Original papers

ANALYSIS OF ELEMENTARY PROCESS STEPS IN INDUSTRIAL

GLASS MELTING TANKS - SOME IDEAS ON INNOVATIONS
IN INDUSTRIAL GLASS MELTING
RUUD BEERKENS

TNO Science & Industry, Glass Group, De Rondom 1, P.O. Box 6235, 5600 HE Eindhoven, The Netherlands

E-mail: [email protected]

Submitted May 6, accepted October 9, 2008

Keywords: Fast fining, Glass furnace design, Compact melter, Controlled melting

Conventional industrial glass furnaces show broad glass melt residence time distributions in the melting tanks and average
residence times may be up to more than two days for high quality glass products, such as float glass or TV glass, despite the
minimum residence times of 8-10 hours (or even less than 4 hours for container glass furnaces). Long residence times are
associated with large melt tank volume/pull rate ratios and high structural heat losses. The recirculation flows, necessary to
supply the batch blanket with sufficient energy for the fusion processes of the batch materials, are often poorly controlled and
cause these shown residence time differences. For each elementary process step the most relevant process parameters in terms
of desired flow patterns, mixing behavior, temperature, chemistry and required time for completion of the process step are
analyzed. From this analysis, it is concluded that the different steps need very different conditions comparing the processes
with each other. Therefore glass furnace design modifications should be focused on the development of furnaces with seg-
ments, each of them dedicated and optimized for the a certain stage of the melting process: melting-in of batch, sand grain
dissolution, removal of gases (bubbles and dissolved gases), re-absorption of residual bubbles and glass melt (chemical and
thermal) homogenization. Some developments in fast fining and rapid melting-in of batch will be shown and shortly discussed.

INTRODUCTION very large numbers of bubbles and seeds. The high qual-
ity hot glass melt from the hottest spot of the tank just
Residence time distributions, determined for batch brings part of the required melting energy to the batch
and the glass, after batch fusion, in glass melting fur- tip. The mixing with the freshly molten glass, that con-
naces show that the flow of material in the tank partly tains many un-molten grains and seeds, spoils this high
follows plug flow regime, but that also sections with quality melt.
strong mixing and re-circulation flows exist. In the glass Glass with a melting history representing 4 hours of
melting tank, different zones should preferably corre- melting and with 48 hours of melting can be in the same
spond to different elementary process steps. But, in glass container or glass sheet product. This means that
most industrial glass melting tank furnaces, these zones if the glass quality is still acceptable, the parts with
are not physically separated from each other, and the a residence time of 48 hours has been in the tank up to
different processes in the tank may interfere. These 12 times longer than essentially necessary. Nìmec and
basic processes are: a). heating of batch up to "melting Jebavá [1], showed that dead water zones and the so
or fusion" temperatures, b). fusion reactions to form a called space utilization factor (depends on the ratios
silicate melt and c). dissolution of sand grains in this between minimum and average residence times) have a
primary silicate melt and final molten glass composi- large influence on the energy consumption of a glass
tion, d). removal of gas bubbles and dissolved gases and furnace for given pull or the maximum pull obtainable
e). chemical homogenization plus thermal homogeniza- from a melting tank. They also showed, that very high
tion of the viscous material. temperatures may not be the optimum solution for high
Re-circulation of the melt in these tanks is relative- pull and low energy consumption and that certain opti-
ly intense: in most cases the glass melt passes a zone mum conditions in terms of optimum temperature, stir-
5 up to 8 times before the melt leaves the tank. Most of ring, enhanced bubble growth rate can be derived for
the well-molten en completely degassed melt from the a certain glass melting tank to get high pull and rela-
hot spot area, returns to the batch area and is mixed with tively low specific energy consumption and high flexi-
freshly molten non-homogeneous glass, still containing bility. They propose developments in the direction of
Paper presented at the seminar "Advanced Glass Materials and Innovative Glass Melting
Technology in the Year 2020", Brig, Switzerland, March 26-29, 2008.

206 Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008)

 Analysis of elementary process steps in industrial glass melting tanks - some ideas on innovations in industrial glass melting

better space utilization (avoid to many different trajec- batch tip and the exit of the tank, the molten glass flow
tories in the melting tank and dead water zones) and along the bottom is interrupted by an upward flow at the
techniques to speed-up sand grain dissolution and fining spring location. The glass melt may reach the surface of
without increasing temperatures. the melt. Ideally, the spring zone position covers the hot
Conclusion: most industrial glass melting tanks spot area of the tank or is very close to the location of
operate far from optimal and furnace designs today the highest temperatures in the melting tank. The
allow very strong recirculation flows, keeping the glass upward flowing glass enters the highest temperature
melt longer in the tank than would be necessary. Less section of the melt and viscosity decreases, fining agent
recirculation and improved heat transfer to the batch in becomes active, fining gases are formed and growing
order to minimize the need for hot spot glass re-circula- bubbles can reach the glass melt surface.
tion offers a potential for considerable energy savings Mathematical modeling shows that the largest part
and space reduction of the glass tank volume. of the melt reaching the surface of the spring zone area,
The paper first addresses the features of industrial flows back to the tip of the batch blanket.
melting tank furnaces operated today by more than Figure 1 shows residence time distributions of three
90 % of worlds' glass production and identifies the weak different industrial glass melting tanks. One can observe
point of this concept existing since about 1865-1870. that the minimum residence time is typically 15 to 20 %
Then the essential process steps will be described of the average residence time.
and the optimum conditions for each of the sections in Figure 2 shows as an example the projection of the
the furnaces accommodating the process steps will be flow pattern of a piece of glass melt in a typical float
presented. glass furnace with a residence time close to the average
Finally some suggestions for improving glass fur- residence time. The figure shows that this 'particle'
nace tank designs will be discussed and some dilemmas
and problems still to be solved will be shown. 1.0
Essential elements seem to be:
1 - Container
z Improved heat transfer to and into batch blanket: most 0.8 2 - TV-panel
% per h

