Prepared in cooperation with the U.S.

Department of Energy

Water Resources and Shale Gas/Oil Production in the

Appalachian Basin—Critical Issues and Evolving Developments

Introduction challenges include the availability and use of surface water and
groundwater for hydraulic fracturing; the migration of stray
Unconventional natural gas and oil resources in the United
gas and potential effects on overlying aquifers; the potential
States are important components of a national energy program.
for flowback, formation fluids, and other wastes to contaminate
While the Nation seeks greater energy independence and
surface water and groundwater; and the effects from drill pads,
greener sources of energy, Federal agencies with environmental
roads, and pipeline infrastructure on land disturbance in small
responsibilities, state and local regulators and water-resource
watersheds and headwater streams (U.S. Government Printing
agencies, and citizens throughout areas of unconventional
Office, 2012). Federal, state, regional and local agencies, along
shale gas development have concerns about the environmental
with the gas industry, are striving to use the best science and
effects of high volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF), including
technology to develop these unconventional resources in an
those in the Appalachian Basin in the northeastern United
environmentally safe manner.
States (fig. 1). Environmental concerns posing critical

(Photograph courtesy of Dennis Risser, USGS)

Water intake and water-level monitoring station for surface-water withdrawal at Fall Brook Creek, Ward Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Department of the Interior Open-File Report 2013–1137
Printed on recycled paper
U.S. Geological Survey August 2013
 EXPLANATION
Marcellus Shale—
United States Extent

Utica Shale—
United States Extent

¢
0 100 200 MILES

0 100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 1. Map showing extent of the Marcellus Shale and Utica Shale in the
Appalachian Basin in the northeastern United States.

Some of these concerns were addressed in U.S. Geological (Susquehanna River Basin Commission, 2013). Any water
Survey (USGS) Fact Sheet 2009–3032 (Soeder and Kappel, remaining downhole is considered to be a consumptive loss and
2009) about potential critical effects on water resources is no longer part of the hydrologic cycle.
associated with the development of gas extraction from the Sustainable water-supply practices for HVHF include the
Marcellus Shale of the Hamilton Group (Ver Straeten and continual but low-rate (relative to streamflow) withdrawal of
others, 1994). Since that time, (1) the extraction process has water from streams to onsite holding tanks or impoundments
evolved, (2) environmental awareness related to high-volume (fig. 2). This practice is designed to allow for adequate
hydraulic fracturing process has increased, (3) state regulations downstream flow for aquatic ecosystems and downstream water
concerning gas well drilling have been modified, and (4) the users. Permit requirements that prohibit water withdrawals
practices used by industry to obtain, transport, recover, treat, during low-streamflow (drought) conditions have resulted
recycle, and ultimately dispose of the spent fluids and solid in minimal additional stream and (or) groundwater impacts
waste materials have evolved. in Pennsylvania where intensive hydraulic fracturing has
This report updates and expands on Fact Sheet 2009–3032 recently taken place (Pennsylvania Environmental Digest,
and presents new information regarding selected aspects of 2010). Permitting of stream and groundwater withdrawals by
unconventional shale gas development in the Appalachian Basin state and regional agencies has proven to be an effective tool
(primarily Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, in mitigating the effects of HVHF water use during drought
Ohio, and New York). This document was prepared by the conditions. Consumptive loss of water over many decades
USGS, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, and by conventional or unconventional oil and gas development,
reviews the evolving technical advances and scientific studies among other consumptive uses, has yet to be quantified.
made in the Appalachian Basin between 2009 and the present The gas industry has found that non-potable water sources
(2013), addressing past and current issues for oil and gas may suffice in the HVHF process, at least in Appalachian Basin
development in the region. shales. The current best-management practice also recycles
much of the flowback water into the next batch of HVHF fluid
after treatment to remove suspended solids, thus reducing the
Water Supply
amount of freshwater needed for drilling and hydraulically
Hydraulic fracturing of Appalachian Basin shales uses fracturing the next well. Non-potable water sources such as
about 3 to 5 million gallons of water per horizontal well (King, wastewater-treatment-plant effluent have been successfully
2012). Anecdotal information from drillers and the Susquehanna used for HVHF with proper chemical treatment, and the
River Basin Commission indicates that approximately Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has encouraged a study of
10 percent of all HVHF water used is recovered from the mine wastewaters for such use (Pennsylvania Department of
drilled and fractured formation in northeastern Pennsylvania Environmental Protection, 2012).
2
 A

(Photographs courtesy of the Susquehanna River Basin Commission)

