Ross Chap010

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Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History
CHAPTER 10
RISK AND RETURN: LESSONS FROM
MARKET HISTORY
Answers to Concepts Review and Critical Thinking Questions
1. They all wish they had! Since they didn't, it must have been the case that the stellar performance was
not foreseeable, at least not by most.
2. As in the previous question, it's easy to see after the fact that the investment was terrible, but it
probably wasn't so easy ahead of time.
3. No, stocks are riskier. Some investors are highly risk averse, and the extra possible return doesn't
attract them relative to the extra risk.
4. Unlike gambling, the stock market is a positive sum game; everybody can win. Also, speculators provide liquidity to
markets and thus help to promote efficiency.
5. T-bill rates were highest in the early eighties. This was during a period of high inflation and is
consistent with the Fisher effect.
6. Before the fact, for most assets, the risk premium will be positive; investors demand compensation over and above
the risk-free return to invest their money in the risky asset. After the fact, the observed risk premium can be
negative if the asset's nominal return is unexpectedly low, the risk-free return is unexpectedly high, or if some
combination of these two events occurs.
7. Yes, the stock prices are currently the same. Below is a diagram that depicts the stocks' price movements. Two
years ago, each stock had the same price, P0. Over the first year, General Materials' stock price increased by 10
percent, or (1.1) ÿ P0. Standard Fixtures' stock price declined by 10 percent, or (0.9) ÿ P0. Over the second year,
General Materials' stock price decreased by 10 percent, or (0.9)(1.1) ÿ P0, while Standard Fixtures' stock price
increased by 10 percent, or (1.1)(0.9) ÿ P0. Today, each of the stocks is worth 99 percent of its original value.
2 years ago 1 year ago Today

General Materials P0 (1.1)P0 (1.1)(0.9)P0 = (0.99)P0
Standard Fixtures P0 (0.9)P0 (0.9)(1.1)P0 = (0.99)P0
8. The stock prices are not the same. The return quoted for each stock is the arithmetic return, not the geometric
return. The geometric return tells you the wealth increase from the beginning of the period to the end of the
period, assuming the asset had the same return each year. As such, it is a better measure of ending wealth. To
see this, assuming each stock had a beginning price of $100 per share, the ending price for each stock would be:
Lake Minerals ending price = $100(1.10)(1.10) = $121.00

Small Town Furniture ending price = $100(1.25)(.95) = $118.75
10-1
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Whenever there is any variance in returns, the asset with the larger variance will always have the
greater difference between the arithmetic and geometric return.
9. To calculate an arithmetic return, you simply sum the returns and divide by the number of returns.
As such, arithmetic returns do not account for the effects of compounding. Geometric returns from
the account for the effects of compounding. As an investor, the most important return of an asset is
the geometric return.
10. Risk premiums are about the same whether or not we account for inflation. The reason is that risk
premiums are the difference between two returns, so inflation essentially nets out. Returns, risk
premiums, and volatility would all be lower than we estimated because aftertax returns are smaller
than pretax returns.
Solutions to Questions and Problems
NOTE: All end of chapter problems were solved using a spreadsheet. Many problems require multiple
steps. Due to space and readability constraints, when these intermediate steps are included in this
solutions manual, rounding may appear to have occurred. However, the final answer for each problem is
found without rounding during any step in the problem.
Basic
1. The return of any asset is the increase in price, plus any dividends or cash flows, all divided by the
initial price. The return of this stock is:
R = [($86 – 75) + 1.20] / $75

R = .1627, or 16.27%
2. The dividend yield is the dividend divided by price at the beginning of the period, so:
Dividend yield = $1.20 / $75

Dividend yield = .0160, or 1.60%
And the capital gains yield is the increase in price divided by the initial price, so:
Capital gains yield = ($86 – 75) / $75

Capital gains yield = .1467, or 14.67%
3. Using the equation for total return, we find:
R = [($67 – 75) + 1.20] / $75

R = –.0907, or –9.07%
And the dividend yield and capital gains yield are:
Dividend yield = $1.20 / $75

Dividend yield = .0160, or 1.60%
10-2
Capital gains yield = ($67 – 75) / $75

Capital gains yield = –.1067, or –10.67%
Here's a question for you: Can the dividend yield ever be negative? No, that would mean you were paying
the company for the privilege of owning the stock. It has happened on bonds.
4. The total dollar return is the change in price plus the coupon payment, so:
Total dollar return = $1,063 – 1,040 + 60