of the batch material melts (fuses) in the direct vici- 3 - Float

0.6
nity of the batch tip; 3
z Control of flow patterns and optimization of the hot 0.4
spot plus spring zone position in the tank (for glass 2
quality it is important that spring zone and hot spot 0.2
1
locations in the melt are close together and that flow 0
patterns are stable); 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
z Faster fining (gas removal from melt) processes; Residence time τ (h)
z The availability of refractory materials allowing Figure 1. Residence time distribution determined by mathe-
higher temperatures that enables faster fining (see matical modeling [2] for 3 different melting tanks, producing:
Figures 3). TV panel glass, clear float glass and container glass.

canal,
RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION working end outlet
IN CONVENTIONAL GLASS MELTING TANKS

In general, the molten glass obtained from the batch melting end
after fusion of these raw materials, does not follow a
distinct trajectory in the melting tank [2]. Many differ- neck
ent paths will be travelled by glass melt volumes in the
same tank. In the worst case, the freshly molten glass recirculation
moves from the batch blanket into the direction of the into melting end
tank bottom and flows directly (short cut flow) along bubbler area
this relatively cold bottom of fossil fuel fired melting
tanks, to the neck or throat to leave the melting-end. The entrance recirculation
doghouse in melting end
temperature history of this melt shows generally that the
side
glass has hardly been exposed to temperatures that
allow all seeds or bubbles to be removed from this high- Figure 2. Flow pattern of glass melt volume with an average
ly viscous melt. On the other hand, in case of a well- residence time. Note the strong re-circulation patterns in the
developed spring zone in the tank, located between the float glass melt tank with a bubbler row.

Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 207

 Beerkens R.

(in modeling we call a small piece of melt or volume of dissolved sand grains or alumina containing raw
melt a 'particle') re-circulates a few times between the materials, and the high-quality glass is spoiled by this
batch zone and the spring zone of the tank. mixing process. On the other hand, this re-circulation
Apart from the residence time, the melting behav- flow from hot spot down to the batch tip is essential to
ior depends strongly on the temperature level at which maintain a short batch blanket length and for carrying
the glass has been exposed: fining is characterized by a sensible heat from the hot spot into the batch, to supply
fining-onset temperature [3]. At this temperature, the the required heat for the fusion reactions and heating of
fining agent dissolved in the molten glass starts to the batch. This re-circulation flow is the main cause of
decompose and forms a large volume of gases (total the very wide glass melt residence time distribution
internal gas pressure by gases in melt exceeds the 1 bar shown for most industrial glass melters.
level) that diffuse in existing bubbles and seeds to be Thus, in order to achieve an acceptable glass
removed from the melt in order to achieve a homoge- quality, a well developed spring zone in the vicinity of
neous, bubble-free glass. In a static liquid, the ascension the hot spot area of the melting tank is required and a
of the bubbles depends on the density difference short cut flow along the bottom should be prevented, a
between melt and bubble, glass melt viscosity and the return flow from the hot spot to the batch blanket pro-
radius of the bubble [4]: vides part of the energy necessary for melting-in of the
batch. Although, the batch is directly heated by the radi-
Vascension = 2/9 · Δρ ·g·R2/μ (Stokes law describes
ation from the flames or combustion space above the
ascension of small seeds [3]) (1)
batch, this energy supply accounts generally for less
with: Δρ - density different between melt and bubble than 50 % of the required energy for batch melting-in.
in kg/m3, g - acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2), Thus, extra energy is needed and supplied by the hot re-
R - radius of bubble in m, μ - viscosity of melt in Pas. circulating melt. This process of strong re-circulation
A glass melt volume, that follows a trajectory that determines the volume of the tank, and the flow pattern
will not reach the fining onset temperature, will contain with the minimum fining index characterizes the effec-
seeds that will hardly grow and the R-value (Equation tive glass quality that can be achieved, but only when
(1)) may be too small, so that within the available time, the melt is not polluted somewhere downstream in the
the bubble can not reach the surface of the melt. Such process (e.g. by dissolving refractory material or refrac-
a situation will lead to a glass product with small tory stones).
bubbles. In a well operating furnace (good fining), the glass
In order to characterize the ability of a glass melting melt with the minimum fining index passes the fining
tank, at prevalent operating conditions, to deliver a melt zone at least once, but on average the melt typically
that has been well refined (bubbles removed), a fining passes the hot spot/spring zone area 6 to 8 times.
index can be calculated for each possible trajectory in This behavior presents the dilemma of the current
the tank [2]. In case that all trajectories show a value of glass melting process used in almost all glass industrial
their fining index larger than a certain threshold value, sectors, leading to wide residence time distributions
fining is probably sufficient. for the glass melt and the relatively large glass melt tank
Thus residence time distribution and fining index volumes required.
distribution modeling approaches [2,5] can be used to
characterize the fining behavior of a glass furnace.
Additional indices can be introduced for sand grain TRANSITION FROM SINGLE-TANK FURNACE
dissolution capability (dissolution index) [2] and TO DESIGNS OF ADVANCED GLASS MELTING
homogenization (mixing index). SYSTEMS
In Figure 2, the fining process (the bubble removal
from the melt) mainly takes place in the spring zone The wide residence time distribution in most glass
area, at least when this area and the hot spot zone are furnaces using a melting-end consisting of a single tank,
close to each other. Thus, the melt that has been passed suggests that most of the material in the tank stays for a
the top sections of the spring zone has also been longer time than principally necessary. But, due to the
exposed to ideal fining conditions: low viscosity, strong recirculation flows in the tank, also required to bring
bubble growth (large bubble radius) and short distance heat from the hot spot area of the tank to the batch, the
to the surface to escape from the melt. However, in tank volume has to be rather large. Thus, glass melt has
almost all industrial melting tanks, most of this high- to be kept during a long time on a high temperature and
quality glass melt, will flow downstream to the batch to the volume of the furnace is relatively large compared
be mixed at the batch tip with freshly molten glass. This to the pull. The heat losses through the furnace walls
freshly molten glass contains in the order of 105-106 and superstructure, therefore per ton molten glass are
seeds per litre [6] and probably some not completely high: typically 0.6-1 GJ/ton container glass furnaces