Figure 2. A, Holding-tank facility; B, filling of the lagoon using tanker trucks; and C, a freshwater holding lagoon.
3
 Potential Effects on Drinking Water
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids,
(USEPA) is conducting a study on the potential accidental releases of chemicals, well practices,
impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking-water water use, and wastewater treatment and disposal.
resources. Because of the increasing development Laboratory studies are being conducted to develop
of gas and oil resources in the United States and analytical methods for chemicals known to be used in
comments received from stakeholders during hydraulic fracturing fluids and assess the treatability of
development of the Plan to Study the Potential hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. Case studies provide
Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water new information on potential impacts at existing
Resources (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, well sites, and computer modeling estimates the
2011), the scope of the research includes the full conditions needed for possible groundwater impacts
life cycle of water used in the hydraulic fracturing to occur during generalized well scenarios. The
process, from acquisition of the water through the USEPA research team is working in consultation with
mixing of chemicals and well stimulation to the other Federal agencies, state and interstate regulatory
management of flowback and produced water and agencies, industry, non-governmental organizations,
their ultimate treatment and disposal. The USEPA and others in the private and public sector. In
study is collecting and analyzing new and existing December 2012, USEPA published a progress report
data to evaluate possible impacts to both surface (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012a)
water and groundwater (fig. 3). The data are provided describing the research projects underway as part
by nine hydraulic fracturing service companies of the study and the progress made as of September
and nine well operators, and are found in publicly- 2012. The study plan and progress report are available
available databases to better understand the products on USEPA’s website (http://www.epa.gov/hfstudy).