Total dollar return = $83
The total nominal percentage return of the bond is:
R = [($1,063 – 1,040) + 60] / $1,040

R = .0798, or 7.98%
Notice here that we could have simply used the total dollar return of $83 in the numerator of this equation.
Using the Fisher equation, the real return was:
(1 + R) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
r = (1.0798 / 1.030) – 1
r = .0484, or 4.84%
5. The nominal return is the stated return, which is 11.80 percent. Using the Fisher equation, the real
return was:
(1 + R) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
r = (1.1180)/(1.031) – 1
r = .0844, or 8.44%
6. Using the Fisher equation, the real returns for government and corporate bonds were:
(1 + R) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
rG = 1.061/1.031 – 1
rG = .0291, or 2.91%
rC = 1.064/1.031 –
1 rC = .0320, or 3.20%
10-3
7. The average return is the sum of the returns, divided by the number of returns. The average return for each
stock was:
ÿ N ÿ .08 .21
+ ÿ + .27
+ .11 .18 ÿ
ÿÿ=
= .0620, or 6.20%
ÿ
i
= ÿ= X
ÿ ix 1N ÿ
5
ÿ N ÿ .12 +.27
ÿ + +.32 .18 .24 ÿ
yN = .0980, or 9.80%
ÿ
i ÿ ÿ =
= ÿ=ÿYi 1 ÿ
5
We calculate the variance of each stock as:
N
ÿ ÿ
ÿ
two two
1)
( = ÿ ÿ xi x N
ÿ
X )(ÿ
ÿ i=1 ÿÿ
1
ÿ
two
= ÿ(.08 .062
ÿ
)
two
+ÿ (.21 .062 ) two
( .27 .062 + ÿ ÿ )2.11.062( + ÿ )2.18.062( + ÿ ) ÿ = .037170

two
X
51 ÿ
1
ÿ
two
= two
+ ÿ (.27
two
+ÿÿ +ÿ
two
+ÿ
two two
=
ÿ(.12 .098) .098)
ÿ
Y ( .32 .098) (.18 .098) (.24 .098) ÿ .057920

51 ÿ
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance, so the standard deviation of each stock is:
1/2
ÿX = (.037170)
ÿX = .1928, or 19.28%
1/2
ÿY = (.057920)
ÿY = .2407, or 24.07%
8. We will calculate the sum of the returns for each asset and the observed risk premium first. Doing
So, we get:
Year Large co. stock return T-bill return 1973 –14.69% Risk premium
1974 –26.47 1975 37.23 7.29% ÿ21.98%
1976 23.93 7.99 –34.46
5.87 31.36
5.07 18.86
1977 –7.16 5.45 –12.61
1978 6.57 7.64 –1.07
19.41% 39.31% –19.90%
The. The average return for large company stocks over this period was:
Large company stock average return = 19.41% / 6

Large company stock average return = 3.24%
10-4
And the average return for T-bills over this period was:
T-bills average return = 39.31% / 6

T-bills average return = 6.55%
B. Using the equation for variance, we find the variance for large company stocks over this period
was:
Variance = 1/5[(–.1469 – .0324)2 + (–.2647 – .0324)2 + (.3723 – .0324)2 + (.2393 – .0324)2 +

(–.0716 – . 0324)2 + (.0657 – .0324)2 ]
Variance = 0.058136
And the standard deviation for large company stocks over this period was:
Standard = deviation (0.058136)1/2

Standard deviation = 0.2411 or 24.11%
Using the equation for variance, we find the variance for T-bills over this period was:
Variance = 1/5[(.0729 – .0655)2 + (.0799 – .0655)2 + (.0587 – .0655)2 + (.0507 – .0655)2 +

(.0545 – .0655)2 + (.0764 – .0655)2 ]
Variance = 0.000153
And the standard deviation for T-bills over this period was:

w. The average observed risk premium over this period was:
Average observed risk premium = –19.90% / 6

Average observed risk premium = –3.32%
The variance of the observed risk premium was:
Variance = 1/5[(–.2198 – (–.0332))2 + (–.3446 – (–.0332))2 + (.3136 – (–.0332))2 +

