Cold working :- process of altering the shape or size by plastic deformation in a temp.

below
recrystallization point ( @room temp.).

Mention the advantages of cold working ??

1) Better accuracy , close tolerance .
2) Better surface finish .
3) Strain hardening  increase strength & hardness .
4) Grain flow cause ( desirable direction properties ).
5) No heating required .  less total energy .

Mention the disadvantage of cold working ??

1) Equipment of high force and power required to shape material .
2) Surface of starting material must be free of scales & dirt . ( explain why ?? )
- To avoid surface defect during cold working .
3) High strain hardening & less ductility .  )‫ (يؤدي الى‬limit the amount of forming that can be
done .

What is mean of Annealing ??

- A heat treatment to eliminate the effect of cold working .

What is the purposes of annealing ??

1) Relive stress .
2) Increase ductility .
3) Produce a specific structure .

Changes “ annealing ” may be classified under three heading , write them ??

1) Stress relief .
2) Recrystalliztion .
3) Grain growth .

Mention the difference between the effect of cold working and the effect of annealing on the
material properties ??
- Cold working :- - annealing :-
- Increase strength and hardness . – decrease strength and hardness .
- Decrease ductility . – increase ductility .
 Explain the three stage of annealing ??

1) Stress relief 2) Recrystallization 3) Grain growth

When temperature is raised   temperature is raised further  temperature is raised further
increase vibrational energies ,  form of new unstressed  grain growing following the
and atomic movement can crystals from unclei , until the completion of recrystalization
occur  these result  hole of the material has a with some grain growing is the
removal of the residual stress structure of unstressed size at the expense others by
accosted with the locked in polygonal crystals . two way :-
elastic strain .  this change in structure is 1) Grain boundary migration .
 this change occur @ accompanied )‫ (يرافقه‬reduction 2) merge between small grain
comparatively low temperature in hardness , strength & and large grain. (explain why ??)
(explain why ??) brittleness .  because small grain have
- to negligible effect on strength  temperature occurs for pure larger GB area than large grains
&hardness & microstructure of metal @ one-third to one-half & since the dislocation
material is unchanged . of melting temperature . consentrated in the large GB
area  became high energy
area .  & the high energy GB
area want to go to lower energy
GB region. )‫(تنتقل من العالي للقليل‬

What is mean of The driving force for recrystallization process ??

- is the release of strain energy stored in the zonces (grain boundaries ) of high dislocation
density.

Recrytallization temperature is not constant for all material . ( explain Why ??)
- because its value is effected by :-
1) The amount of plastic deformation prior to heated .  its lower for very heavily cold worked
metals than for samples of the same material .
2) The composition .  presence of imparities increase recrystallization temperature of the
material .

What is mean of The driving force for grain growth process ??

- is the release of GB surface energy as the amount of total GB surface is reduced  lead to the
reduction of GB area .

warm working :- is the process of altering the shape or size by plastic deformation in a temp above
room temperature & below recrystallization temperature ( 0.3 – 0.5 ) T/Tm.

Mention the advantages of warm working ??

 1) Lower force and power required than cold working .
2) More intricate work geometries possible .
3) Need for annealing may be reduced .

Hot working :- process of altering the shape or size by plastic deformation in a temp. above
recrystallization point ( @room temp.).

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal in hot working – far more than
possible with cold working or warm working . ( Explain Why ?? )
- because :-
1) ( K << @ room temp. ) strength coefficient is substantially less than @ room temperature .
2) ( n =0 ) strain hardening exponent is zero .
3) Ductility is significantly increase .

Mention the advantages of hot working ?

1) Work part shape can be significantly altered .
2) Lower force and power required .
3) Metal that usually fracture @ cold working can be hot forming.
4) Strength properties of product are generally isotropic .
5) No strengthing of part occur from work hardening .

Mention the disadvantages of hot working ?

1) Lower dimensional accuracy .
2) High total energy required .
3) Work surface oxidation .  poor surface finish .
4) Shorter tool life .

. annlaenna ‫عملية ال‬

Cold working :- process of altering the shape or size by plastic deformation in a temp. below
recrystallization point ( @room temp.).

In cold working the strain hardening is not relieved is called Cold working.

in early stages of plastic deformation (cold working)…

1) slip is essentially on primary glide planes &
2) dislocation form coplanar arrays .

Hot working :- process of altering the shape or size by plastic deformation in a temp. above
recrystallization point ( @room temp.).