Figure 3. Research activities and objectives from the 2012 U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency’s progress report (table 8, p. 24).
The recent (2011–13) slowdown in natural gas drilling
Activity Objective resulting from low natural gas prices has reduced the demands
Analysis of existing Gather and summarize existing data from for water withdrawals for natural gas drilling in Pennsylvania. If
data various sources to provide current information this diminished gas well development rate continues, the use of
on hydraulic fracturing activities; includes water resources for HVHF likely will decrease in the short term.
information requested of hydraulic fracturing The need to address water-resource issues remains, however.
service companies and oil and gas operators. The current slowdown will increase the total duration for HVHF
Scenario evaluations Use computer modeling to assess the potential water consumption because it leads to a longer time frame for
for hydraulic fracturing to impact drinking the full development of the oil/gas resource in the Appalachian
water resources. Basin. The longer time frame necessitates development of
Laboratory studies Conduct targeted experiments to test and develop effective management strategies for the region’s water resources
analytical detection methods and to study the in light of the increasingly variable climate.
fate and transport of selected chemicals during
wastewater treatment and discharge to surface
water. Stray Gas
Toxicity assessment Identify chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing When methane gas appears where it is not wanted it is
fluids or reported to be in hydraulic fracturing called stray gas. Incidents of stray gas occurrences in freshwater
wastewater and compile available chemical, aquifers, specifically the presence of methane in water wells,
physical, and toxicological properties.
have been documented during shale-gas development in
Case studies localized areas of northern Pennsylvania (Osborn and others,
Retrospective Study sites with reported contamination to 2011; Jackson and others, 2013). The likely mechanism for
understand the underlying causes and potential the occurrence of stray gas in areas of active gas development
impacts to drinking water resources. is leaky cement seals that do not effectively isolate freshwater
Prospective Develop understanding of hydraulic fracturing aquifers from shallow gas zones penetrated by the gas well
processes and their potential impacts on (Bruffato and others, 2003). Determination of cause and effect
drinking water resources. for incidents of stray gas migration is not straightforward
4
 Radioactivity in Shale Waste
Radium (Ra) is a naturally occurring radioactive material
(NORM) that is present as a component of the Marcellus
Shale and is produced from the radioactive decay of high
concentrations of uranium and thorium found naturally within
black shales (Schmoker, 1981; Bank and others, 2010).
Uranium is poorly soluble in water under the anoxic (oxygen-
poor) conditions typical of black shales, but radium is readily
dissolved and transported (Rowan and others, 2011; Szabo
and others, 2012). Although two of the radium isotopes (223Ra
and 224Ra) have short half-lives (a few days), the other two
isotopes, 226Ra and 228Ra, have 1,622 and 5.75 year half-lives,
respectively; if dispersed in the environment, these isotopes
will persist for long periods of time. Chemically, radium
behaves similarly to calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), and barium
(Ba). Radium can readily precipitate along with salts of Ca, Sr,
and Ba in groundwater or produced brines having high total
dissolved solids to form scale in or on drilling equipment (fig. 5)
or in on-site storage tanks or brine pits. The scale precipitate
(Photograph courtesy of Matthew Conheady (www.nyfalls.com)) is rich in radium, and that may emit radiation to those working
Figure 4. Natural gas seep at Chestnut Ridge County Park, Eternal near such equipment over time. The scale may eventually be
Flame Falls, Erie County, New York. removed from the pipe and then is added to the waste stream
from drilling that must go to a landfill or can be dispersed to the
local soil. Leachates from these materials may contain radium
that may eventually reach the local water table or run off to the
local watershed.
The concentrations of NORM present in black shale
drill cuttings, drilling mud, scale and sludge build-ups, fluids
(fig. 4), especially without local background information from spills, treatment residuals, and other waste products
(Ground Water Protection Council, 2012). Thermogenic may be greater than background environmental levels.
(geologically derived) methane is known to occur naturally Disposal of these waste products on-site or in landfill burial
throughout the Upper Devonian strata overlying the Marcellus
Shale, including the fractured rocks that serve as aquifers used
for drinking water (Molofsky and others, 2011). Samples from
water wells overlying oil and gas bearing formations commonly
show the presence of methane gas, perhaps from multiple
sources, even in areas that have not yet been drilled (Molofsky
and others, 2013; Mulder, 2012; Kappel and Nystrom, 2012). In
2011, in recognition of the threat to public health and safety as
well as the environment, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
revised the regulations concerning the design, installation, and
cementing of surface and intermediate casings to help minimize
gas migration and protect water supplies (The Pennsylvania
Bulletin, 2011).
Abandoned and orphaned wells are another environmental
resource concern related to stray gas. The number of abandoned
wells ranges in the tens to hundreds of thousands in various
states, and generally, only a small percentage of these wells
have been field located. Additional attention by state and
Federal regulators is being given to characterization of the
distribution and condition of abandoned wells that penetrate
drinking-water aquifers and that may be another avenue
for stray gas and groundwater migration (Texas Railroad
Commission, 2000; U.S. Geological Survey, 2013). For
instance, in June 2012, an abandoned gas well drilled in
[Photo courtesy of Creative Commons.org. Scale bar at bottom in centimeters]
1932 erupted with water and methane related to the drilling
of a nearby gas well in Union Township, Tioga County, Figure 5. Barium sulfate scale in drilling pipe. Radium can readily
Pennsylvania. (StateImpact Pennsylvania, 2012). This issue has precipitate with these barium salts and may emit radiation to those
been and will continue to be addressed by the gas industry and working near such equipment, and may be potentially released to
by the states regulating oil and gas development. the environment if improperly disposed.
5
 Fluid Waste Treatment and Disposal
Radium in Groundwater Flowback fluid is recovered following HVHF and during
the initial stages of gas production in the first 2 to 3 weeks
Data on radium distribution and occurrence in following HVHF; it consists mostly of the water and chemical
the freshwater aquifers of the Appalachian region additives which have been modified during the hydrofracturing
are limited (Szabo and others, 2012), but median process. The flowback fluid can be treated at the well and
total (combined) radium activity in six samples of recycled for use in the next HVHF well (Maloney and
brine from oil and gas wells in western Pennsylvania Yoxtheimer, 2012). Eventually though, as dissolved salts and
was about 1,200 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) (Dresel minerals accumulate, this recovered fluid must receive proper
and Rose, 2010). Radium (Ra) concentrations in treatment, transportation, and disposal.
Marcellus Shale fluids are distinctly higher than During the early development of the Marcellus Shale
those from those brines—typically between 5,000 in 2008, local municipal wastewater-treatment plants in
and 15,000 pCi/L (Rowan and others, 2011). The Pennsylvania were used to process these waste fluids (Soeder
high concentrations of Ra from the “produced and Kappel, 2009). These plants were not designed to treat the
water” (formation brines) can potentially exceed complex chemistry of flowback fluids, especially the high total
drinking-water standards even after treatment and dissolved solids (TDS), halides, metals, chemical additives,
dilution with fresh water. Radium dispersed to organic compounds, and radiological materials produced during
soils, sludges, and sediments from the brines can and following the HVHF process. Most of these dissolved
undergo long-term low-level leaching into water materials can pass untreated through the wastewater plant
bodies, but release can be accelerated with sudden and into the receiving water, creating water-quality problems
changes in soil or water chemistry. The disposition downstream from the plant outfall (StateImpact Pennsylvania,
of Ra-enriched waste fluids and solids in relation 2013). In 2010, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania strongly
to drinking water supplies has yet to be quantified, requested that only advanced industrial wastewater-treatment
but the health risk of radium ingestion, from any facilities capable of handling the various types of flowback fluid
source, is associated with increased human cancer be used (Indiana Gazette, 2011). The gas industry complied
risk (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999). with this request, which in turn, caused many drillers to recycle
The health risk is proportional to the exposure flowback fluids to reduce disposal volumes and expenses.
as radium is readily stored in bone from where The high-salinity formation fluids (Blauch and others,
it emits radioactivity into bone and surrounding 2009; Haluszczak and others, 2013) present an additional
tissue. The Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) in wastewater-treatment and disposal challenge (Lutz and others,
drinking water for combined radium isotopes 226Ra 2013). These formation waters, called brines, may contain
and 228Ra and the alpha particles emitted during relatively high concentrations of sodium, chloride, bromide,
radium decay is not to exceed 5 and 15 (pCi/L), and other inorganic constituents, such as arsenic, barium, other
respectively (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, heavy metals, and associated radionuclides that substantially
2000). The establishment of an MCL is based on exceed drinking-water standards (Lutz and others, 2013). When
the Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG), these materials are removed at advanced wastewater-treatment
whereby EPA considers the risk to sensitive facilities, they create a concentrated solid waste (sludge
subpopulations (infants, children, the elderly, and residual) that requires special handling and disposal in properly
those with compromised immune systems) of designed and regulated landfills. The radiological constituents
experiencing a variety of adverse health effects. pose problems even for the advanced treatment facilities, and
Further information on these goals and levels can any residual wastes that are created may have gamma radiation
be found at http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/ emissions greater than background levels (U.S. Environmental
regulatingcontaminants/basicinformation.cfm. Protection Agency, 2008).