208 Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008)

 Analysis of elementary process steps in industrial glass melting tanks - some ideas on innovations in industrial glass melting

and 1.75 to 2.25 GJ/ton float glass and even higher Experimental studies show that special melting
values for small furnaces, 2 to more than 2.5 GJ/ton devices can be applied to melt 15 to 20 tons of batch per
molten glass. This energy loss has to be compensated day per square meter applying intense heat transfer
by extra fuel consumption [7], which leads to extra between the combustion process and batch [8]. The melt
volume flows of flue gases, resulting in extra flue gas still requires a fining step to remove dissolved gases and
heat losses. Thus, efficiently the contribution of the gas bubbles after this batch melting stage. For example,
furnace structure heat losses to the energy consumption for a container glass furnace melting 300 tons of glass
of a furnace is higher than the above presented specific per day, the melting-in zone could probably be limited
heat losses. to a tank surface area of about 15 m2. Strong mixing,
The transition to innovative glass furnaces includes intense convection will speed up heat transfer and the
the following criteria to meet future demands: dissolution process of the remaining raw materials
z Significant decrease of the specific energy demand (sand, alumina, feldspars, clay, etcetera) in the formed
for melting; silicate melt.
z Using cheap energy to preserve economic feasibility A transition from the single melting tank furnace to
of melting processes; an advanced glass furnace system, meeting the desired
z Decrease of the flue gas volume flow to reduce the criteria also requires a controlled fining process. After
specific emissions of glass furnaces and reduce costs melting-in and complete sand grain dissolution,
for Air Pollution Control (scrubbers, filters, DeNOx); removal of dissolved gases and gas bubbles by stripping
z Reduction of the volume of the glass furnace and a by fining gases or by physical fining processes has to be
decrease of the surface area of the furnace to limit completed. Contrary to the desire for strong mixing in
structural heat losses; the melting zone and the sand grain dissolution process,
z Limit the re-circulation flows that cause the wide resi- the fining process should be performed by a laminar
dence time distribution and that limit the flexibility of flowing melt, preferably with a shallow tank depth to
the melter: thus avoid relatively long transition times reduce the vertical trajectories that the bubbles have to
after changing glass composition or glass color; travel in order to escape eventually through the glass
z Control of each individual process step: a) melting-in melt surface. Here, in the fining section, the glass melt
of batch, b) dissolution of sand and alumina raw should reach a temperature above the fining onset tem-
materials in silicate melt, c) removal of bubbles and perature or the bubbles in the melt should start to grow
dissolved gases [3] and d) homogenization and e) se- within a very short time to bubbles R > 0.5 mm by
condary fining (dissolution of remaining bubbles, bubble agglomeration or exposure to low pressure or
containing chemical dissolvable gases, in gas lean fast diffusing gases (helium, water vapor). In a typical
melt); sulfate refined float glass melt (soda-lime-silica glass
z A uniform glass melt quality throughout the product: for clear sheet glass applications), the fining onset tem-
melting history being more uniform. perature is about 1420-1440°C in air-gas or air-fuel oil
fired glass furnaces [9]. The bubble ascension should
The dilemma, that in the current glass melting tech- not be hindered by recirculation flows, pulling the melt
nology commonly used in the glass industry, the strong (with some bubbles) also in downward direction.
re-circulation flow is needed to provide sufficient heat Figure 3a shows the bubble ascension rate depen-
to the batch should be overcome by modifications in the ding on glass melt viscosity and bubble size. Figure 3b
melting-in zone such as: presents the time required for gas bubbles to reach the
z Improve the heat transfer from the combustion space glass melt surface, depending on the height of the melt
to the batch blanket; in the fining zone. Very important, however, is that
z Apply other heating sources, able to transfer heat during the primary fining processes, all existing bubbles
rapidly into the batch; will grow and that generation of new seeds or bubbles
z Change the effective heat conductivity of the batch is restricted. Thus, bubble formation at the glass melt -
(e.g. using pelletized batch); refractory interfaces in the fining section and down-
z Decrease the batch blanket thickness; stream the fining zone should be prevented by the
z Apply melting fluxes; choice of suitable refractory materials and controlling
z Improve the stirring of the batch blanket or mixing the interface temperature to values below a certain crit-
of batch with the heating medium (submerged com- ical level. The glass melt entering the fining zone
bustion melter [8]). should be free of grains (sand, alumina, aluminum-sili-
z Creating an increasing area of the batch tip, where cates) that still have to be dissolved, since these grains
melting rates for the batch seem to be the highest may generate (nucleation, or a decrease of CO2 solubil-
(higher temperature, high mass and heat transfer coef- ity in melt surrounding dissolving grains) new CO2
ficients are met at the batch tip location). seeds interfering with the fining process.

Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 209

 Beerkens R.

Helium atmospheres above the melt [9, 10], accele-

Ascension rate in float glass melt (m/h)

0.40
rate the fining process by fast diffusion of helium in the
1 - 1400°C
0.35 2 - 1450°C molten glass (helium shows a high diffusion coefficient
3 - 1500°C 3
and relatively high solubility). The high helium per-
0.30
meability will cause a fast pick-up of helium of the melt
0.25 2
and the helium diffuses subsequently into the existing
seeds. These seeds will grow by the helium gas take-up
0.20
1
and the helium will dilute the other gas species in these
0.15 seeds/bubbles. The decrease of the partial pressures of
0.10
these gases in these bubbles will stimulate the diffusion
of these gas species from the melt (melt contains dis-
0.05 solved CO2, N2, Ar, H2O and oxygen) into the bubbles.
This process will aid the bubble growth rate and will
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 result in gas stripping from the melt.
Diameter of bubble (mm) For an example of a fossil-fuel fired float glass, fur-
Figure 3a. Bubble ascension rates in viscous float glass melts. nace, the energy costs can be decreased by about 20 %
according to energy balance [7] and CFD modeling [2],
1000 after transition of the conventional tank furnace to a
1400°C, depth 0.25 m segmented furnace with a smaller total glass melt vol-
Time required to reach the float

1450°C, depth 0.25 m ume compared to the conventional tank furnace.

1500°C, depth 0.25 m
100 1400°C, depth 1 m
1450°C, depth 1 m
glass melt surface (h)

1500°C, depth 1 m REQUIRED CONDITIONS FOR ELEMENTARY

10 PROCESS STEPS IN GLASS MELTING
PROCESSES

1 In this paragraph, the required conditions of each

step of the most essential processes in glass melting are
summarized:
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Diameter of bubble (mm) Melting-in of batch materials
Figure 3b. Required fining time, depending on temperature, For soda-lime-silica glasses, the melting-in of the
bubble radius and depth of fining tank for soda-lime-silica
batch [11] requires about 0.5 MJ energy per kg glass for
glass.
endothermic reactions, about 1.5 MJ/kg for heating of
the batch until almost melting reactions have been com-
ENERGY CONSUMPTION pleted and 0.3 MJ for heating of the released batch
OF FUTURE FURNACES gases, further heating of the melt is often required for
fining and bringing the melt to the required temperature
CFD modeling calculations have been performed to and viscosity level. These figures refer to normal dry
design a glass furnace with different sections for batch batch without cullet.
melting plus sand grain dissolution, primary fining and This minimum required energy (excluding heat
refining and conditioning. The CFD modeling enables losses) of 1.8 to 2.5 MJ/kg glass, depending on the cul-
the identification of the critical trajectories and can be let fraction in the batch has to be supplied in the first
used to change design, dimensions and location of heat- zone of the melting process. In order to limit heating
ing devices to obtain relatively small tank volumes for times and to avoid the necessity to use intense re-circu-
melting and fining and for creating optimum conditions lating hot glass melt for heating of the batch, a change
for melting and for fining. from a thick batch blanket situation to a shallow batch,
The sections for melting and sand grain dissolution or pelletized batch blanket or a stirred batch may be
are/should be preferably connected to the fining zone by considered. Extra heating by boosting electrodes just
a channel that prevents re-circulation of glass melt. The underneath the batch blanket may replace part of the
residence time and temperatures in the compact fining heat supply by the re-circulating hot melt.
zone with adapted glass melt level should be sufficient Mathematical descriptions of the heat transfer to
to complete the primary fining process, using sulfate the batch from the hot glass melt and mass transfer rela-
fining or using helium as an aid of the fining process. tions, show that the batch blanket thickness decreases

210 Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008)