Strain hardening doesn’t occur .

Large massive section are always worked hot . (explain why )?

Because the resistance of the metal to plastic deformation generally falls with temp .

At hot working , increase the resistance to flow @ high forming rate . (explain why)?
1- viscous characteristics @sufficiently high tepm.
2- the rate of recrestallization may not be fast enough .

How we can determine the lower & upper limit temp. in hot working ?
Lower  it's recrystallizaion temp. 60% its melting temp.
Upper  varies factor ;
1) excessive oxidation .
2) Grain growth .
3) an undesirable phase transformation .

In practice material are usually heated to the upper limit . (explain Why ?)
1) To keep forming force as low as possible .
2) Maximizing the amount of time available to hot work the strip .

What is the most important aspect of hot working ?

Controlling the temp. of the strip.

90% of the energy imparted into strip converted into …………………..

Explain how we can minimizing the problem ??  heat the tooling ( 325 – 450 ) C
 Hotter tooling .  less heat lose  tool life decrease .
If deformation process is quick enough the temp. should be ……………. .
 Most of the heat lost through the surface of work piece into the cooler tooling . (explain Why ?)
The cases temp. gradients in the work piece .  (explain Why ?)
 Due to non uniform cross sections where the thinner section cooler than the thicker section.
 These can lead to cracking in the cooler side .
The microstructure of cast items does not optimize the engineering properties .

To improve engineering properties there is two ways , type the ways ?

1) Hot working . (explain how ?)  Because it replaces the microstructure with with one that has
fine spherical shaped grain & these grain increase the strength , ductility & thoughness.
2) Reorienting the inclusion .

 in Cast state the inclusion are randomly oriented  which when enter section the surface  can
be a propagation point for cracks .

 Hot working  creating stringers  the properties are anisotropic .

When stringers oriented parallel to the surface  it strengths the work piece .

The stringers act as “ crack arrestors ” . (explain Why ??)

 Because the crack will want to propagate through the stringer & not along it .

What is the disadvantage of friction ?

1) Metal flow is retarded .
2) Force & power are increase .
3) Wear tooling faster . (‫)تآكل‬

How we can reduce harmful effect of friction ?

 By metalworking lubricants. (‫)ت شح ي م‬

Type the benefits of lubricants ??

1) Reduce sticking , forces , power tool wear .
2) Better surface finish .
3) Removes heat from the tooling .

Type the considerations of choosing the lubricants ??

1) Type of forming process ( Rolling , forging ……) .
2) Hot working or cold working .
3) Work material .
4) Chemical reactivity with tool & work metal .
5) Ease of application .
6) Cost.
 Type the important of bulk deformation processes ( commercially , technologically ) ??
1) When hot working  They are capable of significant shape change .
2) When cold working  They have positive effect on part strength .
3) Most of process produce little material waste , some are net shape processes .

The starting forms of part  cylindrical billets .

 Rectangular billets , slap & similar shapes .

‫تضغط على المادة‬

These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause plastic flow into the desired shape.

Being above the recrystallization temperature  1) allows the material to complete grain growth
during deformation 2) to keep the ductility high and hardness and strength low.

(‫ )مهم‬mention the different between hot working and cold working in bulk deformation processes ?

Hot working cold working

- Recrystallization takes place - No recrystallization
> .5 Tm < .3 Tm
- Required less force - Required more force
- Less residual stress - Residual stress
- Greater deformation possible - Strain hardening
- Poor surface finish - Good surface finish
- Oxidation occur - No oxidation surface after operation
- Expensive force for process & equipment - Lower force for process & equipment
- Dimensional variation ( lower accuracy) - Better accuracy

Mention the four basic bulk deformation processes ??

1) Rolling .  slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls.
2) Forging .  work is squeezed & shaped between opposing die .
3) Extrusion .  work is squeezed through a die opening ( has fixed profile ) thereby
take the shape of the opening.
4) Wire / bar drawing .  diameter of wire or bar is reduce by pulling it through a die opening .

What is the rolling process ??

- The process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross of long workspace by compressive
force applied through a set of rolls.

The basic rolling operation ( called ) :- flat rolling OR simple rolling .

 Products :- 1) flat plate , 2) flat sheet .