Deep Well Injection of Fluid Waste

sites will require assessments of both gamma radiation The cost of disposal of residual waste from hydraulic
emissions and radionuclide concentrations in solids and liquids fracturing operations using deep-well injection to underground
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008). Dispersal injection control (UIC) wells compared favorably to advanced
of radium into soils may have several effects in addition to wastewater-treatment costs. UIC wells have been used for
the potential increase in gamma radiation exposures and the hydraulic fracturing wastewater disposal for conventional and
potential for leaching into water resources. The 226Ra emits unconventional oil and gas development across the United
radon gas as a decay product; structures built on the soil that States. These UIC wells are regulated by some states and the
contains 226Ra-bearing waste may have high levels of indoor- USEPA and have been an important means of waste disposal for
air radon that require monitoring due to this type of exposure. many years (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012b).
Plants may also take up the 226Ra from soil. Recently (2013), The disposal formations are generally deep, saline aquifers
the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has initiated a study of below drinking-water aquifers and in some cases below gas/
the radioactivity of the Marcellus Shale through all aspects of oil-producing horizons. Unfortunately, the geologic formations
the gas drilling, extraction, and waste disposal (Pennsylvania capable of accepting these fluids are limited in Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection, 2013). and New York (Pennsylvania State Extension, 2011; McCurdy,
6
2011). Wastewater from many shale gas wells in Pennsylvania these metals from the minerals are much more water-soluble
is transported to UIC wells in Ohio and Kentucky for disposal; and thus more mobile than in the original reduced state,
these UIC wells at present have the capacity to accept wastes. especially under acidic conditions. Drill cuttings in West
Induced seismicity can occur when fluids are injected into Virginia are typically disposed of on-site by burial in the mud
deep bedrock formations penetrated by the UIC wells, where pit (West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection,
they may lubricate pre-existing geologic faults and cause the 2010). In Pennsylvania, it has been observed that the drill
faults to slip, creating small earthquakes. Although most UIC cuttings are mixed with wood chips/sawdust or absorbent
wells have been used successfully over many decades, a number polymer to reduce water content (fig. 6) and then are taken
of earthquakes occurred near Youngstown, Ohio, in 2012 as a to secured landfills or are reprocessed for other uses (Drilling
result of shale flowback fluid disposal into a new, deep-injection Waste Management Information System, 2013).
well (Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 2012). A similar The potential for oxidation and leaching of radionuclides
situation occurred in Arkansas from UIC wells used for disposal and toxic metals associated with organic matter in black shale
of residual wastewater from Fayetteville Shale wells (Horton, cuttings led to a preliminary assessment of the geochemistry of
2012). UIC well operators, state regulatory agencies, and the a number of black shales by U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
USEPA have been re-evaluating the capacity of these disposal in 2010. The results of this initial study indicate that black
wells to handle wastes in a manner that will avoid induced shales like the Marcellus Shale contain minor, but detectable,
seismic activity in the future. amounts of heavy metals and other elements that can be
detrimental to the environment if mobilized and concentrated
Solid Waste Disposal in the soil or shallow groundwater (Soeder, 2011; Fortson and
Horizontal drilling of black shales creates long boreholes others, 2011). The results of the Soeder (2011) study were
within the organic-rich layers and generates hundreds of tons inconclusive but did indicate that additional analyses are needed
of drill cuttings (Maloney and Yoxtheimer, 2012). Black shales to better define the fate and transport of leachate from black
like the Marcellus Shale contain reduced sulfide minerals that shale cuttings and evaluate the potential environmental hazards.
can oxidize when exposed to air and rainwater, producing Additional research by DOE is currently underway (Dan
acidic, metals-rich leachate. The oxidized forms of some of Soeder, DOE, written commun., February 2013).