 Analysis of elementary process steps in industrial glass melting tanks - some ideas on innovations in industrial glass melting

rapidly at the very end of the batch blanket. Close to the of the SiO2 content of the melt (approaches silica satu-
batch tip (position at glass melt surface where batch ration), slowing down further dissolution of the coarse
meets the blank melt), the melting of batch is much sand grain fraction. On the other hand sand grain sizes
stronger than upstream the batch tip. Therefore, melting should not be too large, to avoid long dissolution times
of the batch blanket can be speeded up by creating a (dissolution time is over-proportional to sand grain
long batch tip length or by breaking up the batch. diameter). Sand grain size distribution should be narrow,
Mixing of batch supports heat transfer and mel- and typically in the range of about 100-150 micrometer
ting-in of up to 20 tons per m2 per day might be diameter for most glass types. For E-glass fiber produc-
achieved [8, 12]. However, violent motion of powder tion, finer sand is preferred, but this may lead to extra
batch, with different raw material particle sizes may carry-over or silica scum (agglomeration of floating
lead to intense carry-over, de-mixing or depletion of one sand grains on top of the molten glass) formation.
or more raw materials prone to carry-over. Therefore Strong mixing (velocity gradients in the melt), such
pre-pelletizing of raw materials using flue gas heat in as accomplished in the submerged combustion melter
the pelletizing process can be recommended. Flue gases [8, 12] will aid the dissolution of sand grains, but the
can be used to dry and preheated the raw material shortest residence time may be too short to ensure com-
spherical pellets. plete dissolution of all sand grains after the 'mixed
Preheated pellets (about 300°C) need about 15-20 % melter' section. It is recommended to optimize condi-
less energy than normal batch (energy saving potential tions or to apply an extra zone to complete sand grain
depends also on glass furnace construction), and show dissolution before the melt enters the fining zone. The
better heating rates than batch blankets. dissolution of sand grains depending on the convection
patterns in the melt, characterized by the glass melt
Sand grain dissolution velocity gradient of the melt or the glass melt velocity
relative to the sand grain can be calculated by a model
After melting-in of most of the batch materials, a with input: velocity gradient of the melt, diffusion
silica rich melt is formed and often not all sand grains coefficient of SiO2 in the melt, initial sand grain radius,
in the raw material batch are completely dissolved in the
viscosity of the melt and maximum SiO2 solubility.
silicate melt flowing downstream the batch blanket. The
Several of these parameters depend on the glass compo-
batch free time or sand grain removal time depends on
sition and temperature [2, 13].
the SiO2 solubility (depends on the glass composition
Each glass composition (depending on glass melt
and temperature), the SiO2 content of the freshly formed
oxidation-reduction state, glass composition, content of
melt, diffusion coefficient of dissolved SiO2 in the sili-
fining agent, furnace atmosphere composition) shows a
cate melt, the sand grain size and convection of the
fining-onset temperature that can be determined by
melt. The applied sand should not contain too much fine
well-designed laboratory experiments [9].
silica grains, because this will lead to very fast increase
The glass should not reach the fining onset temper-
ature in the melting-in zone or sand grain dissolution
Temperature (°C) sections, because this can lead to foaming in these areas
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 and loss of active fining agent from the melt, before
Dissolution time sand grain (s)

25000 entering the fining segment.

1 - D0 = 0.2 mm, grad v = 0.5 s-1
2 - D0 = 0.2 mm, grad v = 0.05 s-1 Thus, temperature control in the melting-in zones is
20000 3 - D0 = 0.4 mm, grad v = 0.05 s-1
4 - D0 = 0.4 mm, grad v = 0.01 s-1 essential for the quality of the following process steps.

15000
Primary fining
10000
4 The fast removal of gases and gas bubbles from the
melt, during the primary fining process, requires a melt
5000 3
that is heated at temperatures above the fining onset-
2 temperature (this might be more than 1400-1440°C
1
0
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 for typical soda–lime–silica float glass melts). Ideally
Temperature (K) the melt is heated above this temperature just before
entering the dedicated fining section of the furnace.
Figure 4. Modeling results for dissolution times of sand grains
Bottom temperatures of the fining tank should exceed
in molten float glass melt (soda–lime–silica) for different
velocity gradients (grad v) and initial sand grain diameters (D0) this temperature level, therefore the tank depth in that
as a function of temperature. Calculated with sand grain - glass area should be limited and the bottom refractory mate-
melt dissolution models [2, 13]. Grad v is velocity gradient in rial should not react or release gases at these tempera-
melt. ture levels. The steady ascension of growing bubbles

Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 211

 Beerkens R.

in the melt should also not be interrupted or hindered It is recommended to develop fining processes
by downward directed flow. Almost plug flow/laminar that prevent the need of surface temperatures above
flow conditions are necessary in the fining section. The 1475-1500°C. A decrease of glass melt surface tempe-
dimensions of the fining section can be derived from the rature of a float glass melt from 1500 down to 1450°C,
bubble size, ascension times (depending on size and reduces sodium evaporation by about 35% and will
glass melt temperature) see Figure 3 and pull: all decrease dust formation (from sodium condensation
bubbles much have reached the glass melt surface by reactions e.g. sodium sulfate condensation) and will
the end of the fining section. In shallow fining zones, decrease silica corrosion in the superstructure by so-
the temperature difference between the glass melt sur- dium species. Figure 6 shows the saturation pressure of
face and bottom can be limited and avoid the need for NaOH in a soda–lime–silica glass furnace fired with air
excessive glass melt surface temperatures to reach suf- and natural gas for different temperatures. Sodium
ficiently high bottom temperatures, because such high hydroxide evaporation is the main cause of fine dust
surface temperatures may lead the strong evaporation of emissions of container, float and soda–lime–silica table-
volatile species such as alkali or boron components ware glass furnaces.
[14]. It is important to identify the most critical path of The fining process may be speeded up by: a) enhan-
the melt in a melting tank, that may ever not exceed cing agglomeration of bubbles or bubble growth under
the required fining onset temperature, see Figure 5. the influence of acoustic waves transferred by wave-
guides into the melt or b) by changing the furnace atmo-
sphere to a sub-atmospheric pressure space above the
1600 melt [4] or c) using a special gas atmosphere or d) pre-
1430°C
1400 conditioning the melt by bubbling the melt with a gas
Temperature (°C)