(.1886 – (– .0332))2 + (–.1261 – (–.0332))2 + (–.0107 – (–.0332))2 ]
Variance = 0.062078
And the standard deviation of the observed risk premium was:

9. The. To find the average return, we sum all the returns and divide by the number of returns, so:
Arithmetic average return = (.27 +.13 + .18 – .14 + .09)/5

Arithmetic average return = .1060, or 10.60%
10-5
B. Using the equation to calculate variance, we find:
Variance = 1/4[(.27 – .106)

two
+ (.13 – .106)
two
+ (.18 – .106)
two
+ (–.14 – .106) 2+
two
(.09 – .106) ]
Variance = 0.023430
So, the standard deviation is:
1/2
Standard = deviation (0.023430)
Standard deviation = 0.1531, or 15.31%
10. a. To calculate the average real return, we can use the average return of the asset and the average
inflation rate in the Fisher equation. Doing so, we find:
(1 + R) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
r = (1.1060/1.042) – 1 r
= .0614, or 6.14%
B. The average risk premium is simply the average return of the asset, minus the average real risk-free
rate, so, the average risk premium for this asset would be:
RP = R – Rf
RP = .1060 – .0510
RP = .0550, or 5.50%
11. We can find the average real risk-free rate using the Fisher equation. The average real risk-free rate
was:
(1 + R) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
rf = (1.051/1.042) – 1
rf = .0086, or 0.86%
And to calculate the average real risk premium, we can subtract the average risk-free rate from the average
real return. So, the average real risk premium was:
= r – rf = 6.14% – 0.86% rp
rp = 5.28%
12. Apply the five-year holding-period return formula to calculate the total return of the stock over the
five-year period, we find:
5-year holding-period return = [(1 + R1)(1 + R2)(1 + R3)(1 + R4)(1 + R5)] – 1 5-

year holding-period return = [(1 + . 1612)(1 + .1211)(1 + .0583)(1 + .2614)(1 – .1319)] – 1
5-year holding-period return = 0.5086, or 50.86%
10-6
13. To find the return on the zero coupon bond, we first need to find the price of the bond today. Since one year
has elapsed, the bond now has 24 years to maturity. Using semiannual compounding, the price today is:
P1 = $1,000/1.04548
P1 = $120.90
There are no intermediate cash flows on a zero coupon bond, so the return is the capital gains, or:
R = ($120.90 – 109.83) / $109.83

R = .1008, or 10.08%
14. The return of any asset is the increase in price, plus any dividends or cash flows, all divided by the initial
price. This preferred stock paid a dividend of $4, so the return for the year was:
R = ($96.12 – 94.89 + 4.00) / $94.89

R = .0551, or 5.51%
15. The return of any asset is the increase in price, plus any dividends or cash flows, all divided by the
initial price. This stock paid no dividend, so the return was:
R = ($46.21 – 43.18) / $43.18

R = .0702, or 7.02%
This is the return for three months, so the APR is:
APR = 4(7.02%)
APR = 28.07%
And the EAR is:
4
EAR = (1 + .0702) - 1
EAR = .3116, or 31.16%
16. To find the real return each year, we will use the Fisher equation, which is:
1 + R = (1 + r)(1 + h)
Using this relationship for each year, we find:
T-bills Inflation Real Return

1926 0.0330 (0.0112) 0.0447
1927 0.0315 (0.0226) 0.0554
1928 0.0405 (0.0116) 0.0527
1929 0.0447 0.0058 0.0387
1930 0.0227 (0.0640) 0.0926
1931 0.0115 (0.0932) 0.1155
1932 0.0088 (0.1027) 0.1243
10-7
So, the average real return was:
Average = (.0447 + .0554 + .0527 + .0387 + .0926 + .1155 + .1243) / 7