Figure 6. Mixing of drill cuttings with absorbent polymer prior to shipping and disposal in a secured landfill.
7
 Summary
Unconventional natural gas and oil resources
in the United States are important components of
a national energy program that seeks both greater
energy independence and greener sources of energy.
Unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing
(HVHF) shale gas and oil development in the
Marcellus Shale and Utica Shale is underway in
the Appalachian Basin within Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, and eastern Ohio and is proposed in
New York, Maryland and Virginia. Compared to
conventional gas production, the scale of shale gas
operations may be much larger and has the potential
to create significantly greater effects on landscapes,
watersheds, water supplies, and water quality. Because
of the potential effects, some states (New York and
Maryland as of spring 2013) have placed moratoriums
on development until these issues are resolved. At the
same time, development of the shale gas resource is
(Photograph courtesy of Curtis Schreffler, USGS) considered a major component of America’s energy
Pipeline construction in the Endless Mountain region near Trout Run, Pennsylvania. supplies for the foreseeable future.
Although the technology for directional
or horizontally drilled wells used in combination with
Construction and Transportation sophisticated hydraulic fracturing processes to extract gas
Hydraulic fracturing operations in the Appalachian Basin resources has improved over the past few decades, the
involve moving large amounts of heavy equipment, trucks, knowledge of how this extraction might affect water resources
supplies, storage tanks, and fluids into mostly rural areas. has not kept pace. Federal and state water-resource and
Transporting all this materiel to and from drill sites has caused regulatory agencies, the gas industry, and citizens desire a better
damage to some of the rural, steep, two-lane Appalachian understanding of the potential environmental effects from the
Mountain roads. Many of the roads have been repaved or totally hydraulic fracturing process. Advancements in the science
rebuilt by the gas drilling industry (Marcellus Shale Coalition, can provide that understanding and lead to the development
2011). Such intensive construction may result in considerable of best-management strategies for limiting adverse effects
of shale gas development in the Appalachian Basin, as well
land and wildlife disturbance within small watersheds (U.S.
as improvements in monitoring strategies designed to insure
Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013; Intermountain Oil and Gas
environmental quality.
BMP Project, 2013). The gas drilling industry has recently
adopted practices to help reduce truck traffic,
including the transport of freshwater by pipeline
(fig. 7) and the reuse of flowback water. Local
governments have worked with the gas industry
to implement management practices to reduce
well-pad construction and transportation impacts
(Marcellus Shale Coalition, 2012).
Some of the management practices include
keeping trucks off roads during specific times and
finding alternate routes to well pads on roads that
can accommodate heavy equipment. The road
restrictions are accomplished through road-use
agreements with the municipalities (Pennsylvania
State University, 2012). However, even with
agreements between the gas companies and state
regulators, some local environmental impacts
might occur (Slonecker and others, 2012; Drohan
and others, 2012); therefore, regulatory agencies
and the gas industry continue to support research
to improve management practices Figure 7. Pipeline construction in northeastern Pennsylvania.