1200
showing high solubility and diffusion in the melt [9, 10].
canal After primary fining, not only most of the fine
1000
in doghouse seeds and bubbles have to be removed from the melt,
800 but also the content of dissolved gases (e.g. CO2 and N2)
600 should have been reduced to allow complete dissolution
of still remaining fine seeds during the controlled
400
cooling process after primary fining.
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 Conditioning of melt
Time after charging of batch (h)
Just, before the next stage in the glass production
Figure 5. Temperature history of a critical path of glass melt in process: the forming or shaping of viscous glass, the
a float glass melting tank. In this case, the fining onset tempe- molten glass should be chemically homogenized and
rature should be below 1430°C to ensure removal of gas
bubbles in all the glass melt by primary fining.
conditioned to a required (often uniform) temperature
level. The cooling process should not be too fast
to avoid strong temperature non-uniformities or to
30 freeze-in the remaining seeds, without having the
chance to be completely dissolved.
25 Today, working-ends, refiners, feeders or fore-
1500°C hearths are used to bring the glass melt temperatures
20 down to the desired level, prior to forming. The impor-
tance of a uniform or controlled temperature gradient in
15 the spout of the feeders or canal of the working end on
1450°C
the quality of the forming process is still not complete-
10
ly understood. Due to the re-heating of the melt at the
5
sidewalls of the working-end and feeders by small
burners or heating electrodes and the cooling of the
0 hotter melt flowing in the axis of the feeders or fore-
12 13 14 15 16 hearths, extra energy is required for the process of con-
Na2O concentration in float glass type melt (wt.%) ditioning and controlled cooling of the melt to the
required temperature level. A certain temperature level
Figure 6. Sodium hydroxide vapor pressure above molten
soda–lime–silica glass melt. Concentration ratios between is required (depending on type of product and kind of
other oxides than sodium oxide remain constant. Calculated forming process) to achieve the proper viscosity for
by thermodynamic model for silicate melts: TNO modified forming and shaping of the glass products from the
Associated Species Model [15]. delivered melt.

212 Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008)

 Analysis of elementary process steps in industrial glass melting tanks - some ideas on innovations in industrial glass melting

The energy efficiency (balance between cooling z Pilkington, developed a melting process in which the
and heating) might be improved by using CFD models batch is charged into the furnace creating a sloped
for feeder designs or by advanced temperature control batch surface. The batch is heated from above or at
in the different feeders sections. the sides by burners. The obtained melt layer flows by
Stirrers in the feeders and special stirring compart- the slope downwards in a compartment for complete
ments in feeders can be applied to improve mixing espe- melting and fining.
cially for glass products requiring high optical homo- z Advanced glass melter [17]. Raw materials (without
geneity (display glasses, float glasses, tableware glasses cullet or carbonates) are injected in a flame (natural
or color-feeders with coloring fritte addition to the melt gas), the residence time in this flame is much less than
at the entrance of the feeder). 1 second. Carbonates are added separately, but only
at the end of the combustion process to avoid destabi-
lization of the flame by the gas decomposition
ALTERNATIVE GLASS MELTER CONCEPTS product CO2. The suspended particles (already
molten) and gases are blown into a melting chamber
In the past, many attempts have been made to through a small opening. The melt is collected on a
separate the process steps involved in the conversion of ceramic target (cone-shaped). The obtained melt
a mixed batch of raw materials into a uniform glass flows as a thin layer downwards but needs additional
melt. Barton [16] showed an overview of developments fining for most glass types, however this technology
until about 1990. Such melters are often indicated or is not further pursued.
referred to as segmented melters, examples are: z SEG melter: This is a combination of a cold-top elec-
tric melter equipped with glass melt electrodes for
z P10 melter, with rotary kilns, one for burning of lime- melting normal batch, and a fossil fuel fired melter.
stone and dolomite in a sand mixture and one for pre- The pre-molten batch is mixed with cullet in the fos-
sil-fuel fired tank furnace segment. The cullet can be
reacting part of the sand with soda. The materials
preheated by flue gases. The mixtures of batch melt
from both kilns are mixed and melted in a rotary
and cullet melt is further heated by oxygen burners to
melter and heated up to about 1250°C. Then, the
finalize fining and homogenization. Return flow from
molten mass is flowing into a channel to increase tem-
the fining zone to the melting-in zone is prevented.
perature by electrodes and submerged combustion
The mixing in the mixing zone is enhanced by bub-
burners (oxygen). In the last stage the melt flows into
blers. Advantages are: the low emissions, since the
a shaft furnace that is kept at sub-atmospheric pres-
melting-in zone is a cold top melter, low NOx emis-
sure. In this stage bubbles grow rapidly and gases are
sions, because of oxygen-fired fining compartment,
stripped from the melt. The bubbles are removed from
relatively low volumes of the tanks and narrow resi-
the melt that can now be poured on the molten tin for dence time distribution, because of the limited return
the float glass forming process. flows. The author reports some other aspects [18].
z FAR melter from Saint Gobain, with batch com- z British Glass plasma melter [19]. Three plasma elec-
paction and batch preheating by flue gases exhausted trodes (120° angle between electrodes projected on
by a recuperator connected to segmented type glass horizontal plane) are immersed in a batch pile con-
melter. After batch preheating, a thin layer of batch tained in a ceramic container. Nozzles in the elec-
(compacted) is heated by burners before it enters a trodes supply ionized argon gas. Due to an alternating
foaming compartment (sulfate foaming), that is current between the electrodes, the plasma travels
heated by glass melt electrodes. After foaming, the between these electrodes. The plasma transfers within
melt enters the clearing zone with a shallow glass the batch pile the heat to the material, forming a sili-
melt depth to remove residual bubbles and then it cate melt that becomes electrically conductive. The
flows through a zone with extra stirring (homogeniza- electric current will partly pass through the melt and
tion). will heat the melt by the Joule principle. The melt
z FARE melter from Saint Gobain, similar to the FAR flows from an orifice in the bottom of the ceramic
process, but without fuel burners in the melting zone, container to a next process step. The quality of the
the melting zone is stirred and there the melt is heat- melt depends on the residence time. The molten glass
ed by electricity. is covered by cold batch preventing volatilization
z RAMAR-Rapid Melting and Refining from OI losses. A special starting-up procedure is required.
(Owens Illinois): based on different compartments, Often extra fining after this kind of melting processes
starting with electric melting in 2 stirred basins and is required to produce glass products, such as table-
then the degassing takes place in a centrifugal ware or container glass. Total energy (mainly electri-
(re)finer. The centrifugal 'forces' remove the bubbles city) costs (plus argon) can be rather high but the
from the melt. melter is very compact and flexible.

Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 213

 Beerkens R.

Segmented melters, still applied in the glass indus- mounted in the bottom of a water cooled melting tank
try are the so-called LoNOx® melter [20] and FLEX® are applied in the so called submerged combustion glass
melters of SORG [21]. melter (SCM). The batch and melt are very intensively
The LoNOx® melter applies a recuperator for com- heated by oxygen-gas flames ascending (as a column)
bustion air preheating, but the flue gas from the recu- through the batch and melt in the about 1 meter deep
perator is used to preheat cullet, therefore these types tank [8, 12]. The very intensive and rapid radiative and
of furnaces are especially applicable for glass produc- convective heat transfer from the flames channeling
tion from cullet rich batches. through the melting batch, will enable fast melting, and
The fining zone, exists of a shallow fining bank the batch can be heated and melted within about
heated with fossil fuel - preheated air burners. The hot 1 to 2 hours at very high specific melting loads of 15
gases from this zone flow into the space above the melt- to 20 metric tons per m2 per day. The melt delivered
ing-in zone, with a deeper glass melt tank that is by this system contains many seeds and bubbles and
equipped with electrodes. The raw materials batch requires in most cases a subsequent fining step to re-
extracts heat from these combustion gases before these move gases from this melt to be suitable for fiber, tube,
gases enter the recuperator at reduced temperatures. container or tableware glass production. The energy
These LoNOx® melters show similar energy efficien- efficiency for a relatively small melter (footprint:
cies, as energy benchmark studies (TNO studies on 1-2 m2) is reported on about 34-40 % (energy for fusion
benchmarking energy efficiency of glass furnaces [22]) reactions and heating of batch and melt and batch gases
show, compared to end-port fired regenerative furnace, relative to total combustion energy supplied). This ener-
but also very low NOx emissions due to the relatively gy efficiency for melting will further improve for larger
low air preheat temperatures. furnace sizes, with a larger volume-surface ratio. The
Fining processes can be supported by physical walls of the submerged combustion melter are refracto-
fining methods [3], for instance by applying a sub- ry lined, but water-cooled. Figure 7 shows a schematic
atmospheric pressure above the melt as demonstrated drawing of the Surmerged Combustion Melter.
by Asahi [23]. The application of high intensity plasma's for
After the year 2000, rapid glass melting has heating of batch and glass melt was investigated by
become increasingly interest in the USA and systems British Glass [19] and Plasmelt [24], showing very fast
using high temperature, intense plasmas have been melting rates and short residence times (down to 5-15
further developed to heat batch within a few minutes up minutes). Even glass compositions or refractory materi-
to melting temperatures [24]. Oxygen-fuel burners
als that require temperature of up to 1900°C can be
processed. In the Plasmelt technology, the plasma is
generated between a DC anode and cathode torch.
Argon gas is used for the plasma. The torch positions
3 4 are generally fixed and the plasma touches the raw
2 5 material batch and melt contained in a rotating skull.
The torches do not contact the melt. Especially, this
plasma technology seems to be suitable for glasses that
require high-temperature melting temperatures or for
special glass types with low production volumes. This
technology also offers a high level of flexibility by the
small hold-up volumes and presents therefore possibili-
ty of glass type changes within a few hours. Energy
1
consumption (based on primary energy, taking into
account the energy efficiency of electric power genera-
8 tion), however is much higher compared to fossil fuel
fired glass furnaces for large volume glass production.
6

