansa Musa was the fundamental catalyst of why the Islamic religion

cohesively integrated its values into Timbuktu, and the majority of Africa

There was little to no libel in the stories about Mansa Musa, but Mansa Suleyman had

been frowned upon within the account of Ibn Battuta. The traditions in Mali were far from the

usual in other countries, Mali practiced these customs solely due to their religion, which

exemplified another instance that Mansa Musa used his influence in order for the culture to last

for centuries. Mansa Musa was not particularly a saint compared to Mansa Suleyman. Even if he

was described as such. He had flaws that failed to be mentioned from the lack of primary

sources. However, Malian culture was mentioned to not be necessarily malicious from the

foreign perspective of Ibn Battuta. His words can often come across as subjective as he even

complained about the food and gifts given to him by the Mansa Suleyman.26

Ibn Battuta was a traveler from Tangier, on a voyage written later in his famous book of

accounts called a rihla.27 His rihla was specifically titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the

Wonders of Cities the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling and it contained

descriptions of his experience in the city of Timbuktu. He arrived in Mali in 1352 C.E., only

fifteen years shy of Mansa Musa’s death. Instead, Mansa Suleyman took his place, but was

described by Ibn Battuta as “a miserly king, not a man from whom one might hope for a rich

present.”28 This claim was a complete turnaround from the foreigners’ view of Mansa Musa, who

was otherwise shown to be rich and generous to everyone he came across.29 Despite his opinion

25
Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo the Mysterious, ed. and trans. by Diana White (New York: Negro UniversiFes
Press, 1969) pp. 276.
26
ORIAS UC Berkeley, “Journey to Mali: 1350-1351.”
27
Joshua Mark, “Ibn BaCuta,” World History. 7 February 2019. hCps://www.worldhistory.org/Ibn_BaCuta/
(30 November 2023).
28
Ibn BaCuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, trans. by H.A.R. Gibb (New York: Robert M. McBride &
Company, 1929) pp. 324.
29
Ibn Fadllalah al-Umari, p. 269.
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on Mansa Suleyman, in the context of Mali’s Islamic faith, Ibn Battuta declares that they “are

careful to observe the hours of prayer, and assiduous in attending them in congregations.”30 His

explanations exhibit the Islamic traditions Mansa Musa integrated into Mali which lasted even

fifteen years after his time. These traditions were well-received in plenty aspects, especially their

devotion. As Ibn Battuta encountered more citizens from Mali, during his stay, their devotion

was shown to advance into territories that many would deem strict, even inappropriate,

especially for children and women:

His children were chained up, so I said to him “Will you not let them loose?” He replied

“I shall not do so until they learn the Koran by heart.” Among their bad qualities are the

following. The women servants, slave girls, and young girls go about in front of everyone

naked and without covering, and his daughters also go about naked.31

Mansa Musa left behind these traces of his teachings and overall influence in these traditions. To

the people of Mali, these practices gave the impression of irreplaceable respect due to their

lifelong goal of Islamic conversion. Although these West African traditions served as a

significant part of their culture, foreigners may possibly feel that the negative effects outweigh

the positive, causing them to label these countries as “savages”. Due to Timbuktu’s towering

stacks of gold, there was no thievery that occurred, more notably between the foreigners and

citizens.32 Mansa Musa had efficiently supplied his nation with scholars and spiritual practices

that would last for decades.

30
Ibn BaCuta, p. 330.
31
Ibn BaCuta, p. 330.
32
Leo Africanus, “DescripFon of Timbuktu from The DescripFon of Africa (1526),” Internet Medieval
Sourcebook, May 2023. hCps://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/leo_afri.asp (3 December 2023).
 11

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