By William M. Kappel, John H. Williams, and Zoltan Szabo

8
References Cited Intermountain Oil and Gas BMP Project, 2013, Getches-
Wilkinson Center for Natural Resources, Energy, and
Bank, T., Malizia, T., and Andresky, L., 2010, Uranium the Environment, accessed March 2013, at http://www.
geochemistry in the Marcellus shale: effects on metal oilandgasbmps.org/resources/wildlife.php.
mobilization: Geological Society of America Abstracts with
Programs, v. 42, p. 502. Jackson, R.B., Vengosh, Avner, Darrah, Thomas, Warner,
N.R., Down, Adrain, Poreda, Robert, Osborn, S.G., Zhao,
Blauch, M.E., Myers, R.R., Moore, T.R., Lipinski, B.A., 2009, Kaiguang, and Karr, Jonathan, 2013, Increased stray gas
Marcellus Shale post-frac flowback waters - Where is all the abundance in a subset of drinking water wells near Marcellus
salt coming from and what are the implications?: Society of shale gas extraction: Proceedings of the National Academy
Petroleum Engineers Eastern Regional Meeting, Charleston, of Sciences, accessed June 2013, at www.pnas.org/cgi/
WV, p. 1-20. doi/10.1073/pnas.1221635110.
Brufatto, C., Cochran, J., Conn, L., El-Zeghaty, S.Z.A., Kappel, W.M., and Nystrom, E.A., 2012, Dissolved methane
Fraboulet, B., Griffin, T., James, S., Justus, F., Levine, J., in New York groundwater, 1999–2011: U.S. Geological
Montgomery, C., Murchy, D., Pfeiffer, J., Pronpoch, T., and Survey Open-File Report 2012–1162, 6 p. (Also available at
Rishmani, L., 2003, From mud to cement-building gas wells: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1162.)
Schlumberger Oil Field Review, v. 15, issue 3, p. 62–78,
accessed March 2013, at http://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/ King, G.E., 2012, Hydraulic Fracturing 101: What every
resources/oilfield_review/ors03/aut03/p62_76.pdf. representative, environmentalist, regulator, reporter, investor,
university researcher, neighbor and engineer should know
Dresel, P.E., and Rose, A.W., 2010, Chemistry and origin of oil about estimating frac risk and improving frac performance
and gas well brines in western Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania in unconventional oil and gas wells: Paper SPE 152596,
Geological Survey, 4th ser., Open-File Oil and Gas Report presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
10–01.0, 48 p. Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, U.S.A., 6–8 February
Drilling Waste Management Information System, 2013, Fact 2012, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Tex.,
sheet – Beneficial reuse of drilling wastes, accessed June 80 p.
2013, at http://web.ead.anl.gov/dwm/techdesc/reuse/index. Lutz, B.D., Lewis, A.N., and Doyle, M.W., 2013, Generation,
cfm. transport, and disposal of wastewater associated with
Drohan, P.J., Brittingham, M., Bishop, J., and Yoder, K., 2012, Marcellus Shale gas development: Water Resources
Early trends in landcover change and forest fragmentation Research, v. 49, accessed February 2013, at doi10.1002/
due to shale-gas development in Pennsylvania: A potential wrcr20096. 10 p., at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
outcome for the northcentral Appalachians: Environmental doi/10.1002/wrcr.20096/pdf.
Management, v. 49, issue 5, p. 1061–1075, accessed February Maloney, K.O., and Yoxtheimer, D.A., 2012, Production and
2013, at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-012- disposal of waste materials from gas and oil extraction from
9841-6/fulltext.html. the Marcellus shale play in Pennsylvania: Environmental
Fortson, L., Bank, T., and Yatzor, B., 2011, Chemical Practice, doi:10.1017/S146604661200035X, v. 14,
associations of uranium, chromium and hydrocarbons p. 278–287, accessed February 2013, at http://journals.
in the Marcellus Shale (poster): Geological Society of cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&
America, Northeast Section Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., aid=8789192.
March 19, 2011. Marcellus Shale Coalition, 2011, MSC members invest
Ground Water Protection Council, 2012, A white paper $411 million in local and state roads: Press Release,
summarizing the stray gas incidence and response forum: Marcellus Shale Coalition, accessed January 2013, at
Cleveland, Ohio, July 24–26, 2012, 48 p., accessed February http://marcelluscoalition.org/2011/06/msc-member-
2013, at http://www.gwpc.org/sites/default/files/files/ companies-invest-411-million-in-local-state-roads/.
stray%20gas%20white%20paper-final.pdf. Marcellus Shale Coalition, 2012, Recommended practices—site
Haluszczak, L.O., Rose, A.W., and Kump, L.R., 2013, planning, development, and restoration, accessed February,
Geochemical evaluation of flowback brine from Marcellus 2013, at http://www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/mining/
gas wells in Pennsylvania, USA: Applied Geochemistry, marcellus/Documents/MSC_Recommended_Practices_
v. 28, p. 55-61. SitePlanning_Development_Restoration(2012).pdf
Horton, S., 2012, Disposal of hydrofracking waste fluid by McCurdy, Rick, 2011, Underground injection wells for
injection into subsurface aquifers triggers earthquake swarm produced water disposal: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma,
in central Arkansas with potential for damaging earthquake: Chesapeake Energy Corporation, accessed February 2013,
Seismological Research Letters, Seismological Society of at http://www.epa.gov/hfstudy/21_McCurdy_-_UIC_
America, v. 83, no. 2, p. 250–260. Disposal_508.pdf.
Indiana Gazette, 2011, DEP changes rules on treatment of
frack water: Indiana, Pennsylvania, accessed March 2013,
at http://www.indianagazette.com/b_news/article_d9f2be85-
e815-5c71-895d-e553aa3eb704.html.

9
 Exposure of the Marcellus shale in central New York showing
(Photograph courtesy of the Susquehanna River Basin Commission) the Cherry Valley limestone (grey-colored rock) between the
Rig used for drilling the horizontal leg of a Marcellus gas well. Union Springs and Oatka Creek shales of the Marcellus.