Most of the furnace designs developed before 1990

were based on empirical approaches or using physical
models that were limited in predicting glass melt quali-
7
ty and energy consumption.
Figure 7. Submerged Combustion Melter (SCM) [8]. 1 - Batch Today, CFD based mathematical models can be
charger; 2 - Refractory lining; 3 - Water cooled panels; 4 - Mel- applied as has been demonstrated for the submerged
ting zone; 5 - Exhaust; 6 - Melt outlet; 7 - Submerged oxygen- combustion melter and plasma melter and developments
gas burners; 8 - Batch material (sloped pocket of batch). at TNO enable the design of new furnaces and to opti-

214 Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008)

 Analysis of elementary process steps in industrial glass melting tanks - some ideas on innovations in industrial glass melting

mize not only furnace design (combustion chamber and removal from melt) are very different compared to
melting tank segments), but also process settings and to the preferred conditions of melting-in and sand grain
predict glass melt quality based on melting and fining dissolution or for homogenization.
index distributions, residence time distribution calcula- For instance for soda-lime-silica glass melting, the
tions and determining evaporation from the melt [14, following conditions seem to be adequate [1, 30, 31]:
15] and refractory corrosion rate behavior [2, 25].
The recognition of the different basic requirements
for each process step: batch melting, sand grain dissolu- Batch melting
tion and removal of gases and homogenization, leads to z 1 hour residence time for fusion of most batch mate-
proposals for segmented melters, consisting of compact rials into a silicate melts, with preheated batch, this
compartments that are optimized by the use of CFD time can be reduced;
modeling and advanced sensor and control systems with z Thin batch layer (< 0.05 m) or a very strong convec-
specific functionalities. Because of: a) the develop- tion around the batch, this violent convection disrupts
ments in glass melt sensors (electrochemical redox sen- the batch blanket, creating a large area of batch tip;
sors or polyvalent element sensors [26-29]), b) reliable z Compacted batch (intense grain contact and fast heat
models to optimize design and to predict the effect of conduction).
furnace design and process settings on energy con- The heating process from room temperature to the
sumption and glass melt quality plus c) the simulation temperature levels where most batch reactions take
model-based process control systems, new glass melt- place consumes most of the time, due to the poor con-
ing concepts can be designed. The aim of such innova- ductivity of the low temperature areas of the batch.
tive melters is and should be: improved energy efficien- Batch preheating is very efficient to overcome part of
cy, increased stability and control of glass quality, flex- the initial stages of the batch heating process in the
ibility by fast glass type changes, low emissions and glass furnace.
increased furnace lifetime.

Sand grain dissolution

CONCLUSIONS
z Depending on maximum sand grain size, the average
Most glass melting tanks today show very wide residence time would be about 1-1.5 hours (D <
glass melt residence time distributions. The average res- < 0.2 mm);
idence time can be 6 or 8 times the minimum residence z Strong convection by stirring or bubbling promotes
time for most industrial melting processes. A ratio of sand grain dissolution strongly;
minimum versus average residence time of 0.4 would z Sand grain dissolution preferably takes place
allow a reduction in the glass melting tank volume of (soda–lime–silica glass melts) at 1200 < T < 1350°C;
more than 50 %. This means less capital costs for the at higher temperatures the fining agent may already
construction of the furnace by smaller quantities of start to decompose and that will jeopardize the subse-
refractory materials and less heat losses through the quent fining processes;
walls of a compacter furnace. A change of the melting z A relatively narrow sand grain size distribution, (espe-
tank volume by about 50 % may decrease total energy cially avoiding large sand particles): 80-250 microns
consumption by about 15 %. is recommended to avoid carry-over, to limit fast sili-
But, in order to enable this transition from a con- ca saturation of the melt by the rapid dissolution of
ventional melting tank design to an "advanced" melter the fine grains, too prevent long dissolution times for
with a smaller volume and better energy performance, too large grains and to avoid silica scum formation by
the batch melting-in process has to be changed to sintering silica fines at the glass melt surface.
realize this. Without strong recirculation glass melt
flows (this re-circulation dominates the wide residence
time distribution), the direct heat input from the com- Fining (primary) process
bustion space into the batch blanket has to be intensified z For deep tanks: at least average residence time 3 or
by special technologies (an example is the submerged more hours for good finning;
combustion melter). z But for glass layers < 0.3-0.4 meter and tempera-
Moreover, each essential process step requires its tures well above the fining onset temperature:
own conditions, characterized by its temperature level, 1.5-2.5 hours for complete bubble removal;
degree of mixing, chemistry (redox state, fining agent, z The tank bottom temperatures at the fining shelf
melting fluxes, viscosity dependent on composition) should be above the fining onset temperature to avoid
and time required to complete the process step at the a current of glass melt with remaining seeds along the
given conditions. Optimum conditions for fining (gas bottom;

Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 215

 Beerkens R.

z The surface temperature of the melt is recommended References

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Ceramics − Silikáty 52 (4) 206-217 (2008) 217