Average = .0748 or 7.48%
Notice the real return was higher than the nominal return during this period because of deflation, or negative
inflation.
17. Looking at the long-term corporate bond return history in Table 10.2, we see that the mean return was 6.4
percent, with a standard deviation of 8.4 percent. The range of returns you would expect to see 68 percent
of the time is the mean plus or minus 1 standard deviation, or:
Rÿ ÿ ± 1ÿ = 6.4% ± 8.4% = –2.00% to 14.80%
The range of returns you would expect to see 95 percent of the time is the mean plus or minus 2 standard
deviations, or:
Rÿ ÿ ± 2ÿ = 6.4% ± 2(8.4%) = –10.40% to 23.20%
18. Looking at the large-company stock return history in Table 10.2, we see that the mean return was 11.8
percent, with a standard deviation of 20.3 percent. The range of returns you would expect to see 68
percent of the time is the mean plus or minus 1 standard deviation, or:
Rÿ ÿ ± 1ÿ = 11.8% ± 20.3% = –8.50% to 32.10%
The range of returns you would expect to see 95 percent of the time is the mean plus or minus 2 standard
deviations, or:
Rÿ ÿ ± 2ÿ = 11.8% ± 2(20.3%) = –28.80% to 52.40%
Intermediate
19. Here we know the average stock return, and four of the five returns used to compute the average return. We can work the
average return equation backward to find the missing return. The average return is calculated as:
5(.11) = .12 – .21 + .09 + .32 + R

R = .23 or 23%
The missing return has to be 23 percent. Now we can use the equation for the variance to find:
Variance = 1/4[(.12 – .11)2 + (–.21 – .11)2 + (.09 – .11)2 + (.32 – .11)2 + (.23 – .11) two ]
Variance = 0.04035
And the standard deviation is:
1/2
Standard = deviation (0.04035)
10-8
20. The arithmetic average return is the sum of the known returns divided by the number of returns, so:
Arithmetic average return = (.27 + .12 + .32 –.12 + .19 –.31) / 6

Arithmetic average return = .0783, or 7.83%
Using the equation for the geometric return, we find:
Geometric average return = [(1 + R1) × (1 + R2) × … × (1 + RT)]1/T – 1

Geometric average return = [(1 + .27)(1 + .12)(1 + .32)(1 – .12)(1 + . 19)(1 – .31)](1/6) – 1
Geometric average return = .0522, or 5.22%
Remember, the geometric mean return will always be less than the arithmetic mean return if the returns have
any variation.
21. To calculate the arithmetic and geometric average returns, we must first calculate the return for each
year. The return for each year is:
R1 = ($64.83 – 61.18 + 0.72) / $61.18 = .0714, or 7.14%

R2 = ($72.18 – 64.83 + 0.78) / $64.83 = .1254, or 12.54%
R3 = ($63.12 – 72.18 + 0.86) / $72.18 = –.1136, or –11.36%
R4 = ($69.27 – 63.12 + 0.95)/ $63.12 = .1125, or 11.25%
R5 = ($76.93 – 69.27 + 1.08) / $69.27 = .1262, or 12.62%
The arithmetic mean return was:
RA = (0.0714 + 0.1254 – 0.1136 + 0.1125 + 0.1262)/5 RA

= 0.0644, or 6.44%
And the geometric average return was:
RG = [(1 + .0714)(1 + .1254)(1 – .1136)(1 + .1125)(1 + .1262)]1/5 – 1 RG

= 0.0601, or 6.01%
22. To find the real return we need to use the Fisher equation. Re-writing the Fisher equation to solve for the real
return, we get:
r = [(1 + R)/(1 + h)] – 1
10-9
So, the real return each year was:
Year T-bill return Inflation Real return

1973 0.0729 0.0871 –0.0131
1974 0.0799 0.1234 –0.0387
1975 0.0587 0.0694 –0.0100
1976 0.0507 0.0486 0.0020
1977 0.0545 0.0670 –0.0117
1978 0.0764 0.0902 –0.0127
1979 0.1056 0.1329 –0.0241
1980 0.1210 0.1252 –0.0037
0.6197 0.7438 –0.1120
The. The average return for T-bills over this period was:
Average return = 0.6197 / 8

Average return = .0775, or 7.75%
And the average inflation rate was:
Average inflation = 0.7438 / 8

Average inflation = .0930, or 9.30%
B. Using the equation for variance, we find the variance for T-bills over this period was:
Variance = 1/7[(.0729 – .0775)2 + (.0799 – .0775)2 + (.0587 – .0775)2 + (.0507 – .0775)2 +