Molofsky, L., Connor, J., Wylie, A., and Wagner, T., 2011, Pennsylvania Environmental Digest, 2010, Susquehanna River
Methane in Pennsylvania water wells unrelated to Marcellus Basin Commission—Drought and gas drilling—Susquehanna
shale fracturing: Oil and Gas Journal, v. 109, issue 49, Stream Protection Program Working, accessed January
accessed February 2013, at http://www.ogj.com/1/vol-109/ 2012, at http://paenvironmentdaily.blogspot.com/2010/08/
issue-49/exploration-development/methane-in-pennsylvania- srbc-drought-and-gas-drilling.html.
water-full.html.
Pennsylvania State University, 2012, Sample Road Use
Molofsky, L.J., Connor, J.A., Wylie, A.S., Wagner, T., and Maintenance Agreement: University Park, Pa., Center for
Farhat, S.K., 2013, Evaluation of methane sources in Dirt and Gravel Road Studies, accessed November 2012,
groundwater in northeastern Pennsylvania, Groundwater, at http://www.dirtandgravel.psu.edu/Marcellus/Documents/
v. 51, no. 3, p. 333–349, doi: 10.1111/gwat.12056. Sample_RUMA.pdf.
Mulder, M.L., 2012, Ambient geochemical and isotopic
Pennsylvania State University Extension, 2011, Marcellus Shale
variations in groundwaters across an area of accelerating
wastewater issues in Pennsylvania—current and emerging
shale gas development: M.S. Thesis, Morgantown, W.V.,
treatment and disposal technologies: University Park, Pa.,
West Virginia University, 91 p.
Pennsylvania State University, 9 p., accessed February
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 2012, Preliminary 2013, at http://extension.psu.edu/water/marcellus-shale/
report on the Northstar 1 class II injection well and the waste-water/current-and-emerging-treatment-and-disposal-
seismic events in Youngstown, Ohio area: Columbus, Ohio, technologies-1/marcellus-shale-wastwater-issues-in-
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 24 p., accessed pennsylvania-current-and-emerging-treatment-and-disposal-
February 2013, at http://ohiodnr.com/downloads/northstar/ technologies/view.
UICReport.pdf.
Rowan, E.L., Engle, M.A., Kirby, C.S., and Kraemer, T.F.,
Osborn, S.G., Vengosh, Avner, Warner, N.R., and Jackson, 2011, Radium content of oil- and gas-field produced
R.B., 2011, Methane contamination of drinking water waters in the northern Appalachian Basin (U.S.A.):
accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing:
Summary and discussion of data: U.S. Geological Survey
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 5 p.,
Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5135, 38 p., accessed
accessed February 2013, at http://www.pnas.org/cgi/
February 2013, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2011/ 5135/pdf/
doi/10.1073/pnas.1100682108.
sir2011-5135.pdf.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, 2012,
Utilization of mine influenced water for natural gas extraction Schmoker, J.W., 1981, Determination of organic-matter content
activities, 8 p., accessed February 2013, at http://files.dep. of Appalachian Devonian shales from gamma-ray logs:
state.pa.us/Mining/Abandoned%20Mine%20Reclamation/ American Association of Petroleum Geologist Bulletin, v. 65,
AbandonedMinePortalFiles/MIW/Final_MIW_White_Paper. p. 1285–1298.
pdf. Slonecker, E.T., Milheim, L.E., Roig-Silva, C.M., and Fisher,
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, 2013, G.B., 2012, Landscape consequences of natural gas extraction
Oil and gas development radiation study: Harrisburg, Pa., in Greene and Tioga Counties, Pennsylvania, 2004–2010:
accessed February 2013, at http://www.portal.state.pa.us/ U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1220,
portal/server.pt/community/oil___gas_related_topics/20349/ 37 p., accessed February 2013, at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
radiation_protection/986697%20. publication/ofr20121220.
10
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Federal
Guidance Report No. 13, Cancer risk coefficients for
environmental exposure to radionuclides: Washington, D.C.,
EPA 402-R-99-001.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations; Radionuclides; Final rule,
40CFR parts 141 and 142: Federal Register 65, no. 236.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008, Technologically
Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
(TENORM) from uranium mining, volume 1: mining and
reclamation background: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Technical Report EPA-402-R-05-008, accessed
Packer assembly used to isolate part of the horizontal February 2013, at http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/docs/
well for hydraulic fracturing. tenorm/402-r-08-005-voli/402-r-08-005-v1.pdf.