Mention the difference between plates & sheets ??
- Plates :- thickness greater than 6 mm .  used for structural applications such as boilers,
bridges, machine structure, girders, and ship hulls.
- Sheets :- thickness less than 6 mm .  used for automobile bodies, aircraft fuselages, office
furniture and kitchen equipment's.
The initial form of material for rolling ………….
ingot .

ingot is :- ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
a material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing .

Rolling is first carried out at elevated temperature (hot rolling) .

The rotating rolls perform two main function , type them ??

1) Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between strip and rolls .
2) Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section .

We have three type of starting material in rolling process mention them and write the difference
between them ??
1) Bloom  square , rectangular with ( t > 6” ) and ( w < 2 * t ) ; t : thickness , w : width .
2) Billets  (seam to bloom) square , rectangular but (( smaller than bloom )) .
3) Slabs  rectangular with ( w > 2t ) ; t : thickness , w : width .

Mention the type of rolling ( By geometry & By temperature of work ) ??

- By Geometry :-
1) flat rolling .  reduce thickness .
2) shape rolling .  formation a shape such as “beam” .
- By temperature :-
1) Hot rolling .  large amount of deformation.
2) Cold rolling .  produce finish sheet & plate .

What is the mean of Draft & Reduction ??

- Draft :- the amount of thickness reduction .
- Reduction :- draft expressed as a function starting stock thickness. r =
- where d = draft; ( ) = starting thickness; ( )=final to of thickness, and r = reduction .

shape rolling  work is deformed into a contoured cross section rater than flat  accomplished
by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired shape .

. ‫ ) بعكس الشكل الي احنا طالبينو‬sleer ( ‫تمرير القطعة في‬

What is mean of pickling ??
- Pickling :- metal surface treatment used to remove impurities , such as stains , rust or scale
from ferrous metal , copper & aluminum alloys .  ( contain strong acids ).
Explain why use strong acids ??
- To descale or clean steel in various steelmaking process .
Mention the surface treatment processes ?
1) Case hardening.
2) Shoot penning .
3) Pickling.
4) Burnishing.
‫األفضل‬
Small diameter rolls are preferable . ( explain why ?? )
- Because the smaller the roll radius ; the lower will be the roll force .
 But small roll deflect under roll forces & to be supported by other rolls.

Type the rolling mill configuration ??

1) Two high .  two opposing roll.
2) Three high .  work passes through roll in both direction .
3) Four high .  backing roll supported smaller rolls .
4) Cluster mill .  multiple backing roll supported on smaller rolls.
5) Tandem rolling mill .  sequence of two –high mills .

Two - high :- Use for initial breakdown passes on the workspace , with roll diameter 1400 mm…
 Non reversing , which revolve continuously in opposite direction .
- Advantages  less costly motive power .

Explain the working principle of Three high ?? )‫(مبدأ عمل‬

- consist of three parallel rolls one above others , adjacent rolls rotates in opposite direction .
 so the material passes between the top and the middle material in one direction & the
bottom & the middle rolls in opposite one .  so thickness is reduce at each pass.

Plain grooved
The rolls of a three high rolling mills may be either ………… or …………… to produce plate or sections
respectively.

Four – high  4 parallel rolls above others  top and bottom rotate in opposite direction , as do
the middle’s ( middle small in size than the top and the bottom  called backup rolls ).

We put small rolls in the middle in four – high . (Explain Why ??)
 To providing the necessary rigidity to the smaller rolls.
 A high four roll used for  a hot rolling of armor & other plates .
Cold rolling of plates , sheet & strips.

Cluster mill :- ( special case of four –high ).  two roll is backup by two or more of the larger
backup rolls .  use for rolling hard material .  Is suitable for cold rolling thin strips of high-
‫مناسب‬
strength metals.

the diameter of small roll can be as small as 6mm and usually made of tungsten carbide . ( explain
why ?? )
1) for rigidity
2) strength
3) wear resistance .

 the rolled product obtained in cluster mill can be as wide as 5000mm (5 m) and as thin as
0.0025 mm.

Tandem rolling mill  set of three rolls in parallel  thickness reduction through each one.

Mention the advantages of tandem roll mill ??

1) Reduction roll consumption .  .sleer ‫تقليل استهالك ال‬
2) Tight tolerance for strip thickness .  ( Tight : ‫)ض يق‬
3) The required strip thickness & flatness can be achieved more by tandem rolling mill.

Thread Rolling :- A deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them
between two dies.
- Thread Rolling use for what ??  Mass producing bolts and screws. )‫(االنتاج الضخم للبراغي والمسامير‬

- Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

1) higher production rate
2) stronger thread due to work hardening
3) better fatigue resistance due to compressive stress introduced by rolling
 Ring rolling :- is the process , a small diameter , thick ring is expended into a large diameter ,
thinner ring by placing the ring between two roll.
the reduction in the thickness is a accomplished for by an increase in the diameter of the rolling .
(explain why ?)
- Because of volume constancy . )‫(بسبب ثبات الحجم‬

This ring rolling process can be carried out at cold working or at Hot working , depending on two
factor , write these factors ?
1) Size 2) strength
‫… ت اب ع جوا ب ال سؤا ل‬.‫ت اب ع ال ص فحه ال ت ال ية‬
 Hot working
- If the ring is large  …………………… .
- & if the ring is small  Cold working
………………….. .

Write The advantages of ring rolling , compared with other processes for making the same part are
?

1) Shorter production time .

2) Material saving .
3) Close dimensional tolerance .
4) Strengthening through cold working .

write three example of ring rolling process ?

- rockets , turbines , ring for pipes .

The Piercing roll use for what ??

- Make long , thick – walled seamless tubing.

The pricing roll based on what ?

- When a round bar is subjected to a radial compressive force .

In piercing used a mandrel , help the operation by two mean , Type them ??
1- Expanding the hole.
2- Sizing the inside diameter of the hole .
It is important that the stock be of high quality and defect free in packing roll process . explain why
??
- Because the material undergoes in sever deformation .
Type the factors to balanced Rolling process ??
1- Material properties .
2- Process variable .
3- Lubrications.
What is the material parameter of Rolling process ??
1- Ductility
2- Coefficient of friction
3- Strength , modulus
What is the Process parameter of rolling process ??
1- Roll speed
2- Power
Type the Defect in Rolled part ?
1- Structural defect
2- Surface defect
 We have three type of structural defect , write them and write cased by what ?
1- Wavy edges ; cased by :- bending of the rolls, where by the edges of the strip become thinner
(‫ )ا ّرفع‬than at center .
2- Zipper crack in the center and edges crack ; cased by what ??
1- low material ductility . 2- barreling edges .
3- Alligatoring ; cased by :- inhomogeneous deformation of the material during rolling .
 The alligatoring defect occur when ??
1- lateral spread is greater than in the center than the surface .
2- presence of metallurgical weakness along the centerline .
The surface defect result from what ?
- Presence of rust , dirty , impurities & other cases related to prior treatment .
Residual stress develop in rolled sheet , explain why ?
- Because inhomogeneous plastic deformation in the roll gap .
One of the basic problem in the mechanics of inhomogeneous deformation is
imbedded in the material matrix The deformation behavior of inclusion .
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Small diameter roll  deform plastically in the surface more than in the bulk  generated
compressive residual stress in the surface & tensile in the bulk .
Large diameter roll  deformation in the bulk more than in the surface  generated compressive
residual stress in the bulk & tension in the surface.
 More defect in the rolled part :-
1- Hot working :- if temp. is not uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the warmer
part and less in the cooler part .
2- When the metal is hot rolled , its surface will not smooth .  can be remove by pickling .
3- during cold rolling , crack may be formed  if the metal become to much – hardened during
the process .
4- Fins may be formed on the rolled part if the metal forces itself into the clearance between the
rolls .

- Wave edges B & C – zipper crack

- alligatoring
  Vroll constant but the strip velocity will increase as it passes through the roll gap ,sliding occur
between the roll and the strip.
 what does NO-Slip point (neutral point) mean ??
- at one point along the arc of contact , the two velocity ( Roll , strip ) are the same .

( to the left of the point ,  Vroll > Vstrip

to the right of the point ,  Vstrip > Vroll ) explain why ?
- Because the friction force on the left of the neutral points is greater than on the right .

This difference result frictional force to the right  pulling the strip into the roll gap ,
OR The friction force at the entrance side is higher than that at the exit side .
This allows the roller to pull the workpiece , towards the exit end .

 Neutral point shift to the exit side as the friction force decrease.
(explain why ??)
 Because when friction approaches zero …. There is no friction
Between the roll & the strip … so the roll begin to slip & the relative
Velocity between the roll & strip is all in one direction .

 Coefficient of friction typically :

• cold working 0.1
• warm working 0.2
• hot working 0.4

• Increasing friction  increasing forces and power requirements .