(.0545 – .0775)2 + (.0764 – .0775)2 + (.1056 – .0775)2 + (.1210 ÿ .0775)2 ]
Variance = 0.000616
And the standard deviation for T-bills was:

The variance of inflation over this period was:
Variance = 1/7[(.0871 – .0930)2 + (.1234 – .0930)2 + (.0694 – .0930)2 + (.0486 – .0930)2 +

(.0670 – .0930)2 + (.0902 – .0930)2 + (.1329 – .0930)2 + (.1252 ÿ .0930)2 ]
Variance = 0.000971
And the standard deviation of inflation was:

w. The average observed real return over this period was:
10-10
Average observed real return = –.1122 / 8

Average observed real return = –.0140, or –1.40%
d. The statement that T-bills have no risk refers to the fact that there is only an extremely small chance of
the government defaulting, so there is little default risk. Since T-bills are short term, there is also very
limited interest rate risk. However, as this example shows, there is inflation risk, ie the purchasing
power of the investment can actually decline over time even if the investor is earning a positive return.
23. To find the return on the coupon bond, we first need to find the price of the bond today. Since one
year has elapsed, the bond now has six years to maturity, so the price today is:
P1 = $70(PVIFA5.5%,6) + $1,000/1.0556
P1 = $1,074.93
You received the coupon payments on the bond, so the nominal return was:
R = ($1,074.93 – 1,080.50 + 70) / $1,080.50

R = .0596, or 5.96%
And using the Fisher equation to find the real return, we get:
r = (1.0596 / 1.032) – 1
r = .0268, or 2.68%
24. Looking at the long-term government bond return history in Table 10.2, we see that the mean return was 6.1
percent, with a standard deviation of 9.8 percent. In the normal probability distribution, approximately 2/3 of
the observations are within one standard deviation of the mean. This means that 1/3 of the observations are
outside one standard deviation away from the mean. Or:
Pr(R < –3.7 or R > 15.9) ÿ 1/3
But we are only interested in one tail here, that is, returns less than –3.7 percent, so:
Pr(R< –3.7) ÿ 1/6
You can use the z-statistic and the cumulative normal distribution table to find the answer as well.
Doing so, we find:
z = (X – µ)/ÿ
z = (–3.7% – 6.1)/9.8% = –1.00
Looking at the z-table, this gives a probability of 15.87%, or:
Pr(R< –3.3) ÿ .1587, or 15.87%
10-11
The range of returns you would expect to see 95 percent of the time is the mean plus or minus 2 standard deviations, or:
95% level: Rÿ ÿ ± 2ÿ = 6.1% ± 2(9.8%) = –13.50% to 25.70%
The range of returns you would expect to see 99 percent of the time is the mean plus or minus 3 standard deviations, or:
99% level: Rÿ ÿ ± 3ÿ = 6.1% ± 3(9.8%) = –23.30% to 35.50%
25. The mean return for small company stocks was 16.4 percent, with a standard deviation of 33.0 percent. Doubling your money
is a 100% return, so if the return distribution is normal, we can use the z-statistic. Only:
z = (X – µ)/ÿ
z = (100% – 16.5%)/32.5% = 2,569 standard deviations above the mean
This corresponds to a probability of ÿ 0.510%, or about once every 200 years. Tripling your money would be:
z = (200% – 16.5%)/32.5% = 5,646 standard deviations above the mean.
This corresponds to a probability of (much) less than 0.5%. The current answer is ÿ.00000082039%, or about once every 1
million years.
26. It is impossible to lose more than 100 percent of your investment. Therefore, return distributions are truncated on the lower
tail at –100 percent.
Challenge
27. Using the z-statistic, we find:
z = (X – µ)/ÿ
z = (0% – 11.8%)/20.3% = –0.581
Pr(R=0) ÿ 28.05%
28. For each of the questions asked here, we need to use the z-statistic, which is:
z = (X – µ)/ÿ
The.
z1 = (10% – 6.4%)/8.4% = 0.4286
10-12
This z-statistic gives us the probability that the return is less than 10 percent, but we are looking
for the probability the return is greater than 10 percent. Given that the total probability is 100
percent (or 1), the probability of a return greater than 10 percent is 1 minus the probability of a
return less than 10 percent. Using the cumulative normal distribution table, we get:
Pr(R = 10%) = 1 – Pr(R = 10%) = 33.41%
For a return less than 0 percent:
z2 = (0% – 6.4%)/8.4 = –0.7619
Pr(R < 10%) = 1 – Pr(R > 0%) = 22.31%
B. The probability that T-bill returns will be greater than 10 percent is:
z3 = (10% – 3.6%)/3.1% = 2.0645
Pr(R = 10%) = 1 – Pr(R = 10%) = 1 – .9805 ÿ 1.95%
And the probability that T-bill returns will be less than 0 percent is:
z4 = (0% – 3.6%)/3.1% = –1.1613
Pr(R = 0) ÿ 12.28%
w. The probability that the return on long-term corporate bonds will be less than –4.18 percent is:
z5 = (–4.18% – 6.4%)/8.4% = –1.2595
Pr(R = –4.18%) ÿ 10.39%
And the probability that T-bill returns will be greater than 10.56 percent is:
z6 = (10.56% – 3.6%)/3.1% = 2.2452
Pr(R = 10.56%) = 1 – Pr(R = 10.56%) = 1 – .9876 ÿ 1.24%
10-13

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Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

2 years ago 1 year ago Today

Lake Minerals ending price = $100(1.10)(1.10) = $121.00

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

Solutions to Questions and Problems

R = [($86 – 75) + 1.20] / $75

Dividend yield = $1.20 / $75

Capital gains yield = ($86 – 75) / $75

3. Using the equation for total return, we find:

R = [($67 – 75) + 1.20] / $75

And the dividend yield and capital gains yield are:

Dividend yield = $1.20 / $75

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

Capital gains yield = ($67 – 75) / $75

Total dollar return = $1,063 – 1,040 + 60

The total nominal percentage return of the bond is:

R = [($1,063 – 1,040) + 60] / $1,040

Using the Fisher equation, the real return was:

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

We calculate the variance of each stock as:

+ÿ (.21 .062 ) two

( .27 .062 + ÿ ÿ )2.11.062( + ÿ )2.18.062( + ÿ ) ÿ = .037170

Y ( .32 .098) (.18 .098) (.24 .098) ÿ .057920

Large company stock average return = 19.41% / 6

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

T-bills average return = 39.31% / 6

Variance = 1/5[(–.1469 – .0324)2 + (–.2647 – .0324)2 + (.3723 – .0324)2 + (.2393 – .0324)2 +

Standard = deviation (0.058136)1/2

Variance = 1/5[(.0729 – .0655)2 + (.0799 – .0655)2 + (.0587 – .0655)2 + (.0507 – .0655)2 +

Standard = deviation (0.000153)1/2

w. The average observed risk premium over this period was:

Average observed risk premium = –19.90% / 6

The variance of the observed risk premium was:

Variance = 1/5[(–.2198 – (–.0332))2 + (–.3446 – (–.0332))2 + (.3136 – (–.0332))2 +

And the standard deviation of the observed risk premium was:

Standard = deviation (0.06278)1/2

Arithmetic average return = (.27 +.13 + .18 – .14 + .09)/5

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

B. Using the equation to calculate variance, we find:

Variance = 1/4[(.27 – .106)

So, the standard deviation is:

5-year holding-period return = [(1 + R1)(1 + R2)(1 + R3)(1 + R4)(1 + R5)] – 1 5-

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

R = ($120.90 – 109.83) / $109.83

R = ($96.12 – 94.89 + 4.00) / $94.89

R = ($46.21 – 43.18) / $43.18

This is the return for three months, so the APR is:

And the EAR is:

Using this relationship for each year, we find:

T-bills Inflation Real Return

Chapter 10 - Risk and Return: Lessons from Market History

So, the average real return was:

Average = (.0447 + .0554 + .0527 + .0387 + .0926 + .1155 + .1243) / 7

Rÿ ÿ ± 1ÿ = 6.4% ± 8.4% = –2.00% to 14.80%

Rÿ ÿ ± 2ÿ = 6.4% ± 2(8.4%) = –10.40% to 23.20%

Rÿ ÿ ± 1ÿ = 11.8% ± 20.3% = –8.50% to 32.10%

Rÿ ÿ ± 2ÿ = 11.8% ± 2(20.3%) = –28.80% to 52.40%

5(.11) = .12 – .21 + .09 + .32 + R