Soeder, D.J., 2011, Preliminary analysis of the weathering U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011, Plan to study the
potential of Marcellus Shale drill cuttings: Geological Society potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water
resources: Washington, D.C., U.S. Environmental Protection
of America Northeast Section Annual Meeting, March 19,
Agency, Office of Research and Development, November
2011, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania [abs.], accessed February
2011, EPA/600/R-11/122, 190 p., accessed February 2013,
2013, at https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2011NE/finalprogram/ at http://www.epa.gov/hfstudy/.
abstract_186221.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012a, Study of
Soeder, D.J., and Kappel, W.M., 2009, Water resources and the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking
natural gas production from the Marcellus Shale: U.S. water resources—Progress report: Washington, D.C., U.S.
Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2009–3032, 6 p., accessed Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
February 2013, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2009/3032/. Development, December 2012, EPA/601/R-12/011, 262 p.,
accessed February 2013, at http://www.epa.gov/hfstudy/.
StateImpact Pennsylvania, 2012, Perilous pathways—
abandoned wells don’t factor into Pennsylvania’s permitting U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012b, Class II wells
process, accessed February 2013, at http://stateimpact.npr. - oil and gas related injection wells (Class II), accessed June
org/pennsylvania/2012/10/12/perilous-pathways-abandoned- 2013, at http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/
wells-dont-factor-into-pennsylvanias-permitting-process/. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013, Marcellus Shale drilling,
accessed March 2013, at http://www.fws.gov/northeast/nyfo/
StateImpact Pennsylvania, 2013, EPA fines western PA
fwc/marcellus.htm.
treatment plants for Marcellus wastewater violations,
accessed June 2013, at http://stateimpact.npr.org/ U.S. Geological Survey, 2013, Abandoned oil and gas wells
pennsylvania/2013/05/24/epa-fines-western-pa-treatment- near Fort Knox, Kentucky: Kentucky Water Science Center
plants-for-marcellus-wastewater-violations/. webpage, accessed February 2013, at http://ky.water.usgs.
gov/projects/ft_knox/index.htm.
Susquehanna River Basin Commission, 2013, Natural gas
U.S. Government Printing Office, 2012, Hearing before the
well development in the Susquehanna River Basin—
subcommittee on water and power, of the committee on
Information Sheet: Harrisburg, Pa., 4 p., accessed energy and natural resources United States Senate, one
February 2013, at http://www.srbc.net/programs/docs/ hundred twelfth congress first session to examine shale
NaturalGasInfoSheetJan2013.PDF. gas production and water resources in the eastern United
Szabo, Zoltan, dePaul, V.T., Fischer, J.M., Kraemer, T.F., and States: October 20, 2011, Washington, D.C., accessed
February 2013, at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-
Jacobsen, Eric, 2012, Occurrence and geochemistry of
112shrg72795/pdf/CHRG-112shrg72795.pdf.
radium in aquifers used for drinking water in the United
States: Applied Geochemistry, v. 27, p. 729–752, accessed Ver Straeten, C.A., Griffing, D.H., and Brett, C.E., 1994,
February 2013, at doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.11.002. The lower part of the Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale,
central to western New York State, stratigraphy and
Texas Railroad Commission, 2000, Well plugging primer: depositional history: New York State Geological Association
Oil and Gas Division—Well Plugging Section, 20 p., Guidebook, v. 66, p. 271–323, accessed February 2013,
accessed February 2013, at http://www.rrc.state.tx.us/forms/ at http://webcentral.uc.edu/eProf/media/attachment/
publications/plugprimer1.pdf. eprofmediafile_1314.pdf.

The Pennsylvania Bulletin, 2011, Rules and Regulations-Title West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, 2010,
25-Environmental Protection [25 PA.Code Ch. 78], Oil and Pit reclamation memo, 23 March 2010: Charleston, W.V.,
Gas Wells, accessed February 2013, at http://www.pabulletin. Office of Oil and Gas, 1 p., accessed February 2013, at
http://www.dep.wv.gov/oil-and-gas/Documents/Pit%20
com/secure/data/vol41/41-6/239.html.
Reclamation%20memo.pdf
11
Fault in Upper Devonian bedrock near Towanda, Bradford County, Pennsylvania.
Completed well pad with brine holding tanks (green) with nearby wind turbines
near Gleason, Tioga County, Pennsylvania.

Three well heads on a drilling pad, the closest well head being prepared for Typical well drilling tower with associated equipment.
hydraulic fracturing.

For additional information write to:

New York Water Science Center For more information on the USGS--the Any use of trade, product, or firm
U.S. Geological Survey Federal source for science about the names is for descriptive purposes only
30 Brown Road Earth, its natural and living resources, and does not imply endorsement by
Ithaca, NY 14850 natural hazards, and the environment: the U.S. Government
or visit our Web site at: World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov
http://ny.water.usgs.gov Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS